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VOL. 142

1090 SCIENCE, VOL. 142

older ones of the natural belt. Thiswas rather simple because the "inner"Van Allen belt is predominately com-posed of protons. The bomb ejectedelectrons into the belt. While the innerbelt also contains electrons, they havemuch less energy than those from thebomb.

Satellites were launched to watchwhat happened as the new electronsdecayed or lost their energy, becausethe electrons would follow the samelaws as the protons would under nat-ural circumstances. In this manner itwas discovered that the life of anelectron varies from 4 months at theequator to 10 seconds at the poles.Data from three Russian test explo-sions were also included.

Hess discussed a similar "tagging"mechanism for exploring the behaviorof particles in the outer Van Allenbelt that extends as far as 4000 milesor more above the earth. Radioactivepieces of copper, positioned by satel-lites at an altitude of 16,000 miles,could inject an atomic particle calledthe positron into the outer belt. Theouter belt is thought to contain nopositrons, so there should be no diffi-culty in identifying them as newcom-ers to the area. According to Hess,some things which could be studied inthis manner include any movement ofthe belt up or down, whether it everchanges its thickness, or whether accel-eration forces ever act upon it.

Gerald S. Hawkins (Boston CollegeObservatory) discussed the hazards ofmicrometeorites on future space voy-ages. The rate of bombardment of me-teors, meteorites, and micrometeoritesis the same for the moon as it is forthe earth. However, due to the ab-sence of a lunar atmosphere, there aremore of these particles striking thesurface of the moon than of the earth.Meteors burn up in the earth's atmo-sphere and meteorites and micrometeor-ites are stopped or slowed down.

Meteors normally are large objectsresulting from the breakup of comets;the smaller meteorites are believed tohave been created by the collision ofasteroids in space. Many meteoriteshave been found on earth. Micromete-orites are best described as space dust,a mixture of solid fragments and fluffyobjects. Some may be described as hav-ing the consistency of a cigar ash.

Hawkins said that if the U.S. Apollomoonship collided with a 1-ton meteorin space, there would be no chance ofsurvival by the three pilots. But hesaid that on a 10-day round-trip to the22 NOVEMBER 1963

moon, the chances of such a collisionare only one in 100 billion.The first concrete information about

micrometeorites was obtained in 1961in the "Venus fly trap" experimentwhich was conducted 100 miles aboveWhite Sands, New Mexico. A rocketfired a device which opened in thesame manner as the petals of a flowerand collected millions of these dust-likeparticles before closing. The device wasthen parachuted to the ground andrecovered.As an example of the effect of micro-

meteorites, Hawkins related a hypo-

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thetical situation of an astronaut walk-ing about the surface of the moon forone week. At the end of the week everysquare inch of his space suit would bebombarded by more than a million tiny,fast-moving micrometeorites. A suitonly .04 inch thick would protect himfor that period, but the visor of hishelmet would be so pitted that he prob-ably would not be able to see throughit. Eventually, the suit itself woulderode under the sandblast effect of thenearly invisible space particles. Thus,space men planning long-term explora-tion of the moon will require protec-

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tive shelters, which also must be forti-fied to withstand the eroding effect ofmicrometeorites, radiation, and the hotand cold temperature extremes of lunardays and nights.

Talbot A. Chubb (U.S. Naval Re-search Laboratory) discussed a rela-tively new branch of science called x-ray astronomy which is actually an ad-ditional tool for examining objects ininterstellar space. X-ray astronomy hada rather firm beginning only a fewmonths ago when a rocket was launchedfrom White Sands, New Mexico, car-rying aboard a "soft x-ray" detector.Soft x-rays are produced by low-energyelectrons of about 1500 volts, whereasthe x-rays used by medical doctors areproduced by electrons with 40,000 voltsof energy.

It has been only in the past yearthat an instrument capable of recordingsoft x-rays in space has been developedand used. The soft x-ray detector wasdeveloped by two scientists at the Amer-ican Science and Engineering Com-pany, Ricardi Giacconi and Bruno Ros-si. The problem, Chubb said, was tobuild a detector that could be sensitiveenough to distinguish between incom-ing x-rays and the cosmic ray back-ground, yet having narrow enough viewof space so that soft x-ray sources couldbe pin-pointed with reasonable accu-racy. The first detector, an array ofgeiger counters, was flown by its de-velopers a year ago last spring in anattempt to make x-ray studies of themoon. As the rocket tumbled throughspace, the detector picked up a sourcewhich Giacconi and Rossi later saidwas the center of the galaxy. The de-tector used by Chubb was a refinementof the first one and had a tighter fieldof view, thus allowing a greater ac-curacy in locating the source.

In Chubb's experiment, the soft x-raydetector made observations for 5 to 6minutes at points 60 to 100 miles abovethe earth's surface. During six succes-sive sweeps of the detector, six blipsappeared on the graph-paper recording.Chubb said that this graph shows asource roughly 15 degrees from thecenter of the galaxy, near the MilkyWay, which is emitting soft x-rays. Ifa second rocket flight confirms the lo-cation, then scientists can be sure thatthey are viewing an object which can-not be "seen" by conventional tele-scopes or by radiowave "telescopes"which listen to the noise caused by theactivity of stars and other matter inspace. However, the field of view ofthe detector in space still has not been

SCIENCE, VOL. 142

sufficiently defined to give scientists thecertainty that they would like to haveon the location of the unknown x-raysource.

"If this star is seen again in thesame location by another x-ray detec-tor, then we can expect that the loca-tion of the source has been confirmed,"Chubb said. It is planned to check thisobservation with another rocket flight,probably next February. Verificationwill mean the start of x-ray astronomywhich Chubb predicted would be sim-ilar to radioastronomy in that graphsrather than photographic techniqueswould be used.

It is possible that the source may bea star which has exploded only a shorttime ago, as astronomical time is mea-sured. The closest known object to thesupposed location of the x-ray sourceis Kepler's star, a supernova discoveredin the 17th century. Even if the mys-terious x-rays' source should be linkedto a star which has been observed bya conventional method, the usefulnessof x-ray astronomy would still havebeen proven.Nancy Roman (NASA) related that

observations made by a U.S. satelliteindicate that it may be possible to pre-dict flare eruption on the sun and thusschedule manned space flights aroundthe period of intense solar activity. Shesaid that x-ray detector devices aboardthe Orbiting Solar Observatory are lim-ited but very promising. The solar ob-servatory showed that small micro-flares seem to occur in series with in-creasing or decreasing strength and witha predictable relation between both theintensity and time lag of each succeed-ing flare. "If this holds up during fu-ture information," she said, "it will bethe first time we have been successfullyable to predict any facets of flare ac-tivity." She reported, "With OSO wewatch the birth and death of a seriesof small flares in the soft x-ray region.They occurred at equal space periodsand we were able to predict when thenext one would occur within one min-ute. Whether this orderliness also willapply to larger flares which are of im-portance to manned flight we can't tellnow. But the initial OSO findings arecertainly encouraging."The next period of extreme activity

will occur from 1967 to 1969 when theUnited States plans to send three-manApollo spaceships around and to themoon.Roman reported a second solar ob-

servatory is scheduled for launchinglater this year and will carry a corono-

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data compared to that which is avail-able from optical observations." He alsosaid that Anna has shown that theearth's ocean areas are farther from

SCIENCE, VOL. 142

graph, a device to produce an artificialeclipse of the sun. Roman also outlinedspace agency plans to launch a series oforbiting astronomical observatories tostudy the stars and other celestialbodies above the disturbing influenceof the earth's atmosphere.The chief of the Manned Spacecraft

Center of NASA, Chris Kraft, relatedthat one of the first steps in the up-coming Gemini space projects will bea rendezvous of a manned satellite withan unmanned satellite in outer space.The unmanned vehicle will rendezvouswith a satellite containing two astro-nauts and will be used to alter theorbit of the manned craft. Both satel-lites will be launched from Cape Ca-naveral.The Gemini project, which will get

under way next year, will be followedby project Apollo which has as its endresult a manned landing on the moonprobably around 1970. However, Kraftsaid that no definite date could be setfor a moon shot: "We'll land on themoon when we see it is feasible." Atpresent, Kraft said, "we know all thatis necessary to go to the moon," withone exception, a "knowledge of thesurface of the moon." This informationwill probably not be learned until anactual lunar landing is performed. Twomen will go on the moon trip andeither or both will be able to walkfrom the space ship and explore themoon's surface.

Kraft noted that the actual purposefor making a moon shot is for its valuein further space probes. The moon is"the first step to outer space," a "jump-ing off place" which will be the "keyto open the door to planetary explora-tion."

Richard B. Kershner (Applied Phys-ics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Univer-sity) reported that information receivedfrom the satellite Anna has confirmedearlier observations that the earth isshaped like a pear with its stem at thenorth pole, and that the earth's equatoris elliptical instead of circular in shape.Anna has measured the true shape ofthe earth more accurately and fasterthan any previous observation. For ex-ample, three days of data from Annacould have confirmed the pear-likeshape of the earth with greater accu-racy than the original calculationswhich required 1½/2 years. Kershneradded, "We get a fantastic amount of

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SCIENCE, VOL. 142

the center of the planet than the landareas; the calculations were made fromdeviations from the satellite's orbit.

Satellite Anna is equipped with fivewinking lights. "The behavior of thislight system has been a little odd,"Kershner said. "They worked fine thefirst two months, then they cut to four,then we had three, and finally none."It appeared as though part of the elec-trical system had shorted out and thelights would wink no more. Thenabout 21/2 weeks ago, the lights startedflashing beautifully. This sort of thingis extremely hard to believe. The shortmust have burnt itself out. Kershnerrelated that Anna was another exampleof a satellite that fixed itself while hu-mans stood by helplessly on the ground.He went on to cite an occasion whenMariner II, on its journey to the vicinityof Venus, was struck by a tiny mete-orite which apparently ripped somewires from the power supply. The rec-ords show a jolt to the spacecraft as ifsome object had struck it and show acorresponding power cut-off at the sametime, he said. Yet the power eventuallyreturned, meaning the wires must havesoldered themselves back to their properconnections.

Both Telstar communication satelliteshave had mysterious trouble. Telstar Irefused to obey commands from theground on two occasions. The firsttime, Bell Telephone scientists fixed thesatellite by remote control but the sec-ond time, in February, the situationlooked hopeless until the satellite spon-taneously began functioning again. In ahumorous vein Kershner suggested,"Maybe it's space gremlins."The conference was sponsored by

Virginia Polytechnic Institute in coop-eration with the National Science Foun-dation and the Langley Research Cen-ter, NASA.

ROBERT WERLWASVirginia Polytechnic Institute,Blacksburg

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