• The unique properties of an organic compound depend not only on its carbon skeleton but also on the atoms attached to the skeleton– These atoms are called functional groups– Some common functional groups include:

Hydroxyl group Carbonyl group Amino group Carboxyl group

Found in alcoholsand sugars Found in sugars Found in amino acids

and urea in urine (fromprotein breakdown)

Found in amino acids,fatty acids, and somevitamins

Carbon and Organic Chemistry

*most macromolecules are polymerspolymermonomer

The making and breaking of polymers:Dehydration reaction: Hydrolysis:

Macromolecules

Proteins• Proteins perform most of the tasks the body

needs to function– They are the most elaborate of life’s molecules

MAJOR TYPES OF PROTEINSStructural Proteins Storage Proteins Contractile Proteins Transport Proteins Enzymes

Carboxylgroup

Aminogroup

Sidegroup

Sidegroup

Amino acid Amino acid

Dehydrationsynthesis

Sidegroup

Sidegroup

Peptide bond

• Cells link amino acids together by dehydration synthesis

Proteins as Polymers

– The resulting bond between them is called a peptide bond

Amino Acids

• Primary structure– The specific

sequence of amino acids in a protein

1 510 15

20253035

4045

5055

6065

70

75 80 85

9095

100

105110 115

120125

129

Amino acid

– The arrangement of amino acids makes each protein different

Protein Structure

• A slight change in the primary structure of a protein affects its ability to function– The substitution of one amino acid for another in

hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease

(a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin

1 2 34 5

6 7. . . 146

(b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin

2 314 5

6 7. . . 146

Protein Structure

Tertiary structure

Secondary structureMacromolecules

Quaternary structure

How does this all happen?●Spontaneously ●Chaperonins

Macromolecules

Gene

DNA

RNA

Protein

Amino acid

Nucleic acids

Nucleic Acids● Include DNA and RNA

Information storage moleculesThey provide the directions for building proteins

Phosphategroup

Nitrogenous baseA, G, C, or U

Uracil U

Sugar ribose

Nitrogenous base(A,G,C, or T)

Phosphategroup

Thymine (T)

Sugar(deoxyribose)

Phosphate

Base

Sugar

●Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides– DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid– RNA, ribonucleic acid

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic Acids●Each nucleotide has one of the following bases:

Nucleic Acids

Sugar-phosphatebackbone

NucleotideBasepair

Hydrogenbond

Bases

a DNA strandpolynucleotide

b Double helixtwo polynucleotide strands

●Nucleic Acid Structure

Nucleic Acids●Nucleic Acid Structure

DNA StructureNucleic Acids

• Carbohydrates include

Carbohydrates

– Small sugar molecules in soft drinks• Monosaccharides & Disaccharides

– Long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes• Polysaccharides

• Monosaccharides are simple sugars

Monosaccharides

– Glucose, found in sports drinks

– Fructose, found in fruit

• Honey contains both glucose and fructose

Glucose Fructose

Isomers

• In aqueous solutions, monosaccharides form rings

(b) Abbreviated ring structure

Monosaccharides

• A disaccharide is a double sugar

Disaccharides

• Disaccharides are joined by the process of dehydration synthesis

Glucose Glucose

Maltose

• The most common disaccharide is sucrose, common table sugar

– It consists of a glucose linked to a fructose

– Sucrose is extracted from sugar cane and the roots of sugar beets

Disaccharides

Polysaccharides

(a) Starch

Starch granules inpotato tuber cells

Glucosemonomer

(b) Glycogen

GlycogenGranulesIn muscletissue

(c) Cellulose

Cellulose molecules

Cellulose fibril ina plant cell wall

– They are long chains of sugar units– They are polymers of monosaccharides

●Lipids are:Large biological molecules that do not include polymers.Hydrophobic, unable to mix with water.

Lipids

Oil (hydrophobic)

Vinegar (hydrophilic)

●FATS● Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride

Lipids

– A combination of glycerol and three fatty acids

Fatty acid

Glycerol (a) A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid to glycerol

(b) A fat molecule with a glycerol “head” and three energy-rich hydrocarbon fatty acid “tails”

●Unsaturated fatty acids

Lipids (Fats)

– Have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons

●Saturated fatty acids – Have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to

the carbons

Lipids (Fats)

Saturated Fats

TYPES OF FATS

Unsaturated Fats

Margarine

Plant oils Trans fats Omega-3 fats

INGREDIENTS: SOYBEAN OIL, FULLY HYDROGENATEDCOTTONSEED OIL, PARTIALLY HYDROGENATEDCOTTONSEED OIL AND SOYBEAN OILS, MONO ANDDIGLYCERIDES, TBHO AND CITRIC ACID ANTIOXIDANTS

Phospholipids

Steroids

Lipids

Cholesterol

Testosterone A type of estrogen

●STEROIDSSteroids are very different from fats in structure and function.

Lipids

Biological Molecules