carbon sequestration in the bottom sediments of aquaculture ponds of orissa, india
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Ecological Engineering 47 (2012) 198– 202
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Ecological Engineering
j o ur nal homep age : www.elsev ier .com/ locate /eco leng
hort communication
arbon sequestration in the bottom sediments of aquaculture ponds of Orissa,ndia
ubhendu Adhikari a,∗, Rattan Lalb, Bharat Chandra Sahuc
Soil and Water Chemistry Section, Division of Aquaculture Production and Environment, Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, P.O. Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneswar 751002,rissa, IndiaCarbon Management and Sequestration Center, OARDC/FAES, The Ohio State University, 2021 Coffey Road, Kottman Hall 422B, Columbus, OH 43210, United StatesBarbati, Motiganj, Balasore, Orissa 756003, India
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:eceived 27 August 2011eceived in revised form 15 May 2012ccepted 22 June 2012vailable online 21 July 2012
ey words:
a b s t r a c t
Aquaculture ponds cover an area of 0.79 million hectare (Mha) in India, and have a large potential to burycarbon (C) in sediments with an attendant impact on off-setting related gaseous emissions. The studywas aimed at assessing the potentials of C burial rates in the sediments of shrimp (Penaeus monodon),scampi (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and polyculture (culture of Indian major carps, Catla Catla, Labeorohita, Cirrhinus mrigala and Macrobrachium rosenbergii) ponds. The age of these ponds ranged from 12 to15 years. The annual C sequestration rate estimated from sediment accumulation rate, dry bulk density,
arbon sequestrationquaculture pondsarphrimpcampi
and percentage organic C in sediment of polyculture (Indian major carps plus scampi), shrimp and scampiculture ponds were 1463 ± 70 to 1530 ± 80, 863 ± 40 to 864 ± 56, and 1099 ± 75 kg/ha/yr, respectively.The estimated rates of C burial by C budget for all the studied species were almost similar to thosedetermined by the sediment core analysis. Total technical potential of C sequestration in 0.79 Mha ofaquaculture ponds in India ranges from 0.6 to 1.2 Tg C/yr with an average of 0.9 Tg C/yr which is 0.2% ofIndian current, annual carbon emission.
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. Introduction
With the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)oncentration, considerable attention has been devoted to ter-estrial carbon (C) sequestration in soils, forests, and grasslands.he depositional environments (i.e., lakes and impoundments)epresent short to long term scale sequestration of atmo-pheric CO2. Globally, this sequestration of organic C (OC) inhe sediments of natural lakes ranges from 30 to 70 Tg C/yrTg = teragram = 1012 g = 1 million metric ton) (Dean and Gorham,998; Einsele et al., 2001; Mullholland and Elwood, 1982). Theurial in impoundments is much larger ranging from 150 to20 Tg C/yr (Stallard, 1998). These rates of C burials are comparableo the OC storage in the sediments of the global oceans estimatedt 120–240 Tg C/yr (Van Oost et al., 2007; Duarte et al., 2004;undquist, 2003). The annual magnitude of OC stored in lakes andeservoirs is also comparable to the delivery of OC by rivers to the
cean, about 400 Tg C/yr (Meybeck, 1993; Lal, 2003; Probst, 2002).owever, these rates of OC sequestration in lakes and agriculturalmpoundments are modest compared to the current total storage of
∗ Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Adhikari).
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925-8574/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.06.007
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
C terrestrially which ranges from 1000 to 4000 Tg C/yr (Randersont al., 2002). Wetlands also accumulate significant amounts of C inheir soils, compared to adjacent upland sites (Bernal and Mitsch,008). Strategies to reduce C and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-ions from agriculture and enhance C sinks on farms/wetlands havelso been identified (Lal et al., 1998; Robertson et al., 2000; Mitscht al., 2008; Li et al., 2010), but options for different aquaculturearming systems have not been widely assessed.
There is 11.1 million hectare (Mha) of aquaculture ponds glob-lly (Verdegem and Bosma, 2009). Manures, fertilizers, feed andther agricultural wastes are applied to ponds for higher produc-ion, and these inputs stimulate OC production by phytoplanktonhotosynthesis in ponds (Boyd and Tucker, 1998). Aquacultureonds do not have large external sediment loads like reservoirs oratershed ponds in agricultural or other rural areas. Further, sed-
ments in aquaculture ponds are eroded by rain, waves and waterurrents generated by mechanical aerators, activities of differentulture species, and harvesting operations. Thus, coarse soil parti-les suspended by internal erosion settle near edge of ponds whilemaller particles tend to settle in deeper areas of the ponds (Boyd,
995). Uneaten feed, organic fertilizers, organic matter (OM) fromead plankton, and excreta from different species settle at pondottoms, and gradually mix with soil particles. When ponds arerained for harvest, organic detritus is discharged from the ponds
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S. Adhikari et al. / Ecologica
nd after draining, pond bottoms are exposed to sunlight for dry-ng which enhance soil aeration and accelerate decomposition ofabile OM (Ayub et al., 1993). Despite these practices in aquacul-ure ponds, a layer of sediments with a higher OC concentrationhan that in the original soil develops at the pond bottom (Munsirit al., 1995). Aquaculture ponds sequester as much as 0.21% of thennual global C emissions of about 10 Pg/yr, and represent a smallink for C which is an important ancillary benefit in considerationsf the global C budget (Boyd et al., 2010). However, detailed datan C emissions and sequestration by aquaculture ponds are scantylobally, but especially in India. Thus, the objective of this studyas to assess the potentials of pond sediments of carp, scampi and
hrimp farming on C sequestration in sediments in northeast India.
. Materials and methods
Field studies were conducted involving a total of 37 ponds inwo different districts (Balasore and Bhadrak) of Orissa in India.ll ponds were limed with 200 kg/ha of limestone at the timef the pond preparation. The organic fertilizer, fermented ricetraw (Oryza sativa) was prepared by mixing 100 kg of rice straw,
kg Ca(OH)2 and 1 kg yeast with 200 l of pond water, and fer-ented for 24 h. This mixture at 250 kg/ha was then applied in
he early morning at about 0700–0800 h. The inorganic fertiliz-rs, urea was applied at 10 kg/ha and single super phosphate (SSP)t 3.75 kg/ha at fortnightly intervals. The organic fertilizer waspplied to these ponds in equal amounts at weekly intervals. Inn organic polyculture system, cow dung as organic fertilizer waspplied at 1400 kg/ha. Pelleted feed was applied to all three cultureystems. Protein content of the feed was 18–20% in polyculture,4–32% in scampi culture, and 36–40% in shrimp culture. Shrimpas cultured in 24–30 ppt (EC = 37–46 dS/m) saline water while
campi and polyculture (scampi plus Indian major carps) werestablished in freshwater. The stocking, harvesting and total feedarameters for these three systems are given in Table 1. The organicertilizer contained 40–42% C (on dry weight basis) while feedontained 46–48% C (on dry weight basis). The carps, scampi andhrimp contained 13.5, 11.3 and 11.4% C (on live weight basis),espectively.
The average depths of these ponds varied between 1.0 and 1.5 m.ediment cores were collected manually from all ponds accordingo the methodology described by Steeby et al. (2004). Sedimentccumulation rate was estimated by dividing the sediment depthy the age of the pond. Wet sediment samples were weighed, aeasured quantity dried for 24 h at 105 ◦C, cooled in desiccators,
nd weighed again for dry bulk density estimation. A part of sedi-ent samples were air dried, pulverized to pass a 0.25-mm screen
nd analyzed for OC using dichromate oxidation technique by rapiditration method. The OC sequestration rate was estimated by mul-iplying the annual rate of accumulation of dry sediment by theediment dry bulk density and the OC concentration in the sedi-ent.The inputs of OM and production data for carps, scampi and
hrimp were used to estimate OC budgets for the ponds of thesepecies produced by different management practices. Total OC con-entration was analyzed for fish, scampi, shrimp, organic fertilizernd feed following the methods used for sediment. An OC inputn the form of feed/organic fertilizer was calculated as follows:C in feed/organic fertilizer = OC concentration in feed/organic fer-
ilizer × total amount of feed/organic fertilizer supplied. The OC
nput and output in the form of fish/scampi/shrimp was calcu-ated as follows: OC in fish/scampi/shrimp = OC concentration insh/scampi/shrimp carcasses × total fish/scampi/shrimp biomass.C input and output in the form of water/effluent were calculated Table
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200 S. Adhikari et al. / Ecological Engineering 47 (2012) 198– 202
Table 2Carbon sequestration from the data of sediment core analysis for different aquaculture systems.
Culture systems (managementpractices)
Age (yr) Sedimentdepth (cm)
Sedimentaccumulation(cm/yr)
Sediment drybulk density(g/cm3)
Organiccarbon (%)
Carbonsequestration(kg/ha/yr)
Polyculture of Indian majorcarps + scampi (organic)
14 26.13 ± 2.28 1.86 ± 0.16 0.59 ± 0.02 1.39 ± 0.05 1530 ± 80
Polyculture of Indian majorcarps + scampi (organic + inorganic)
15 28.75 ± 1.47 1.91 ± 0.09 0.56 ± 0.04 1.36 ± 0.03 1463 ± 70
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Scampi (organic) 14 21.56 ± 0.76
Scampi (organic + inorganic) 15 24.50 ± 1.76
Shrimp (organic + inorganic) 12 19.33 ± 1.49
s: OC in water/effluent = OC in water × water volume. The OC inater was analyzed by sulfuric acid–potassium dichromate diges-
ion (Boyd, 1973). The OC input in these ponds in the form of grosshotosynthesis was calculated as per Boyd (1985). The differences
n C inputs and outputs represent C sequestration. The estimationf OC sequestration by the budget methods includes two values.he smaller value is based on 95% of the difference between inputsnd outputs being decomposed annually, while the higher valuessumes that 90% of the difference is decomposed each year (Boydt al., 2010). Free carbon-di-oxide (CO2) content in water was mea-ured by titration method with standard sodium carbonate solutionsing phenolphthalein as an indicator. The CO2 ranged from 8 to2 mg/l in the water which was equivalent to 2.16–3.24 mg/l of
norganic C.
. Results and discussion
(a) Rate of sediment accumulation: The sediment depth rangedfrom 18 to 21.6 cm in shrimp, 21 to 27 cm in scampi, and 22.4to 30 cm in polyculture ponds. The rate of sediment accumula-tion in these ponds ranged from 1.5 to 2.0 cm/yr. When pondsare drained, considerable amount of sediments are lost from thebottoms of the ponds through outflow or runoff. Ponds are usu-ally drained once in every three years till the upper layer cracksto reduce the concentration of toxic gases in the pond bot-tom. The dry bulk density (g/cm3) of sediment in these pondsranged from 0.52 to 0.63 in polyculture, 0.40–0.49 in scampi,and 0.50–0.60 in shrimp ponds.
b) Organic carbon concentration in sediment: The OC concen-tration (%, g/g) in sediment was 1.22–1.30 in shrimp culture,1.15–1.25 in scampi culture, and 1.32–1.45 in polyculture. Sig-nificant quantities of OM can accumulate in bottom sedimentsin these aquaculture ponds. Feeds applied to these ponds toincrease fish/prawn/shrimp settle at the bottom where it ismostly eaten by aquatic species. Inorganic nutrients releasedinto the water from microbial decomposition of uneaten feedand feces of these species stimulate heavy plankton blooms.Phytoplankton cells have a short life span and continually dieand settle to the bottom. In some cases, water supplies containsettleable solids of appreciable OM content which may depositin ponds. High rates of water exchange may result in largesediment inputs. Mechanical erosion may often erode bottomparticles where water currents are higher and sedimentationoccurs where currents are slower. Such a current flow patternalters the shape of the bottom of the pond, reduces pond vol-ume, and provides organic substrate for microorganisms (Boyd,1992).
(c) Rate of carbon sequestration: The annual C sequestration
rate estimated from sediment accumulation rate, dry bulkdensity, and percentage OC in sediment was 1530 ± 80 and1463 ± 70 kg/ha/yr, respectively organic and organic plusinorganically managed polyculture ponds (Table 2). The Cta1c
.54 ± 0.05 0.46 ± 0.01 1.20 ± 0.03 863 ± 40
.64 ± 0.11 0.44 ± 0.02 1.18 ± 0.03 864 ± 56
.60 ± 0.12 0.54 ± 0.02 1.27 ± 0.03 1099 ± 75
sequestration rate in scampi culture ponds were 863 ± 40 and864 ± 40 kg/ha/yr, respectively in organic and organic plus inor-ganically managed ponds. The shrimp culture ponds recordedthe median level of C sequestration rates of 1099 ± 75 kg/ha/yr.In general, carp stir pond sediment in search of food organ-isms, and this action possibly incorporates recently depositedOM into sediment to minimize its loss during pond drainagefor harvest (Boyd et al., 2010).
d) Carbon budget: Nutrient budgets are developed to preciselyaccount for the fate of nutrients entering terrestrial or aquaticecosystems and to assess the relative importance of differ-ent nutrient sources. Fertilizers and feeds generally are thelargest inputs of N and P to fish ponds. Feeds also supply Cto fish ponds. Organic fertilizers (fermented rice straw, cowdung) often are added to ponds to boost fish yields by increas-ing primary productivity through released inorganic nutrients,or by providing OC through heterotrophic pathways. Depend-ing on the species, fish feed directly on attached or planktonicalgae, detritus/fungal flocs, or smaller animals such as zoo-plankton and snails which feed on algae and detritus (Colmanand Edwards, 1987). Ponds also receive nutrients from theregulated inflow water. In the present study, OC budgets forall the culture systems have been developed. In the budget,gross photosynthesis had a major role in adding OC to theculture systems which ranged from 10 220 to 11 680 kg/ha/yrOC. The C sequestration rate was calculated from the OCbudget of these culture systems. The average rates of Csequestration in polyculture, shrimp and scampi culture pondsmanaged with organic plus inorganic inputs were 1174, 1021,and 1229 kg/ha/yr, respectively (Table 3). In comparison, theaverage rates of C sequestration in polyculture and scampiculture ponds managed with organic inputs were 1132, and925 kg/ha/yr, respectively. The estimated rates of C sequestra-tion by C budget for all the studied species were almost similarto those determined by the sediment core analysis.
Aquaculture in India is mainly based on Indian major carpulture. Presently 0.6 Mha of freshwater ponds produces 1.3 Tgmillion tons) of Indian major carps. Accordingly, the amount of
sequestered in carp culture ponds is high, and the rate is as muchs 0.94 Tg C/yr. Shrimp culture is practiced on 0.154 Mha, and canequester 0.12–0.25 Tg C/yr, while scampi culture is produced on.036 Mha, with a C sequestration potential of 0.023–0.047 Tg C/yr.n India, potential area for culture of carp, shrimp, and scampi are.25, 1.19, and 1.00 Mha, respectively. Considering these poten-ial areas, carp, shrimp, and scampi have an average potentialf C sequestration of 2.6, 1.4, and 1.0 Tg/yr, respectively. Thus,
otal technical potential of C sequestration in presently cultivatedrea of 0.79 Mha of aquaculture ponds in India ranges from 0.6 to.2 Tg C/yr with an average of 0.9 Tg C/yr which is 0.2% of Indianurrent, carbon emission of about 439.6 Tg C/yr.
S. Adhikari et al. / Ecological Engineering 47 (2012) 198– 202 201
Table 3Input, output and total organic carbon sequestration in different aquaculture systems.
Parameters Organic carbon sequestration (kg/ha/yr)
Inputs Polyculture of Indianmajor carps + scampi(organic)
Polyculture of Indianmajor carps + scampi(organic + inorganic)
Scampi(organic)
Scampi(organic + inorganic)
Shrimp(organic + inorganic)
Water 23 ± 1 24 ± 2 29 ± 2 32 ± 2 48 ± 4Gross photosynthesis 11 315 11 680 10 220 10 950 11 680Organic fertilizers 209 ± 30 201 ± 24 221 ± 37 152 ± 12 269 ± 42Feed 4464 ± 254 4777 ± 475 2335 ± 522 3103 ± 636 5605 ± 1297Outputs
Fish/scampi/shrimp 854 ± 43 961 ± 100 398 ± 94 538 ± 107 1090 ± 285Effluent 55 ± 1 55 ± 3 69 ± 4 74 ± 4 117 ± 8Inputs− outputs 15 102 ± 282 15 666 ± 399 12 338 ± 424 13 625 ± 676 16 395 ± 1133Carbon sequestrationa 755–1510 (1132) 783–1566 (1174)
aValues within the parenthesis denotes average.
Table 4Areas of global inland water bodies and annual rates and amounts of organic carbonburial in these systems.
Inland water body Global area(Mha)
Carbon burialrate (Mg/ha/yr)
Global carbonburial (Tg/yr)
Large lakesa 118 0.05 6.0Small lakesa 32 0.72 23.0Inland seasa 100 0.05 5.0Large river reservoirsa 40 4.00 160Agricultural impoundmentsb 7.7 21.20 163Aquaculture pondsc
Freshwater 8.75 1.5 13.1Brackishwater 2.333 1.5 3.5
a Dean and Gorham (1998).
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The C-credit compliance has been calculated for the total sequestration at $ 39 per ton CO2 (as of April 2006:ttp://www.emissierechten.nl/marketanalyse.htm). The CO2 cane converted to C by multiplying the CO2 by 12/44 (the ratio ofhe molecular weight of C to CO2). Thus C-credit compliance wille at $ 10.63 per ton C. As the total C sequestration is 1.0 Tg/yr fromhe 0.79 Mha of aquaculture ponds, the C-credit compliance will be10.63 million.
The estimated, average annual C sequestration rate for aquacul-ure ponds monitored in this study is lower than that of agriculturalmpoundments and large river reservoirs, but higher than thatf natural lakes and inland seas (Table 4). Aquaculture pondsequester less C than that by large reservoirs (160–280 Tg/yr, Deannd Gorham, 1998; Cole et al., 2007) and agricultural impound-ents (163 Tg/yr, Downing et al., 2008). The aquaculture ponds
equester C at a lower rate than agricultural impoundments andarge reservoirs because of lower input of external sediment andssociated OM to aquaculture ponds than in other impoundmentsBoyd et al., 2010). Moreover, aquaculture pond management min-mizes OM accumulation. For example, ponds are dried at leastnce in three years to reduce the gaseous emissions from the bot-om and also to flush out sediments by using pressurized water.his intervention is needed because a thick layer of the sedimenteduces the productivity of the pond. Though aquaculture pondsequester comparatively small amount of C, globally pond farm-ng systems under different management practices can sequester
large amount over long term.
. Conclusions
The average annual C burial rates estimated from sedimentccumulation rate, dry bulk density, and percentage organic C in
E
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617–1234 (925) 681–1362 (1021) 819–1639 (1229)
ediments of shrimp, scampi, and polyculture ponds were 1099 ± 8,64 ± 5, and 1496 ± 8 kg/ha/yr, respectively. The estimated rates of
burial by C budget for all the studied species were almost simi-ar to those determined by sediment core analysis. Total technicalotential of C sequestration in 0.79 Mha of aquaculture ponds in
ndia ranges from 0.6 to 1.2 with an average of 1.0 Tg C/yr.
cknowledgements
The first author (S. Adhikari) is grateful to NAIP, ICAR, INDIAor providing him financial support for three months training onarbon sequestration at Carbon Management and Sequestrationenter, OARDC/FAES, The Ohio State University, 2021 Coffey Road,ottman Hall, Columbus, OH 43210.
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