Buddhist Ethics

From the ―Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society‖ by Karin Brown

Buddhist philosophy originates with the teachings of the Buddha (566–486 BCE), which

are framed by the goal of eliminating suffering. Buddhist ethics aims at providing the

path to achieving this goal. The teachings of the Buddha were preserved as an oral

tradition for 400 years until they were compiled by monks in the Pali canon around the

first century BCE. (There are many schools of Buddhist thought, but they share the same

core teachings.) No separate discourse for Buddhist ethics exists in the ancient sources.

Rather, a sophisticated and profound ethical theory is found throughout the canon and is

inseparable from the rest of the philosophy. Works devoted explicitly to Buddhist ethics

are recent, blending material from various sources into a more well-defined moral theory.

The Foundation of the Theory

Buddhist ethics is grounded in a theory of the nature of reality. It is logically embedded

in Buddhist causality and the concomitant notion of nonsubstantiality. The presumption is

that everything has a cause, that something cannot arise out of nothing, and that all

phenomena thus fall under causal law. It follows that everything depends on something,

indeed everything, else. This is known as the principle of dependent origination, and it

lies at the heart of Buddhist philosophy.

On a physical level, every object obviously depends on a variety of causes and

conditions. For instance, a table is made of wood, which comes from trees, and trees

depend on water, earth, and sunlight. The table comes into existence because of the

carpenter, who also depends on food, air, water, and so on. No element in nature can be

conceived of as not connected to myriad others. We can also understand this principle

conceptually. That is, this is a table by virtue of our definition of it; at other times, the

wood may be firewood, a chair, or a bat. No element or object possesses an intrinsic,

independent identity.

The principle of interdependence naturally leads to the conclusion that there is no

separate self or soul either. In addition, if everything is subject to causation, then

everything is also constantly changing and is impermanent. According to Buddhist

philosophy, a person is a combination of five fluctuating aggregates (body, sensation,

perception, dispositions, and consciousness). We cannot claim that any of these

constitutes an intransigent self.

The concept of dependency entails significant moral implications. From our dependency

and interconnectedness with others follows a sense of obligation and concern about the

well-being of others. Since we are ultimately dependent on every aspect of the universe,

ethical consequences follow regarding social philosophy, attitudes toward animals, and

environmental ethics. Thus, understanding interdependence brings with it respect for

nature and all living things.

Further moral implications ensue from the view of ―no self.‖ Without a permanent, fixed

self-identity, one is not invested in one's own ego. Selflessness and other-directed actions

follow. That is, without being preoccupied with oneself, a selfless concern for the well-

being of others becomes possible. Egoism is replaced by the idea that distinction between

self and others is an illusion.

The most important manifestation of the Buddhist view of causality is the law of karma,

which is a natural law. Karma literally means actions. The principle that every effect has

a cause means that actions have consequences for oneself and others. Karmic effects can

be twofold, external and internal. One's actions affect others and accordingly accumulate

merit or demerit. Immoral actions, such as killing, stealing, and lying, result in bad

karma; good deeds result in good karma. Accepting a belief in reincarnation, people are

reborn according to the moral ledger of their actions. The family one is born into, one's

professional life, one's character, and even one's physical appearance may manifest past

karma. The second aspect of karma is psychological, the way in which karma affects the

agent. Here, karma is a psychological law, the law of causation applied to mental events.

Immoral actions have negative effects because they are embedded in states such as anger,

resentment, and violence. Negative thoughts and emotions lead to anxiety, even

depression; they cause internal turmoil, and they are in themselves forms of suffering. By

harming others one harms oneself. Positive thoughts and emotions lead to calm and

satisfaction. Belief in reincarnation is not necessary for appreciating the psychological

aspect of karma.

Karma is also a moral law. Unlike the system of rewards and punishments in

monotheistic religions, in Buddhism, without a god, responsibility for one's destiny lies

within oneself. By understanding how character and events come about, we learn to

redirect the course of our lives, as the Buddha outlined in presenting his Four Noble

Truths.

The Four Noble Truths

The core of Buddhist teachings is expressed in the Buddha's Four Noble Truths, his first

sermon. The Four Noble Truths sketch a moral path. The assumption is that all beings

wish to avoid suffering and attain happiness. Buddhist ethics begins with the desire to

end suffering, and Buddhist concepts of right and wrong follow. The Four Noble Truths

provide an analysis of what causes suffering on the one hand and what brings peace and

happiness on the other.

The first Noble Truth is the truth of suffering. The point is to identify the nature of

suffering as a problem in order to eliminate it. The principle is that suffering pervades

human existence. Buddhism identifies a broad spectrum of phenomena as suffering, and

areas causing psychological and moral problems are broader than what we find in

Western moral theories. Birth, sickness, old age, death, as well as pain, grief, and sorrow

are all forms of suffering, but even pleasurable experiences can cause suffering because

of their transient nature. A new car, a new promotion, or a new relationship are only new

for a short while. If our wellbeing depends on these highlights, we are subject to constant

ups and downs. Not getting what one wants is suffering. Here, the Buddha is referring to

the idea that whenever there is a gap between what we have and what we want or who we

are and who we want to be, we will suffer. Expectations embedded in ignorance of the

principle of dependent origination lead to suffering. Assuming a fixed, permanent self

makes one a slave to the demands of the ego; one's social status and material possessions

become central, and we try to satisfy aspects of an existence that cannot be satisfied

because it does not exist per se.

The second Noble Truth identifies the origin of suffering. Desire and attachment cause

suffering. Craving and attachment refer not only to pleasure and to material goods but

also to ideals, theories, and beliefs. Desires are viewed as insatiable, and thus in principle

they cannot be satisfied. All forms of suffering, from personal problems to political

struggles such as poverty and war, can be viewed as rooted in selfish cravings and desires

and in attachment to material goods, ideologies, or religions.

The three roots of evil are greed, hatred, and delusion. Here, the principle of causality and

karma applies not only to action but also to intentions, thoughts, and feelings. Negative

thoughts give rise to offensive speech and violent actions, just as sympathetic and

compassionate thoughts give rise to kind words and actions. Thus, thoughts and feelings

have karmic effects as well. Wishing someone ill is not morally neutral. In this sense,

Buddhist philosophy offers a deeper analysis of morality by including human psychology

as a cause of our behavior. This link between psychology and ethics is a central feature of

Buddhism. The second Noble Truth shows that what causes psychological suffering also

causes immorality. As the goal is to eliminate suffering, one must consider one's state of

mind.

The third Noble Truth concerns the cessation of suffering and the possibility of attaining

nirvana. Nirvana is mostly described in negative terms as it is impossible to convey this

transcendent state rationally. Several Buddhist scholars refer to nirvana as a moral state

because it includes the cessation of the causes of immorality—that is, greed, hatred,

delusion, desire, and attachment. Negative emotions or mental states are eradicated as

well. The goal is to eliminate the cycle of birth and death, although, as mentioned

previously, this point is not essential to the moral theory.

The Fourth Noble truth is the truth of the EightFold Path. The Eight-Fold Path lies at the

core of Buddhist practice. It embodies the main principles of Buddhism and represents

the middle way prescribed by the Buddha between asceticism and selfindulgence. The

path entails three aspects: wisdom, morality, and meditation. Wisdom pertains to

understanding the true nature of reality, that suffering is grounded in ignorance. Moral

conduct is a way to purify one's actions, which also purifies one's motives. Meditation

creates awareness and mental discipline. This path also embodies one of the main

principles in Buddhist philosophy—nonviolence.

The Eight-Fold Path entails the following: (1) right view—that suffering originates in

ignorance, hence understanding the true nature of reality is necessary for liberation; (2)

right resolve—after understanding the causes of suffering, one needs to intend to change

them; (3) right speech—one's words should be used only constructively, not

destructively; one's speech should be honest and nonviolent; (4) right action—one should

act in nondestructive, nonviolent ways; (5) right livelihood—one's livelihood should not

involve harm to others, sentient beings, or the environment; (6) right effort—one should

recognize that this path is not easy and requires work; one needs to replace negative

emotions by positive ones, selfish motivations by selfless ones, unwholesome mental

states by wholesome ones; (7) right mindfulness—this creates self-awareness, essential

for combating aggression and negative motivations; and (8) right concentration—

meditation and stillness allow deeper insights. The Eight-Fold Path underscores how

ethics is essential to eliminate suffering.

Virtue Ethics

In philosophy, virtue ethics concerns one's character. Beyond analyzing the causes of

immorality, Buddhist ethics proffers positive reasons to behave ethically and to resist

unethical tendencies. There are four cardinal virtues: loving kindness, compassion,

sympathetic joy, and equanimity. These are incompatible with their opposites and serve

as antidotes to their negative counterparts. Loving kindness, the aspiration for another's

well-being, is incompatible with hatred for others. Compassion, the hope that others be

free from suffering, is incompatible with cruelty. Sympathetic joy, the ability to truly

rejoice in another's success, is incompatible with envy. Equanimity, being serene and of

an even mind, helps dissolve desire and aversion. Cultivating these virtues, then, is an

important part of Buddhist morality. Practicing virtues leads to thinking about others,

identifying with others, and experiencing selflessness. Considering the positive effects of

these virtues, we can see that by helping others one also helps oneself.

Ethical Precepts

Buddhist ethics also includes a normative component, and there are several sets of

precepts governing action. Five basic precepts pertain to the lay person: no killing, no

stealing, no lying, no sexual misconduct, and no intoxication. Additional sets of 8 and 10

precepts guide lay persons in deepening their practice. There are over 200 precepts for

monastic life.

Classification of Buddhist Ethics

Buddhist ethics is an ethics of enlightenment and compassion. As a nonauthoritarian

philosophy, clinging to scriptures or theory is viewed negatively. Truth can only be

attained by one's own authority. Tolerance follows this antifundamentalist approach, with

wisdom and compassion inseparably linked. In contrast, in Aristotle, for instance,

morality is a means to an end, to happiness. The Buddhist concept of nirvana as a moral

state indicates that morality is not merely a means to enlightenment but an end in itself as

a feature of enlightenment.

Buddhist Economics

Economic teachings are scattered throughout the Buddhist scriptures. ―Right livelihood‖

is one of the requirements of the Eight-Fold Path. In applying the principles of

nonviolence and not harming others, right livelihood means that one should refrain from

making one's living through any profession bringing harm to people, sentient beings, or

the environment. Therefore, the Buddha denounced professions that trade in weapons,

drugs, or poisons; violate human beings; or kill animals. It follows that Buddhist

economics cannot be a discipline separate from other aspects of life, notably from

Buddhist ethics. Economics becomes a subset of morality and a normative social science,

with moral considerations providing the framework for economic thought. From this

perspective, and given the principle of interdependence, economic decisions cannot be

made without taking into consideration individuals, society, and the environment. One

cannot consider costs alone. If economic decisions are made solely on the basis of profit

and loss, they become the source of social and environmental problems rather than

positive solutions.

Given the goal in Buddhist philosophy of liberation, well-being cannot be defined by

consumption or the accumulation of goods. Nevertheless, Buddhism is by no means

adverse to wealth. On the contrary, wealth prevents poverty, about which the Buddha

claims that hunger is the greatest illness. The concept of the middle way rejects the

extremes of poverty or seeking riches for their own sake. Moderation, simplicity,

nonviolence, and nonexploitation are the watchwords for economic activity, and the

accumulation of wealth must also be carried out without violating any of the five precepts

against killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, and taking intoxicants. Being born into

wealth is considered the result of good karma, and wealth provides an opportunity to

practice generosity. Sharing wealth supports individual well-being and the community.

The goal of liberation implies that wealth is only a means to an end. If greed, craving, and

attachment cause suffering and if one's attitude toward wealth includes these dispositions,

wealth will bring suffering rather than enjoyment or solutions to the problem of suffering.

In addition, economic activity motivated by greed will yield different results than when

motivated by the desire for well-being. Greed leads to overconsumption and needless

accumulation of goods, whereas the desire for well-being leads to moderation, balance,

and sustainability. Distinctions between right and wrong consumption and use follow,

given these attitudes toward wealth and its pursuit.

Buddhist philosophy consistently addresses the motivation behind human activity, and in

the end the causes of suffering, unethical behavior, and immoral economic activity are

the same. Thus, ethics and economics are integrated through causal analysis and

consequently provide guidelines that aim at both individual and social transformation.

Business Ethics

Although Buddhist philosophy was forged during an agricultural era and before the rise

of modern capitalism, the main tenets of Buddhist theory are applicable to business ethics

today. From a Buddhist perspective, practical questions pose themselves for people

engaged in business and commercial activities. Given the principle of right livelihood and

that certain trades are denounced altogether, the first question one has to ask is what is

being produced? For example, from a Buddhist point of view, there is no way to morally

justify a multibillion-dollar weapons industry (enabling war, massacres, genocide, and

other atrocities). The second question that arises is how is the product being produced?

Does it involve harm to people, sentient beings, or the environment? Then, given the

principle of interdependence, because businesses are integral parts of the community,

decision making cannot be reduced to profits without considering the impact on people

and the environment. Moreover, given that materialism is not the ultimate goal in

Buddhism but only a means to an end, profits cannot be considered in isolation; they

ought to be subservient to the moral path rather than dominate and compromise it.

Finally, the goal in Buddhism is to eliminate suffering, so allowing businesses to profit

while exploiting people and polluting the environment increases the amount of suffering

and is counterproductive to the overall goal.