buddhist paintings in sri lanka
TRANSCRIPT
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BUDDHIST PAINTING IN SRI LANKA
Albert Dharmasiri
"When thus in the isle of Lanka the peerless thera, like unto the Master in the
protection of Lanka, had preached the true doctrine in two places, in the
speech of the island, he, the light of the island, thus, brought to pass the
descent of the true faith." 1The Mahavamsa, (The Great Chronicle), so
describes the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka by Mahinda Thera, the
son of the Emperor Asoka of India, during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa(247-207 BC). This momentous event in the history of the island laid the
foundation of a unique civilization, and its impact determined the evolution
and development of a great tradition of pictorial art, characterised at its best
by a vibrant simplicity of the highest order. The genius of anonymous
painters transformed the rugged rock surface and the flat walls of the
Buddhist shrines into epics of colour and figurative forms for the spiritual joy
and edification of the devotees.
Themes
The thematic content of the Buddhist paintings in Sri Lanka can be classified
generally into the following main categories: (1) the life of the Buddha, (2)
the stories associated with the life of the Buddha, (3) the jataka stories (tales
of the former lives of the Buddha), (4) Suvisi vivarana (declarations of the
twenty four former Buddhas approving the Bodhisattva as the future
Gautama Buddha), (5) Solosmastana (sixteen great locations of worship), (6)
various deities and the representations of multifarious hells and underworlds.
The most popular jataka story at all times and places in the history of
Buddhist painting in Sri Lanka is Vessantara Jataka, because, as Vessantara,
the Bodhisattva, exhibited the perfection of supernatural generosity (dana).
Vessantara was also the last existence of the Bodhisattva, before being born
as Siddhartha Gautama, who later became the Buddha.
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Classical Style: Sigiri Frescoes
The long history of Buddhist painting in Sri Lanka falls into two clearly
identifiable periods: the Classical and the Kandyan. The Classical period canbe dated from the existing records to a period from the fifth to the twelfth or
the thirteenth century; and the Kandyan period from the eighteenth to the
nineteenth century. Fresco paintings of the beautiful damsels interpreted by
historians as apsaras (celestial nymphs) executed on lime plaster on a pocket
of western face of the fifth century rock fortress of King Kassapa (478-496) at
Sigiriya represent the earliest datable, the best preserved and the most
outstanding examples of the classical style.
The Sigiriya paintings are not religious in content, but they are suggestive ofreligious worship and hence an art of spiritual symbolism. They constitute a
climax in the evolution of a distinctive Sri Lankan tradition, although distantly
related to the subsequent manifestations of Sinhalese art. These magnificent
paintings display a master's touch and a sureness of vision in the portrayal of
the voluptuous beauty and charm of woman. The observations of the
eminent art historian Banjamin Rowland is typical of the praise lavished on
these peerless manifestations of Sinhalese art by the visitors to Sigiriya.
"The Sigiriya paintings, outside of their exiting and inartistic beauty, are
perhaps most notable for the very freedom they show at a period when the
arts were tending to become more and more frozen in the mould of rigid
canons of beauty. The apsaras have a rich healthy flavour that, by contrast,
almost makes the masterpieces of Indian art seem sallow and effete in over-
refinement".2
Although the Sigiriya paintings can be termed realistic, the realism is not
objective. The realism of the Sigiriya paintings is amalgamated with idealism
as in Sinhala poetry. Ideal beauty in a woman as described by Sinhala poets,
has a moon-like face, blue-lily eyes, lips like tender na leaves, swan-like
swelling breasts, slim waists, and so on. Sigiriya painters have transformed
this poetical concept of ideal beauty into vibrating images of colour and form
reflecting the mood of a society preoccupied with beauty and charm.
Relic-Chamber Paintings
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The discovery of relic-chamber paintings at two sites in 1951, corroborates
the earlier literary descriptions of paintings decorating a relic-chamber of a
dagaba (a monument enshrining the relics of the Buddha or an arhat). In an
eight century relic-chamber, discovered at Mihintale are found fluent,rhythmical line drawings done in red and black depicting divine beings rising
from clouds. A still visible central axis adds freshness to the calligraphic
drawings which brilliantly capture the elusive quality of figures moving at
great speed.
Several fragments of paintings were discovered in an eleventh century relic-
chamber of a dagaba at Mahiyangana. They are executed in a painterly
modelling technique, using subtle shading reinforced by expressive outlines.
The largest fragment depicts the Buddha with a halo seated under the Bodhi
tree. The halo is a constant element in Buddhist iconography, symbolizing
the light emanating from the Buddha or other divinities. As an artistic device
the halo puts the head into greater relief. Flanking the Buddha are two divine
personages (gods or Brahmas) painted as old men with white beards holding
flowers. Some of the other fragments depict Vishnu holding a tray of flowers,
Siva with his trident, and the inhabitants of the Suddhavasa (Abodes of the
Pure ones) with shaven heads dressed in monastic robes. The main theme
perceived from the pieces is The Enlightenment of the Buddha.
Pulligoda Painting
An important fragment of a large painting belonging to about the eighth
century, remains on the ceiling of a cave at Pulligoda in the vicinity of
Dimbulagala. It depicts five divine beings seated on lotuses with flowers in
their hands and red nimbi encircling their heads undoubtedly paying homage
to the Buddha. The figures are brilliantly composed to create the illusion of
spatial recession in the composition. The painter's feeling for volume is
apparent in the minutest detail; the delicate lines of fluctuating thickness are
echoes of figurative forms.
Tivanka Murals
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The Tivanka pilimage (shrine) at Polonnaruva contains the largest
complement of murals paintings of classical inspiration. Parakramabahu I
(1153-1186) built the Tivanka shrine, but restorations were effected by
Parakramabahu II (1236-1271). Therefore the paintings may belong to bothperiods. The figurative paintings that sprawl along the surface of the walls of
the entresol between the inner shrine and the vestibule depicting the gods of
the Tusita heaven in majestic grace entreating the Bodhisattva to be born as
the Buddha, constitute monumental compositions of epic grandeur.
Luminous, resonant colours of yellow, red, brown, white and green, through
subdued by age and neglect, impart warmth, sensuousness and an inner
glow to the representations of divine beings. In the opinion of Luciano
Maranzi, the Italian restorer, the technique is 'fresco secco' finished in
tempera.3 The plasticity of form is achieved by shading as well as a
technique of contour modelling using close parallel lines. Among these
paintings is a figure of god, blue in colour, identified by Senarat Paranavitana
as Upulvan the guardian god of Lanka. This superhuman figure of infinite
grace and beauty in an attitude of adoration with a flower in the hand is a
masterpiece of Sinhalese art.
The earliest surviving representations of jataka tales are among the murals of
the vestibule of the Tivanka shrine. According to H C P Bell the identified
jataka stories are as follows: Vessantara, Asankhavati, Sasa, Tundila, Vidhura,
Guttila, Cullapaduma, Maitribala, Mugapakkha, Sama, Mahasudassana, Kusa
and Mahaummagga.4 The elements of continuous narration technique, sopopular in Kandyan times, are found among these murals.
The incident from the Cullapaduma Jataka where the king meets his erstwhile
consort is one of the most complex compositions. It imperceptibly displays
the symbolic value of the proportions given to figures, important figures
invariably being larger than the others. Here the painter handles a common
iconographic tradition with great imagination.
Fragmentary remains of paintings at Galvihara are of equal artistic
importance. The paintings at the Tivanka shrine and Galvihara rock shrine
are the last classical realism or an idealised naturalism.
The fall of the Polonnaruva kingdom in the first half of the thirteenth century
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marks the beginning of a continuous decline of the Sinhalese civilization,
never to regain the heights of pristine glory. South Indian invasions
compelled the abandonment of the ancient capitals of Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruva and the seats of government were transferred further south.
This period witnessed few spells of peace and settlement. The Portuguese
who arrived in the first decade of the sixteenth century and the Dutch whosucceeded them, ruled the maritime districts of Sri Lanka till the
establishment of British rule over the whole island in 1815. Despite the
numerous literary references, eg. the King Narendrasinha (1707-1739)
commissioning the paintings of thirty two jatakas, including Vessantara
Jataka, on the two walls of the outer courtyard of the Temple of the Tooth5 a
hiatus exists in the material evidence of the continuity of the history of
painting from the thirteenth to the first half of the eighteenth century; partly
as a consequence of the decline of Buddhism and the dissolution of the
community of Buddhist monks, (Sangha) except for novices.
Kandyan Style
The Samanera (novice) Velivita Saranankara, later Velivita Pindapathika
Asarana Sarana Saranankara Sangaraja, was instrumental in bringing back
upasampada (higher ordination) from Siam (now Thailand) and revitalizing
Buddhism, under the royal patronage of King Kirthi Sri Rajasinha (1747-
1782). The emergence of the Kandyan style of painting is associated with
this religious revival. This art form, with its own distinctive character in the
evolution of the pictorial tradition of the Sinhalese, is described as Kandyan
style due to its centrifugal dissemination from Kandyan provinces.
Style
The line and colour used to produce volume and solidity of figurative forms
and natural objects in the classical style, underwent a transformation in the
Kandyan period, where it served the purpose of ornamentation in creating a
two-dimensional decorative art form. Vigorous, complex and expressive
narration of the classical tradition was transformed in the Kandyan style into
a method of simple continuous narration. Nevertheless Kandyan painting
should neither be construed as a mere postscript to the classical phase nor
should it be elevated to the status of classical achievements, except on very
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rare occasions where the creative imagination of a genius has transcended
the constraints of a style.
However, Kandyan painting is a distinct art form of great beauty which has its
own dynamics and structural properties; it is an art form of abstract
symbolism. In spite of the unexplained historical gap between the classical
and the Kandyan painting, a penetrative study reveals that the two styles are
two different configurations of an indigenous Sinhala aesthetic tradition
responding to the impact of historical forces and undergoing a process of
change.
Kandyan painting, despite its rigid conventional character, produced a
multiplicity of stylistic variations in different parts of the country. The two
major differences are between the paintings of the Central, Sabaragamuwa
and North Western provinces (Central Kandyan School) and the Southern and
Western provinces (Southern School). All other regional manifestations are
either subtle syntheses of both or betray inspirational leanings to either the
Central Kandyan school style or the Southern school style.
An analysis of the underlying aesthetic principles, the compositional
elements, and technical details reveal certain characteristics common to all
inter-related stylistic variations viz. the division of the painting surface into
horizontal registers along the length of the wall, decorative two-dimensional
treatment, symbolism, thematic content, iconography and the method of
continuous narration depicting important incidents of the story
chronologically in linear progression. Another important common
denominator is the separation of the painting registers by narrow bands of
white or yellow on which are written in Sinhala script the titles or short
descriptions of the narrative pictorial sequences depicted above. Sometimes
the legend is carried on a rectangular shape. Line plays a predominant role
in the pictorial vocabulary of the Kandyan painter, in defining the distinct
areas of colour and form. Red outlines are occasionally reinforced by another
outer black line creating a relief effect. A tonal and decorative effect issometimes achieved simultaneously by the use of very thin close parallel
lines, specially in drapery. The third dimension and one point perspective are
absent.
Technique
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The Kandyan painter used a tempera technique with a limited range of
colours - white, red, yellow, black, blue and green. The pigments, all made
from earth or vegetable substances were mixed with the gum of the wood -
apple tree and water. The materials on which paintings were done wereplaster (on rocks and walls), wood (ceilings, partitions, boxes), cloth,
earthenware, and paper. The rock and wall paintings were executed on a
final coat of makul (magnesite). A line drawing of the composition was first
done on the surface in red or black and the colours were added subsequently.
The under-drawings which get covered in the final stages of the painting, are
more vigorous and spontaneous than the final outlines of the figures.
Central Kandyan School
Certain features of the Kandyan style achieve a new character in the hands of
the painters of the Central Kandyan school. At a glance they resemble the
linear illustrations on palm leaf manuscripts transferred to the walls with the
addition of colour. The absence of any reality in terms of time and space is
more conspicuous. The colours are applied pure and flat; the range is
limited to red, yellow, white and black; and their juxtaposition is handled with
consummate artistry. Figure ground relationships are simple, but the
negative areas of space are also profoundly important in the structure of the
composition.
The paintings of the shrines at Degaldoruva, Gangarama, Medavala,
Suriyagoda, Lankatilaka, Ridivihara and Dambulla represent a few of the best
examples of the central Kandyan style. The royal patronage received by
these temples was a contributory factor towards the artistic superiority of
those paintings.
Degaldoruva
The first five of these temples are in the vicinity of the ancient hill-capital
Kandy. Although the Sinhalese Buddhist painters have remained
anonymous, the magnificent paintings in the cave temple at Degaldoruva
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completed in 1771 are attributed to Devaragampala Silvatenna assisted by
Nilagama Patabenda and Koswatte Hitaranayide. In addition to being
priceless art treasures, Degaldoruva paintings are invaluable historical
documents. Among the most splendid and the best known paintings are The
Battle with Mara (King of Evil) and four jataka stories Vessantara, Sutasoma,
Silava and Sattubhatta.
Gangarama
Gangarama temple built by King Kirthi Sri Rajasingha, contains a gigantic
image of the Buddha carved out of stone with superb wall paintings depicting
various incidents from the life of the Buddha. The Great Renunciation and
The First Seven Weeks after Enlightenment are some of the finestcompositions outstanding for their powerful style.
Madavala and Suriyagoda
The shrines at Medavala (1755) and Suriyagoda (1757) are temples-on-
pillars. This was an architectural style popular in the 18th century. In this
style, short stone pillars support a grid work of heavy wooden beams, which
again bears a wooden floor. The shrine is built on this wooden floor. The
walls are of wattle and daub; and the paintings are done on them. The
Medavala shrine is one of the best preserved examples of this style. The Life
of the Buddha and two jataka stories, (Vessantara and Uraga) are the
principle themes of the Medavala murals. The main theme of the murals at
Suriyagoda is the Life of the Buddha.
Lankatilaka
Built on the rock at the top of a hill at Handessa, near Gampola, Lankatilaka
Rajamaha Vihara stands majestically towering above the evergreen
surrounding landscape. The present restored temple is only a part of the
original shrine which comprised four storeys and was constructed in 1344 by
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Sena Lankadhikara. Paintings of the vestibule of the shrine are among the
most monumental of the Kandyan style, for their superior draughtmanship,
vision, and clarity of design. The principal statue of the shrine a colossal
sedent image of the Buddha belonging to the Gampola period (1341-1415)
suggests the immeasurable splendour of Buddhist sculpture of the times.
Ridivihara
The paintings at Ridivihara near Kurunegala are also ascribed to Silvatenna.
Among the paintings of the upper shrine, (the only murals in a good state of
preservation) are the representations of Satsatiya (The First Seven Weeks
after Enlightenment); stylistically they are a unique variation of the Kandyan
tradition. Although characterised by a rigidity in the treatment of figurativeforms, the visual effect is an aesthetic delight.
Dambulla
The Rangiri Dambulu Rajamaha Vihara also known as the Rock Temple at
Dambulla composed of five caves has an ancient history going back to the
times of Vattagamini Abaya (29-17 BC). Covering an enormous area of about
twenty two thousand square feet of paintings, this is the largest cave temple
complex in Sri Lanka. The paintings and sculptures extant today are ascribed
to the eighteenth century. These restorations were carried out by the King
Kirthi Sri Rajasingha. A fragment of a painting belonging to the classical
tradition is found just below the drip ledge of the fifth cave. Cave 2 and
Cave 3 contain the most important paintings artistically at Dambulla.
Except for the few paintings on the walls on both sides of the entrances, and
a few instances inside, about three-quarter of the paintings are executed on
the rock ceiling. The life of the Buddha, history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka,
Suvisivivarana and Solosmastana are the main subjects of the Dambulla
paintings. Large areas of the ceiling are covered with infinite rows of sedent
Buddha images painted, perhaps, to depict the concept of the thousand
Buddhas of the present age (kalpa), or to convey a sacred interpretation of
the sky miraculously filled with countless Buddhas. This endless
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multiplication also expresses the mystical power of the depicted figure. This
theme can be traced back to the times of Parakramabahu I (1153-1186) who
erected a sermon house 'gaily adorned with many likenesses of the Victor
(Buddha) in gold and the like and was resplendent with a garland of pictures
of the Omniscient One, which were painted on stuff.6 Two compositions in
Cave 2, The Defeat of Mara and The First Discourse of the Buddha are amongthe greatest achievements of Sinhalese Buddhist art. These two great
masterpieces separated by a gap of about twenty five feet, wherein The First
Seven weeks after Enlightenment are painted, evoke diametrically opposed
sentiments. One is the terror and the agony of the dark forces of the inner
consciousness preventing the liberation of the mind and the other the lifting
of the mind to the realisation of Nirvana, the Ultimate reality.
Southern School
In spite of the conceptual approach to the pictorial narration, the painters of
the Southern school often depicted various episodes of a story against a
particularised setting, inspired by the natural surroundings in which they
lived. Sometimes paintings provide invaluable records in the study of the
penetration of elements of western culture into the life of the Sinhala people.
The artists obviously revelled in the use of floral decoration. The palette,
dominated by the primary colours, reveal innumerable tonal variations. A
subtle modelling of forms by shading is an important element in the artisticvocabulary of certain painters of the Southern School. Mulgirigala Rajamaha
Vihara, Telwatta Purana Totagamu Rajamaha Vihara, Kataluva Purvarama
Vihara, Dodanduva Sailabimbarama Vihara, Dodanduva Kumaramaha Vihara,
Ambalangoda Sunandarama Vihara are a few of the temples that contain
excellent examples of the paintings of the Southern School.
Painting on Wood
Paintings on wooden surfaces are found on the ceilings of religious buildings,
manuscript covers, screens, boxes used to store sacred objects and votive
tablets. Godapitiya Rajamaha Vihara and Kadurugahamaditta Gangarama
Vihara posses two large wooden boxes with the Dhahamsonda Jataka painted
on both.
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Painting on Cloth
Known in the Sinhala language as petikada, paintings on cloth also provide
magnificent examples of the Kandyan style of paintings. There are numerous
literary references to the practice of painting on cloth in Sri Lanka from as
early as the second century BC to the nineteenth century. The great
chronicle Mahavamsa has it that as King Dutthagamani lay dying,
Saddhatissa, having covered the half finished Maha Thupa with white cloth
over a wooden frame, commanded painters 'to make on it a vedika duly and
rows of filled vases likewise and the row with the five finger ornament'. Due
to the non-durability of the material, only the eighteenth century examples
are extant today. In terms of iconographic tradition, compositional
arrangements, figurative forms, treatment of design and colour schemes, the
surviving examples of petikada bear a relationship to the temple murals of
the Kandyan style.
Petikada may provide the clue to a missing link in the records of the Buddhist
paintings of Sri Lanka between the thirteenth and the eighteenth century.
The stylistic origins of Kandyan painting which proliferated in the eighteenth
century are shrouded in mystery, as it is diametrically opposed in style to the
pre-thirteenth century classical realism. In the absence of any immediate
temple painting tradition to follow, the Kandyan painters may have been
inspired by the paintings on cloth.
The Lotus
An eternal fount of spiritual nourishment to devotees and a perennial source
of aesthetic delight to lovers of art, Buddhist painting in Sri Lanka aselsewhere, constantly uses the Lotus motif as an ornamental device with a
semeiological content. The ubiquitous lotus flower is the sacred flower of the
Buddhists; it is the symbol of purity and spiritual attainment.
"As a lotus, fair and lovely,
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By the water is not soiled
By the word am I not soiled
Therefore, brahmin, am I Buddha."