buddhist paintings in sri lanka

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    BUDDHIST PAINTING IN SRI LANKA

    Albert Dharmasiri

    "When thus in the isle of Lanka the peerless thera, like unto the Master in the

    protection of Lanka, had preached the true doctrine in two places, in the

    speech of the island, he, the light of the island, thus, brought to pass the

    descent of the true faith." 1The Mahavamsa, (The Great Chronicle), so

    describes the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka by Mahinda Thera, the

    son of the Emperor Asoka of India, during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa(247-207 BC). This momentous event in the history of the island laid the

    foundation of a unique civilization, and its impact determined the evolution

    and development of a great tradition of pictorial art, characterised at its best

    by a vibrant simplicity of the highest order. The genius of anonymous

    painters transformed the rugged rock surface and the flat walls of the

    Buddhist shrines into epics of colour and figurative forms for the spiritual joy

    and edification of the devotees.

    Themes

    The thematic content of the Buddhist paintings in Sri Lanka can be classified

    generally into the following main categories: (1) the life of the Buddha, (2)

    the stories associated with the life of the Buddha, (3) the jataka stories (tales

    of the former lives of the Buddha), (4) Suvisi vivarana (declarations of the

    twenty four former Buddhas approving the Bodhisattva as the future

    Gautama Buddha), (5) Solosmastana (sixteen great locations of worship), (6)

    various deities and the representations of multifarious hells and underworlds.

    The most popular jataka story at all times and places in the history of

    Buddhist painting in Sri Lanka is Vessantara Jataka, because, as Vessantara,

    the Bodhisattva, exhibited the perfection of supernatural generosity (dana).

    Vessantara was also the last existence of the Bodhisattva, before being born

    as Siddhartha Gautama, who later became the Buddha.

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    Classical Style: Sigiri Frescoes

    The long history of Buddhist painting in Sri Lanka falls into two clearly

    identifiable periods: the Classical and the Kandyan. The Classical period canbe dated from the existing records to a period from the fifth to the twelfth or

    the thirteenth century; and the Kandyan period from the eighteenth to the

    nineteenth century. Fresco paintings of the beautiful damsels interpreted by

    historians as apsaras (celestial nymphs) executed on lime plaster on a pocket

    of western face of the fifth century rock fortress of King Kassapa (478-496) at

    Sigiriya represent the earliest datable, the best preserved and the most

    outstanding examples of the classical style.

    The Sigiriya paintings are not religious in content, but they are suggestive ofreligious worship and hence an art of spiritual symbolism. They constitute a

    climax in the evolution of a distinctive Sri Lankan tradition, although distantly

    related to the subsequent manifestations of Sinhalese art. These magnificent

    paintings display a master's touch and a sureness of vision in the portrayal of

    the voluptuous beauty and charm of woman. The observations of the

    eminent art historian Banjamin Rowland is typical of the praise lavished on

    these peerless manifestations of Sinhalese art by the visitors to Sigiriya.

    "The Sigiriya paintings, outside of their exiting and inartistic beauty, are

    perhaps most notable for the very freedom they show at a period when the

    arts were tending to become more and more frozen in the mould of rigid

    canons of beauty. The apsaras have a rich healthy flavour that, by contrast,

    almost makes the masterpieces of Indian art seem sallow and effete in over-

    refinement".2

    Although the Sigiriya paintings can be termed realistic, the realism is not

    objective. The realism of the Sigiriya paintings is amalgamated with idealism

    as in Sinhala poetry. Ideal beauty in a woman as described by Sinhala poets,

    has a moon-like face, blue-lily eyes, lips like tender na leaves, swan-like

    swelling breasts, slim waists, and so on. Sigiriya painters have transformed

    this poetical concept of ideal beauty into vibrating images of colour and form

    reflecting the mood of a society preoccupied with beauty and charm.

    Relic-Chamber Paintings

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    The discovery of relic-chamber paintings at two sites in 1951, corroborates

    the earlier literary descriptions of paintings decorating a relic-chamber of a

    dagaba (a monument enshrining the relics of the Buddha or an arhat). In an

    eight century relic-chamber, discovered at Mihintale are found fluent,rhythmical line drawings done in red and black depicting divine beings rising

    from clouds. A still visible central axis adds freshness to the calligraphic

    drawings which brilliantly capture the elusive quality of figures moving at

    great speed.

    Several fragments of paintings were discovered in an eleventh century relic-

    chamber of a dagaba at Mahiyangana. They are executed in a painterly

    modelling technique, using subtle shading reinforced by expressive outlines.

    The largest fragment depicts the Buddha with a halo seated under the Bodhi

    tree. The halo is a constant element in Buddhist iconography, symbolizing

    the light emanating from the Buddha or other divinities. As an artistic device

    the halo puts the head into greater relief. Flanking the Buddha are two divine

    personages (gods or Brahmas) painted as old men with white beards holding

    flowers. Some of the other fragments depict Vishnu holding a tray of flowers,

    Siva with his trident, and the inhabitants of the Suddhavasa (Abodes of the

    Pure ones) with shaven heads dressed in monastic robes. The main theme

    perceived from the pieces is The Enlightenment of the Buddha.

    Pulligoda Painting

    An important fragment of a large painting belonging to about the eighth

    century, remains on the ceiling of a cave at Pulligoda in the vicinity of

    Dimbulagala. It depicts five divine beings seated on lotuses with flowers in

    their hands and red nimbi encircling their heads undoubtedly paying homage

    to the Buddha. The figures are brilliantly composed to create the illusion of

    spatial recession in the composition. The painter's feeling for volume is

    apparent in the minutest detail; the delicate lines of fluctuating thickness are

    echoes of figurative forms.

    Tivanka Murals

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    The Tivanka pilimage (shrine) at Polonnaruva contains the largest

    complement of murals paintings of classical inspiration. Parakramabahu I

    (1153-1186) built the Tivanka shrine, but restorations were effected by

    Parakramabahu II (1236-1271). Therefore the paintings may belong to bothperiods. The figurative paintings that sprawl along the surface of the walls of

    the entresol between the inner shrine and the vestibule depicting the gods of

    the Tusita heaven in majestic grace entreating the Bodhisattva to be born as

    the Buddha, constitute monumental compositions of epic grandeur.

    Luminous, resonant colours of yellow, red, brown, white and green, through

    subdued by age and neglect, impart warmth, sensuousness and an inner

    glow to the representations of divine beings. In the opinion of Luciano

    Maranzi, the Italian restorer, the technique is 'fresco secco' finished in

    tempera.3 The plasticity of form is achieved by shading as well as a

    technique of contour modelling using close parallel lines. Among these

    paintings is a figure of god, blue in colour, identified by Senarat Paranavitana

    as Upulvan the guardian god of Lanka. This superhuman figure of infinite

    grace and beauty in an attitude of adoration with a flower in the hand is a

    masterpiece of Sinhalese art.

    The earliest surviving representations of jataka tales are among the murals of

    the vestibule of the Tivanka shrine. According to H C P Bell the identified

    jataka stories are as follows: Vessantara, Asankhavati, Sasa, Tundila, Vidhura,

    Guttila, Cullapaduma, Maitribala, Mugapakkha, Sama, Mahasudassana, Kusa

    and Mahaummagga.4 The elements of continuous narration technique, sopopular in Kandyan times, are found among these murals.

    The incident from the Cullapaduma Jataka where the king meets his erstwhile

    consort is one of the most complex compositions. It imperceptibly displays

    the symbolic value of the proportions given to figures, important figures

    invariably being larger than the others. Here the painter handles a common

    iconographic tradition with great imagination.

    Fragmentary remains of paintings at Galvihara are of equal artistic

    importance. The paintings at the Tivanka shrine and Galvihara rock shrine

    are the last classical realism or an idealised naturalism.

    The fall of the Polonnaruva kingdom in the first half of the thirteenth century

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    marks the beginning of a continuous decline of the Sinhalese civilization,

    never to regain the heights of pristine glory. South Indian invasions

    compelled the abandonment of the ancient capitals of Anuradhapura and

    Polonnaruva and the seats of government were transferred further south.

    This period witnessed few spells of peace and settlement. The Portuguese

    who arrived in the first decade of the sixteenth century and the Dutch whosucceeded them, ruled the maritime districts of Sri Lanka till the

    establishment of British rule over the whole island in 1815. Despite the

    numerous literary references, eg. the King Narendrasinha (1707-1739)

    commissioning the paintings of thirty two jatakas, including Vessantara

    Jataka, on the two walls of the outer courtyard of the Temple of the Tooth5 a

    hiatus exists in the material evidence of the continuity of the history of

    painting from the thirteenth to the first half of the eighteenth century; partly

    as a consequence of the decline of Buddhism and the dissolution of the

    community of Buddhist monks, (Sangha) except for novices.

    Kandyan Style

    The Samanera (novice) Velivita Saranankara, later Velivita Pindapathika

    Asarana Sarana Saranankara Sangaraja, was instrumental in bringing back

    upasampada (higher ordination) from Siam (now Thailand) and revitalizing

    Buddhism, under the royal patronage of King Kirthi Sri Rajasinha (1747-

    1782). The emergence of the Kandyan style of painting is associated with

    this religious revival. This art form, with its own distinctive character in the

    evolution of the pictorial tradition of the Sinhalese, is described as Kandyan

    style due to its centrifugal dissemination from Kandyan provinces.

    Style

    The line and colour used to produce volume and solidity of figurative forms

    and natural objects in the classical style, underwent a transformation in the

    Kandyan period, where it served the purpose of ornamentation in creating a

    two-dimensional decorative art form. Vigorous, complex and expressive

    narration of the classical tradition was transformed in the Kandyan style into

    a method of simple continuous narration. Nevertheless Kandyan painting

    should neither be construed as a mere postscript to the classical phase nor

    should it be elevated to the status of classical achievements, except on very

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    rare occasions where the creative imagination of a genius has transcended

    the constraints of a style.

    However, Kandyan painting is a distinct art form of great beauty which has its

    own dynamics and structural properties; it is an art form of abstract

    symbolism. In spite of the unexplained historical gap between the classical

    and the Kandyan painting, a penetrative study reveals that the two styles are

    two different configurations of an indigenous Sinhala aesthetic tradition

    responding to the impact of historical forces and undergoing a process of

    change.

    Kandyan painting, despite its rigid conventional character, produced a

    multiplicity of stylistic variations in different parts of the country. The two

    major differences are between the paintings of the Central, Sabaragamuwa

    and North Western provinces (Central Kandyan School) and the Southern and

    Western provinces (Southern School). All other regional manifestations are

    either subtle syntheses of both or betray inspirational leanings to either the

    Central Kandyan school style or the Southern school style.

    An analysis of the underlying aesthetic principles, the compositional

    elements, and technical details reveal certain characteristics common to all

    inter-related stylistic variations viz. the division of the painting surface into

    horizontal registers along the length of the wall, decorative two-dimensional

    treatment, symbolism, thematic content, iconography and the method of

    continuous narration depicting important incidents of the story

    chronologically in linear progression. Another important common

    denominator is the separation of the painting registers by narrow bands of

    white or yellow on which are written in Sinhala script the titles or short

    descriptions of the narrative pictorial sequences depicted above. Sometimes

    the legend is carried on a rectangular shape. Line plays a predominant role

    in the pictorial vocabulary of the Kandyan painter, in defining the distinct

    areas of colour and form. Red outlines are occasionally reinforced by another

    outer black line creating a relief effect. A tonal and decorative effect issometimes achieved simultaneously by the use of very thin close parallel

    lines, specially in drapery. The third dimension and one point perspective are

    absent.

    Technique

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    The Kandyan painter used a tempera technique with a limited range of

    colours - white, red, yellow, black, blue and green. The pigments, all made

    from earth or vegetable substances were mixed with the gum of the wood -

    apple tree and water. The materials on which paintings were done wereplaster (on rocks and walls), wood (ceilings, partitions, boxes), cloth,

    earthenware, and paper. The rock and wall paintings were executed on a

    final coat of makul (magnesite). A line drawing of the composition was first

    done on the surface in red or black and the colours were added subsequently.

    The under-drawings which get covered in the final stages of the painting, are

    more vigorous and spontaneous than the final outlines of the figures.

    Central Kandyan School

    Certain features of the Kandyan style achieve a new character in the hands of

    the painters of the Central Kandyan school. At a glance they resemble the

    linear illustrations on palm leaf manuscripts transferred to the walls with the

    addition of colour. The absence of any reality in terms of time and space is

    more conspicuous. The colours are applied pure and flat; the range is

    limited to red, yellow, white and black; and their juxtaposition is handled with

    consummate artistry. Figure ground relationships are simple, but the

    negative areas of space are also profoundly important in the structure of the

    composition.

    The paintings of the shrines at Degaldoruva, Gangarama, Medavala,

    Suriyagoda, Lankatilaka, Ridivihara and Dambulla represent a few of the best

    examples of the central Kandyan style. The royal patronage received by

    these temples was a contributory factor towards the artistic superiority of

    those paintings.

    Degaldoruva

    The first five of these temples are in the vicinity of the ancient hill-capital

    Kandy. Although the Sinhalese Buddhist painters have remained

    anonymous, the magnificent paintings in the cave temple at Degaldoruva

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    completed in 1771 are attributed to Devaragampala Silvatenna assisted by

    Nilagama Patabenda and Koswatte Hitaranayide. In addition to being

    priceless art treasures, Degaldoruva paintings are invaluable historical

    documents. Among the most splendid and the best known paintings are The

    Battle with Mara (King of Evil) and four jataka stories Vessantara, Sutasoma,

    Silava and Sattubhatta.

    Gangarama

    Gangarama temple built by King Kirthi Sri Rajasingha, contains a gigantic

    image of the Buddha carved out of stone with superb wall paintings depicting

    various incidents from the life of the Buddha. The Great Renunciation and

    The First Seven Weeks after Enlightenment are some of the finestcompositions outstanding for their powerful style.

    Madavala and Suriyagoda

    The shrines at Medavala (1755) and Suriyagoda (1757) are temples-on-

    pillars. This was an architectural style popular in the 18th century. In this

    style, short stone pillars support a grid work of heavy wooden beams, which

    again bears a wooden floor. The shrine is built on this wooden floor. The

    walls are of wattle and daub; and the paintings are done on them. The

    Medavala shrine is one of the best preserved examples of this style. The Life

    of the Buddha and two jataka stories, (Vessantara and Uraga) are the

    principle themes of the Medavala murals. The main theme of the murals at

    Suriyagoda is the Life of the Buddha.

    Lankatilaka

    Built on the rock at the top of a hill at Handessa, near Gampola, Lankatilaka

    Rajamaha Vihara stands majestically towering above the evergreen

    surrounding landscape. The present restored temple is only a part of the

    original shrine which comprised four storeys and was constructed in 1344 by

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    Sena Lankadhikara. Paintings of the vestibule of the shrine are among the

    most monumental of the Kandyan style, for their superior draughtmanship,

    vision, and clarity of design. The principal statue of the shrine a colossal

    sedent image of the Buddha belonging to the Gampola period (1341-1415)

    suggests the immeasurable splendour of Buddhist sculpture of the times.

    Ridivihara

    The paintings at Ridivihara near Kurunegala are also ascribed to Silvatenna.

    Among the paintings of the upper shrine, (the only murals in a good state of

    preservation) are the representations of Satsatiya (The First Seven Weeks

    after Enlightenment); stylistically they are a unique variation of the Kandyan

    tradition. Although characterised by a rigidity in the treatment of figurativeforms, the visual effect is an aesthetic delight.

    Dambulla

    The Rangiri Dambulu Rajamaha Vihara also known as the Rock Temple at

    Dambulla composed of five caves has an ancient history going back to the

    times of Vattagamini Abaya (29-17 BC). Covering an enormous area of about

    twenty two thousand square feet of paintings, this is the largest cave temple

    complex in Sri Lanka. The paintings and sculptures extant today are ascribed

    to the eighteenth century. These restorations were carried out by the King

    Kirthi Sri Rajasingha. A fragment of a painting belonging to the classical

    tradition is found just below the drip ledge of the fifth cave. Cave 2 and

    Cave 3 contain the most important paintings artistically at Dambulla.

    Except for the few paintings on the walls on both sides of the entrances, and

    a few instances inside, about three-quarter of the paintings are executed on

    the rock ceiling. The life of the Buddha, history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka,

    Suvisivivarana and Solosmastana are the main subjects of the Dambulla

    paintings. Large areas of the ceiling are covered with infinite rows of sedent

    Buddha images painted, perhaps, to depict the concept of the thousand

    Buddhas of the present age (kalpa), or to convey a sacred interpretation of

    the sky miraculously filled with countless Buddhas. This endless

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    multiplication also expresses the mystical power of the depicted figure. This

    theme can be traced back to the times of Parakramabahu I (1153-1186) who

    erected a sermon house 'gaily adorned with many likenesses of the Victor

    (Buddha) in gold and the like and was resplendent with a garland of pictures

    of the Omniscient One, which were painted on stuff.6 Two compositions in

    Cave 2, The Defeat of Mara and The First Discourse of the Buddha are amongthe greatest achievements of Sinhalese Buddhist art. These two great

    masterpieces separated by a gap of about twenty five feet, wherein The First

    Seven weeks after Enlightenment are painted, evoke diametrically opposed

    sentiments. One is the terror and the agony of the dark forces of the inner

    consciousness preventing the liberation of the mind and the other the lifting

    of the mind to the realisation of Nirvana, the Ultimate reality.

    Southern School

    In spite of the conceptual approach to the pictorial narration, the painters of

    the Southern school often depicted various episodes of a story against a

    particularised setting, inspired by the natural surroundings in which they

    lived. Sometimes paintings provide invaluable records in the study of the

    penetration of elements of western culture into the life of the Sinhala people.

    The artists obviously revelled in the use of floral decoration. The palette,

    dominated by the primary colours, reveal innumerable tonal variations. A

    subtle modelling of forms by shading is an important element in the artisticvocabulary of certain painters of the Southern School. Mulgirigala Rajamaha

    Vihara, Telwatta Purana Totagamu Rajamaha Vihara, Kataluva Purvarama

    Vihara, Dodanduva Sailabimbarama Vihara, Dodanduva Kumaramaha Vihara,

    Ambalangoda Sunandarama Vihara are a few of the temples that contain

    excellent examples of the paintings of the Southern School.

    Painting on Wood

    Paintings on wooden surfaces are found on the ceilings of religious buildings,

    manuscript covers, screens, boxes used to store sacred objects and votive

    tablets. Godapitiya Rajamaha Vihara and Kadurugahamaditta Gangarama

    Vihara posses two large wooden boxes with the Dhahamsonda Jataka painted

    on both.

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    Painting on Cloth

    Known in the Sinhala language as petikada, paintings on cloth also provide

    magnificent examples of the Kandyan style of paintings. There are numerous

    literary references to the practice of painting on cloth in Sri Lanka from as

    early as the second century BC to the nineteenth century. The great

    chronicle Mahavamsa has it that as King Dutthagamani lay dying,

    Saddhatissa, having covered the half finished Maha Thupa with white cloth

    over a wooden frame, commanded painters 'to make on it a vedika duly and

    rows of filled vases likewise and the row with the five finger ornament'. Due

    to the non-durability of the material, only the eighteenth century examples

    are extant today. In terms of iconographic tradition, compositional

    arrangements, figurative forms, treatment of design and colour schemes, the

    surviving examples of petikada bear a relationship to the temple murals of

    the Kandyan style.

    Petikada may provide the clue to a missing link in the records of the Buddhist

    paintings of Sri Lanka between the thirteenth and the eighteenth century.

    The stylistic origins of Kandyan painting which proliferated in the eighteenth

    century are shrouded in mystery, as it is diametrically opposed in style to the

    pre-thirteenth century classical realism. In the absence of any immediate

    temple painting tradition to follow, the Kandyan painters may have been

    inspired by the paintings on cloth.

    The Lotus

    An eternal fount of spiritual nourishment to devotees and a perennial source

    of aesthetic delight to lovers of art, Buddhist painting in Sri Lanka aselsewhere, constantly uses the Lotus motif as an ornamental device with a

    semeiological content. The ubiquitous lotus flower is the sacred flower of the

    Buddhists; it is the symbol of purity and spiritual attainment.

    "As a lotus, fair and lovely,

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    By the water is not soiled

    By the word am I not soiled

    Therefore, brahmin, am I Buddha."