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    Boehm flutes

    19th century Boehm flutes

    Introduction

    The conical Boehm flute (1832) The cylindrical Boehm flute (1847)

    Early modifications to the conical Boehm

    The German model and the French model cylindrical Boehm

    An English and an American Boehm flute

    The spread of the Boehm flute

    Introduction

    heobald Boehm (17941881) was a goldsmith, engineer, and musician (both performer and composer). He

    ursued and made contributions in all these fields. In the late 1820's he (with Rudolph Greve) manufactured fine

    mple system instruments with eight or nine keys. About twenty years later (1847), we find him making all-metal

    utes of a very different nature.

    he Boehm flute used today all over the world is in many ways the same instrument that was created in 1847 in

    oehm's Munich workshop. The net effect of his work was the overthrow of the design principles of the old flute

    conical bore, closed-standing keys, six open holes under the fingers) and the institution of new, rational and

    ogical principles (cylindrical bore with large holes in acoustically correct positions, open-standing keys, and a

    ophisticated mechanism). This was not just 'evolution', but 'revolution'. The result was almost a new kind of

    nstrument. In fact, it was argued by some that the character of the Boehm flute was differentthat it was no

    onger had the charm or effect of the 'true flute'. There would be much resistance to it in some places and by some

    ndividuals.

    his revolutionary design change did not happen all at once. There were numerous experiments by Boehm and

    thers over many years. Boehm freely incorporated available mechanical and acoustic ideas. But only Boehm had

    he courage to throw out the entire old system and start overwhile at the same time having the engineering know-

    ow to produce something that actually worked.

    his is a survey of types and features of 19th century Boehm flutes. Development of the Boehm flute in the 20thentury is beyond the scope of this web site and will not be considered here.

    oehm made his first flute, a four-key flute, in 1810. His Munich flute workshop was established in 1828. The

    mple system flutes he produced then were light and agile, had small holes, and had easy and bright high notes

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    Conical Boehm flute (1832 model) from Boehm's 1847 pamphlet

    Conical Boehm flute (1832 model) by T. Boehm (Munich, c.1840), from a DCM Collection postcard

    Conical Boehm flute (1832 model) by Rudall & Rose (London, c.183847), DCM Collection #0890

    Conical Boehm flute (1832 model with Dorus G#) by C. Godfroy, an (Paris, c.1845)

    hown above is an illustration of Boehm's 1832 model flute and three flutes similar to it. The Boehm and Rudall &

    ose are in the Dayton C. Miller Collection at the Library of Congress. Shown below are three conical Boehm

    utes from late in the 19th century.

    Top to bottom: conical Boehm flutes by (1) L. Lot (Paris, c.1882),

    (2) J. M. Brger (Strasbourg, c.1890), and (3) G. Cloos (New York, c.1900)

    is not easy to see in the photographs, but the later flutes differs in mechanism in several ways (e.g. axles have

    een moved to one side, Bbthumb key added, modernized foot) from the 1832 model flutes.

    Here is the illustration of the conical Boehm flute from Louis Dorus'L'Etude de la Nouvelle Flte(Paris, c.1840),

    ne of the very first method books for the new flute.

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    he Godfroy flute shown above, made shortly afterwards, matches this illustration very well. Compare, for

    xample, the Godfroy foot joint with the illustration.

    oehm had to design a mechanism to allow the nine available fingers to govern the fourteen tone holes. This is

    where his engineering expertise was invaluable. His mechanism made use of ring keys mounted on rods or axles.

    Keys mounted on sleeves rotating on post-mounted axles had already appeared on his earlier simple system flutes;

    ee the illustration of the Boehm and Greve flute above.)

    C. Godfroy, an (Paris, c.1845)

    he ring keys serve to allow a finger to close two holes at once, both the hole surrounded by the ring key and

    nother one further up the tube. The photo above shows the finger holes for the right hand on the early conicaloehm flute by Godfroy. There is also a hole under the key cup on the left (the F# key, over the G hole). The holes

    re labeled by the names of the notes they produce (when they are open and the holes above are closed). Three ring

    eys are visible, over the holes for RH1, RH2, and RH3. The key and the three ring keys are normally up, but

    when any of the F#, F, or E holes are covered, the F# key is automatically closed. The ring keys for the F and E

    oles are rigidly attached to the same metal sleeve that the F# key is mounted on, while the ring key for the F# hole

    ansfers motion to the F# key with a vaulted finger-like lever which presses the middle of the key cup (over the G

    ole). See the photo above, and also see the photo comparing the Godfroy and Lot axles in the section on early

    modifications below.

    n designing his mechanism, Boehm included one fingering for each note. He did not plan for the use of amultitude of alternate fingerings as advocated by flutists such as A. B. Frstenau of Dresden. A very important

    oal for Boehm was simplicity of the mechanism. He intended the flute to be tuned in equal temperment and for

    he most part saw no need for sensitive fingerings.

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    he tone holes could be made larger on a cylinder (the tone holes on a conical body could not be larger than the

    ore), so large that they could not easily be covered by thin fingers. Boehm's very first model still used ring keys,

    ut soon all holes were covered with solid key cups and pads (though ring keys occur sporadically for a few more

    ecades).

    he holes are still mostly uniform in size, and the space between them gradually increases as the holes move away

    rom the top. The main exception is the C# hole at the extreme left, which is very small as it had to be put much

    igher than its 'scientifically correct position' for several reasons (e.g. it had to serve as a vent hole for the d'''). The

    esulting tone and sharpness of c''# remains one of the few defects on the Boehm flute. Otherwise, Boehm was

    leased with the tone. It is flexible, but tends to be much richer, especially in the low notes, than the conical bore

    ute.

    he octaves will not be perfectly in tune on a completely cylindrical flute. For an extreme example of this

    henomenon, consider the renaissance flute. Because of its small diameter cylindrical bore and small tone holes,

    he octaves are very narrow. The a'' and b'' are so flat when one attempts to play them by overblowing the first

    ctave that different fingerings must be used in the second. It is true that with larger holes and bore, as on many

    ylindrical ethnic flutes, and with proper cork placement and perhaps adjustments by the player, the first twoctaves are pretty well in tune. But Boehm had to make a flute to play three octaves, because that is what the flute

    music of his time required.

    oehm's solutionto getting all three octaves in tunewas to put a taper in the head joint. This cannot be seen

    xternally on a wooden head, but is evident on a metal head.

    oehm's prescription was to taper the head from 19 mm (the diameter of the body) to 17 mm at the cork stopper on

    he left of the embouchure hole. The taper is often described as 'parabolic'. But this is just suggestive of the shape.

    very maker would use whatever curve they thought gave the best solution or compromise to the tuning problems,

    ather than following the exact equation that describes a precise mathematical 'paraboloid of revolution'. Even

    raight sides have been used, making the head a truncated cone.

    oehm's first cylindrical flutes were metal. (Metal tubes had been tried before, but not for full sized flutes.) The

    hotos below were taken from a postcard from the Dayton C. Miller Collection in the Library of Congress.

    Boehm cylindrical flute Number 1 (1847)

    Boehm and Mendler cylindrical flute (1877)

    Notice that the mechanism of Number 1 (the tube is brass) is almost identical with that on Boehm's 1832 model.

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    osts to support the rods and sleeves on which keys were mounted were usually just screwed into the wood on

    onical Boehm flutes. A method for attaching the posts that became common on cylindrical Boehm flutes was to

    older the posts to 'ribs', which were then attached to the body of the flute (soldered to metal flutes, screwed into

    wooden flutes). These ribs can be seen in part in the following view of a wooden Boehm flute by Mnnig (Leipzig,

    1900).

    wo-part tuning headsof the type used on simple system flutes are never found on cylindrical Boehm flutes

    ecause the taper in the head makes this impractical. Tuning a Boehm flute to a certain pitch can be done, over a

    mited range, by extracting the head joint a small amount, just as on any flute. This required no special

    onstruction on a metal flute; the tenon and socket between the head and body could be made fairly long anderved as a tuning slide. On the wooden flute, an arrangement that may be called the 'French slide', where the tenon

    t into the space between the lining of the socket and an inner metal tube, eliminates a gap in the inner wall when

    he head is extracted a small amount. We use this term because this arrangement was often used on French simple

    ystem flutes (but not on on other simple system flutes).

    Socket and tenon on the Boehm flute by Meinell shown below

    he Boehm flute resists adjusting to different pitch standards. In general, to change the pitch of a flute, one must

    djust the hole spacing as well as the head joint length. (Players of the old flute were used to adjusting to correct

    ntonation of various notes, and so they may have been more tolerant of changes caused by extracting the head

    oint.) In any case, some Boehm flutists today believe it best to have different flutes for playing at pitches as closes A=442 and A=440. Some 19th century makers attempted to make a Boehm flute play at two different pitches by

    roviding two head joints, as shown below.

    Boehm flute by W. R. Meinell (New York, c.1890)

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    he two head joints on this flute differ in sounding length by 12 mm. With the different heads, the flute plays at

    lose to the pitches A=452 and A=439 called 'old philharmonic pitch' and 'new philharmonic pitch' in London at

    he end of the 19th century. It is amazing that the flute works at both these pitches, although it does work better,

    specially in the extreme high notes, with the longer head joint. Perhaps the tapers in the head joints are somewhat

    ifferent.

    he cork stopper was essentially the same as on the old flute. The area in which the cork fits was cylindrical, so

    hat the cork could be moved for tuning or cleaning. Boehm actually says that the cork should be removed after

    ach playing session so that the head can be swabbed out. (No one does that today.)

    Cork assembly on the Boehm flute by Meinell

    Early modifications to the conical Boehm

    was French and English players and makers who first took interest in the new Boehm flute. The 1832 system

    ute was manufactured by A. Buffet in Paris and C. Ward in London in the late 1830s, and in 1843 Boehm

    ormally arranged that it be made by Rudall and Rose in London and C. Godfroy in Paris. (Boehm's own workshop

    was closed in 1839, as he had other concerns.)

    arly innovations, included in Buffet's 1839 patent, were the addition of a trill key for trills with upper note d''# or

    ''#, and the introduction of needle springs. Boehm had used only flat springs (leaf springs). The Godfroy flute

    ses both types. The photos show two needle springs on the Dorus G# key (see below) and a flat spring on the D#

    ey.

    Needle springs under the axles of a Dorus G# key a flat spring under the touch of the D# key

    he needle springs facilitated the moving of all axles to the inner side of the flute. This Godfroy flute is still of the

    ld style, with axles on both sides, but the later Lot (on the right below) shows the change.

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    Left: Godfroy (c.1845) Right: Lot (c.1882)

    his move makes holding the flute more comfortable and secure. The ring keys on the Godfroy, for example, stand

    t different angles to the flute body, depending on which side they are mounted on, and this requires getting used

    o. The move to the inner side also eliminates the need for the delicate and easily damaged finger-like levers or

    aulted clutches' that press into the centers of the Bband F# key flaps. (These allowed ring kings mounted on onede to control key cups mounted on the other side.)

    A 'vaulted clutch' on the Godfroy

    oehm used one C hole (for c'' and c''') under the flute, but for some reason not really understood, the French

    makers began to use two smaller holes, both controlled by the same key. Two pads are visible on the B thumb key

    f the Godfroy, shown below. (There is no Bbthumb key on this instrument, or on Boehm's original 1832 model.)

    The B key on the Godfroy, showing two C holes

    A significant modification to the open-standing key system was made by 1838. The Boehm flute required several

    hanges in fingering. And among the changes was the fingering of G#. On the old simple system flute, the first

    hree fingers of the left hand were placed on their holes, producing a G, and then LH4 pressed the closed-standing

    G# key to open a hole and raise the pitch. Because of Boehm's open key system, putting the first three fingers of

    he right hand down produced G#, and for the G, it was necessary for RH4 to press the open-standing G# key to

    lose a hole. In part from simple prejudice by those who knew the old system, this reversal was seen as a serious

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    mpediment to facility and to adoption of the instrument. The Dorus G# keyrestored the closed G# key and the old

    ngerings of G and G#. The idea for this G# key (or, more accurately, G# key assembly) is due to Louis Dorus,

    who collaborated with Godfroy and Lot. The key appeared on Boehm flutes by Buffet by 1838.

    The open G# key on Boehm's flute (left) and the Dorus G# key (right)

    he Dorus assembly relies on two opposing needle springs (shown earlier). When well adjusted, the Dorus key

    works well enough. Closed G# keys (though usually of the 'duplicate G# hole' variety introduced c.1860; see

    elow and here) have been in general use in France ever since, and are found on most of the flutes in the worldoday. A disadvantage of all forms of closed G# keys is that they require additional mechanism and damagethe

    peech of high e''', unless extra additional mechanism is used to correct thatproblem. So it goes against Boehm's

    deal of simplicity of mechanism as well as compromising the logic of the open key system.

    he more modern foot joint construction seen on the Lot, Brger, and Cloos flutes is already found in the 1850s.

    he Briccialdi Bblever, or key, allows the left hand thumb to finger Bb. R. S. Rockstro, in his treatiseof 1890,

    ates unambiguously that it was an invention of Giulio Briccialdi, and that it was first applied by Rudall & Rose in

    ondon to a cylindrical wooden flute made by Godfroy. But flute #0890 in the Dayton C. Miller Collection of

    utes in the Library of Congress (shown near the top of this page) is a conical Boehm flute by Rudall & Rose

    amped with the address that the firm used from 1838 to 1847, and it is equipped with a 'Briccialdi Bblever',

    ccording to the library's documentation. There is always the chance that the device was added sometime after the

    ute was built, so Rockstro's story may be OK.

    oehm's fingering for Bbrequired the addition of RH1 to the B fingering (with LH1 and the thumb). This is

    ometimes called the 'one-and-one' fingering. With a Briccialdi lever, the left hand thumb can move slightly

    owards the head of the flute and that will close the B hole; it is not necessary to use RH1. In the photo below, we

    ee the modern form of the Briccialdi Bbkey at the Brger flute on the bottom. An alternative form is seen on the

    ot flute in the middle; the thumb is placed on the left touch to produce Bb, and the right touch to produce B.

    here is no Bbthumb key on the Godfroy at the top of the photo.

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    Conical Boehm flutes by, top to bottom, Godfroy, Lot, Brger

    oehm at first probably considered the Briccialdi Bbkey unneccesary. It required extra mechanism. One Bb

    ngering was enough, he may have thought; one should learn to use that one. Still, Boehm and other German

    makers eventually recognized the utility of a thumb Bbkey. They did not use the Briccialdi design, but contrived

    ther thumb key assemblies. See the next section.

    The German model and the French model cylindrical Boehm

    here are differences in the mature instruments made in Munich by Boehm and Mendler in the 1860's, 70's, and

    0's, and those made in Paris by the Godfroy and Lot workshops during the same period. While gladly accepting

    mprovements such as needle springs and a D# trill key, Boehm did not approve of those French modifications that

    eemed illogical or unnecessary to him, e.g. the closed G# key. Many makers took up manufacturing the Bohem

    ute later in the 19th century. The French manufacturers continued to favor the Lot model, while German

    manufacturers continued to follow Boehm's ideas. It will be convenient to distinguish two archetypes: the German

    modeland the French modelBoehm flute.

    Top: French model Boehm flute by A. Bonneville (Paris, c.1912)

    Bottom: German model Boehm flute by W. R. Meinell (New York, c.1890)

    he German model (from e.g. the Boehm and Mendler workshop)

    was often (but not always) made of wood

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    had an open G# key

    had 'reversed' thumb keys, with the touch for Bbbelow that for B

    had a side lever for B, and the C/B trill

    had normal ('plateau') key cups and pads

    had 'offset' G# and G holes.

    often was provided with a 'crutch' (thumbrest)

    sometimes has a 'schleifklappe' (whisper key)

    he French model (from e.g. the Godfroy and Lot workshops)

    was often (but not always) made of metal

    had a closed G# key

    had a Briccialdi Bbkey assembly

    had a side lever for A#, and the B/A# trill

    had five perforated key cups and pads, with 'French arms' on the other keys

    had 'inline' G# and G holes.

    his distinction between German and French models is an oversimplification (for example, Boehm produced manymetal flutes and Lot many wooden flutes), but it will be useful as a basis for us to discuss certain mechanical

    eatures and differences. Nineteenth century English and American makers produced various styles of Boehm

    utes, usually including options from both of these lists, so their flutes can be said to lie between these two

    xtremes.

    Most flute players around the world today play French model Boehm flutes.

    he French model has a closed G# key. The Dorus G# key, however, was supplanted in the 1860's by another type

    f G# key that was found more reliable. The key for RH3 closes both the A hole and G# hole, producing G. A

    losed-standing key for RH4 may be pressed to open a secondG# hole under the flute. This may be seen on theeft below and here.

    Closed G# key on a French model flute open G# on a German model flute

    he French and English quickly adopted the Briccialdi Bbkey. Boehm thought it was not logical, because the

    humb moved up (towards the head) to produce a lower note. The photographs below show the Briccialdi thumb

    ey on a French model flute and the thumb Bbkey arrangements on two German model flutes. The assembly onhe right is sometimes called 'reversed thumb keys' by those used to the Briccialdi arrangement; the thumb on the

    eft touch gives B and on the right touch gives Bb.

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    Bbthumb key assemblies on a French model and two German model flutes

    Left to right: Bonneville, Mnnig, Meinell

    he arrangement in the middle, on the Mnnig flute, is the one Boehm himself prefered. Perhaps it seemed closer

    o his ideal of simplicity of mechanism. The thumb on the left touch gives B. For Bb, one must close the tear-drop

    haped touch with the side of the thumb without releasing the touch of the B key; both must be pressed. (This is

    milar to the thumb keys on the Carte 1851 system.)

    he writer prefers the reversed thumb keys, but has been told that the Briccialdi arrangement is mechanically moreolid.

    he key cups and pads of the German model flute are normal, solid flaps that let the finger cover the large holes. In

    he 1850's, French makers introduced key cups and pads that were 'perforated', i.e. had a hole in the center. These

    were used for the five keys where fingers (LH2, LH3, RH1, RH2, RH3) are directly above holes. These perforated

    eys might remind one of ring keys, but they had annular pads that covered a substantial amount of the hole

    whereas a ring key did not cover the hole. To fully close the hole under the key, one must press in the center of the

    ey so as to close the perforation completely with the finger. Sealing the perforation with the finger requires some

    xtra attention and effort. The advantage of the perforated key is that one can close just the rim, and perhaps part

    f the perforation as well, with the finger, and so thereby achieve some effects not otherwise available.

    oday, flutes equipped with the two types of keys are often referred to as 'closed hole' and 'open hole' flutes. It is

    etter to say 'French style' and 'plateau style' flutes or keys, since term 'open hole' is, when one thinks about it, silly

    nd confusing, and it will not be used here. (Holes are always open... until covered.)

    hown below are the five perforated keys of a French model flute. (The orange arrow points to a side lever and the

    lue arrows point to French arms; these will both be discussed shortly.)

    Boehm flute by A. Bonneville (Paris, c.1912)

    he perforated keys allow a number of alternate fingerings. French players of the simple system flute used a large

    umber of sensitive fingeringsto adjust pitch and timbre. This capability was lost to some extent with the Boehm

    ute because the large holes make forked fingerings ineffective and the keys made it impossible to partially cover

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    hole. The number of possible alternate fingerings, including sensitive fingerings, was greatly increased with the

    id of the perforated keys. Alts gives a number of sensitive fingerings in his Grand Method(Paris, 1880) for the

    oehm flute, many of which use the perforations in the keys. The majority of players today, though they may insist

    n playing French model flutes, seem not to use sensitive fingerings or make much use of the perforations at all.

    here are, however, notable players who do exploit the perforations.

    Most if not all Boehm flutes have a 'side lever' to the left of the F# hole and operated by RH1 that is used to play B

    r A# (Bb). Boehm's 1832 model flute already had a similar lever, for B, but in a different place. This does not

    equire much additional mechanism. Boehm's lever, and the side lever on German model flutes, closes the C hole

    nd produces a B when added to the C fingered with LH1. Of course, one can also add the left hand thumb to the C

    ngering to produce B, but it was easier e.g. to trill C/B with the side lever, with its light spring. (There was a key

    or RH1 used for the C/B trill in about the same place on the simple system flute.)

    he French chose to modify the side lever so that it closed the B hole and produced an A# (Bb) when added to the

    fingering with LH1 and the left hand thumb. So it could be used for the B/A# trill. (But it is now used, in very

    many contexts, as a fingering for Bb.) Of course, one can also use RH1 on the F key to alternate B and A#, but it

    was easier e.g. to do this with RH1 with the side lever, with its lighter spring.

    he G and G# holes are slightly 'offset' (moved somewhat out of line with the other keys, to the outer side of the

    ube) on German model flutes. This can be seen on the Meinell flute (but maybe more clearly on the Rudall Carte

    ute further down), while the G and G# holes on the Bonneville below are 'inline'.

    or reasons of elegance and perhaps a little extra strength, the French enhanced the key 'arms' that join the key

    ups of the keys (those without perforations) to the sleeves with a finger-like projection that ends in a point in the

    middle of the cup.

    A 'crutch' or thumb-rest was provided with a German model Boehm flute. This was thought to ease the left hand's

    ole in supporting the flute so that the thumb and fingers could work more freely. Both the Mnnig and Meinellutes have this. The crutch was wooden and T-shaped; one end fit into a holder under the flute and the base fit

    etween the left hand thumb and first finger. Its use was optional. But outside of Germany it was often thought

    seless or even detrimental to freedom of the left hand.

    German model flute by Mnnig (Leipzig, c.1900), showing a crutch and a Schleifklappe

    One extra bit of mechanism that Boehm felt worthwhile was the 'Schleifklappe' (whisper key, or sometimes octave

    ey). It is seen above to the left of the B key on the side of the flute. The thumb could press the touch (while

    eeping the B key closed) to open a small hole (at 'S' above) which would act as a vent hole to improve the speech

    r intonation of a few notes. On this flute, the writer finds it does very slightly sharpen the d''', which can tend to

    e flat on some Boehm flutes; it makes it easier to play d''' piano. On other notes like e''band e'''bon which Boehm

    ecommended its use, it seems to have no discernable effect.

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    An English and an American Boehm flute

    he most important 19th century English manufacturer of Boehm flutes was Rudall Carte & Co. (earlier Rudall &

    ose, then Rudall Rose Carte & Co.). Rudall Carte shipped instruments all over the world, especially to America,

    Australia, and New Zealand.

    elow is a Rudall Carte cylindrical Boehm flute. It has a closed G# key, offset keys, Briccialdi Bb, and a side lever

    or B.

    Boehm flute by Rudall Carte, #2669 (London, 1895) (thanks to Robert Bigio for the photo)

    he English continued to prefer wooden flutes until the middle of the 20th century. Some of Rudall Carte's

    wooden flutes, like this one, were provided with 'thinned heads'; the wood was turned down so that the taper in the

    ead joint is visible. The head joints were metal lined, so the head remained strong. Some players might prefer thealance of a flute with a thinned head.

    he most important 19th century American manufacturer of Boehm flutes was Alfred G. Badger. Below is a

    ylindrical Boehm flute by Badger, in silver. It has a closed G# key, inline keys, Briccialdi Bb, and a side lever for

    .

    Boehm flute by Alfred G. Badger (New York, c.1880)

    adger was involved in making conical Boehm flutes by c.1845, and made cylindrical flutes after 1847. He

    worked primarily in silver. Many of his flutes have two head joints, the second head joint being ebonite but of the

    ame pitch as the silver head joint.

    A number of flutes by Badger have a Bb-foot, as this one does. The touch of the low Bb(A#) key is given to LH4

    nd can be seen on the left of the photo below, next to the G# key.

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    he American poet Sidney Lanier was interested in flutes with extended low range and collaborated with Badger

    who also published some of Lanier's music). Lanier's Wind Songfor unaccompanied flute has several low A#'s,

    nd the above flute by Badger is one of the few Boehm flutes that can play it without changes.

    The low Bb's appearing in some symphonies of Mahler were surely intended for long Viennese simple systemutes, where this Bbextension was not rare, and notfor Boehm flutes. I don't know of any 19th century German

    oehm flutes with a Bbfoot.)

    adger's flutes are very fine, the equal of any European flutes. They all seem to be pitched very high, about

    A=455, and have fallen out of use since they cannot be played at modern pitch. Perhaps this is why too few know

    is name today.

    Unlike Badger, most American makers in the late 19th century made Boehm flutes of wood, and mostly in the

    German style. Many flute makers, like Meinell, were German immigrants. The dominance of the German model

    ute in wood changed after the immigration of several eminent French flutists at the turn of the century. A bookletublished in 1925 by the Haynes firm states "A few years ago, the Wm. S. Haynes Company was constructing

    inety-nine wooden flutes as opposed to one of silver. During 1924 the output of the company was 100% silver."

    The spread of the Boehm flute

    is a mistake to assume that the flute sound of the second half of the 19th century was that of the Boehm flute just

    ecause the instrument originated before then. The speed at which the Boehm flute spread depends what locations

    nd context we are talking about. If one means professional circles in Paris, one might say Boehm flute spreadelatively quickly. If we consider e.g. professional dance bands, or even many major orchestras in Germany, we

    hould say the Boehm flute spread slowly.

    One should not forget that the Boehm flute was very expensive in the 19th century. It is true that the fanciest

    mple system flutes cost about as much as a Boehm system flute from many manufacturers c.1900, but one could

    btain fine professional quality old system flutes (just not so fancy) for much less. See the prices in old catalogs.

    he change to the Boehm system in Paris was indeed relatively quick. By 1860, the Boehm flute had been adopted

    y the Paris Conservatoire. J.-L. Tulou (17861865), a staunch defender of the old system, had retired the previous

    ear and Louis Dorus (18121896) had taken his old position. The French model flute (see above) in silver isrongly associated with the `French Flute School' that begun with Dorus and his student Claude Taffanel.

    he Boehm system had a tremendous influence in London. As described elsewhere, it motivated the introduction

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    f numerous 'hybrid systems'(Carte's system, Radcliff system, etc.) and 'improvements' (e.g. Rockstro's model).

    he Boehm flute and the cylindrical bore hybrid systems sounded pretty much the same, and were all considered

    modern flutes'. By the 1860's, all important London flutists were playing modern flutes.

    n 1889, R. S. Rockstro seems to indicate that Boehm flutes were rare in Germany, while complaining about the

    ariants in use in England: "In justice to the consistency of our Continental neighbours it should be mentioned that

    while we [the English] have been too prone to vacillation between the old, the new, and the pseudo-old systems,

    he French have been generally loyal to the [Boehm flute]..., and the Germans have, with equal pertinacity,

    dhered to the old flute, pure and simple."

    he resistance to the Boehm flute in Germany is explained by W. S. Broadwood, in the introduction to the 1882

    nglish version of Boehm's pamphlet (Essay on the Construction of Flutes): "...certain German conductors appear

    o have considered that the Boehm flute does not take its proper place in the graduation of 'wood' instruments,

    which, commencing with the bassoon, culminates in the piccolo. In power and breadth of tone, sometimes also in

    uality, it approaches too near the clarinet to give the balance of tone, which writerslike, for instance, Mozart

    whose minute appreciation of the characteristics of each instrument is very striking)would seem to have aimed

    t."

    eonardo De Lorenzo relates several anecdotes that imply the Boehm flute was not common in at least some parts

    f Italy circa 1900. For example, he studied composition with a Maestro De Nardis at the Naples Conservatory,

    who expressed a wish to hear hisflauto moderno, De Lorenzo says, since the maestro had never seen or heard a

    oehm flute (this was in 1907).

    n 1906, Adolph Goldberg, a Berlin silk hose millionaire and flute enthusiast, privately published a collection of

    hotographs of flutists. Originally on cards, the collection was reprinted in book format by Moeck in 1987 as

    ortrts und Biographien hervorragender Flten-Virtuosen, -Dilettanten, und -Komponisten. Only about 30% of

    he 409 flute players are depicted holding instruments, but it would appear from this collection thatby 1906the

    oehm flute was well on its way to eclipsing all other systems among orchestral flutists. We will report on thisollection in greater detail elsewhere. Only flutists working in Germany and Eastern Europe (disregarding two old

    layers) hold conical flutes in the photographs (twelve simple system flutes and six reform flutes). But even in

    hose regions, one finds more Boehm flutes; a quick count yields 36 Boehm flutes, 31 wood and five silver. Use

    are about concluding too much from this collection, however. We do not know how Goldberg chose the photos

    nd whether this is a truly random sample of flutists. Goldberg himself was a Boehm flutist and that he presented

    xamples in gold to several distinguished performers he knew and admired.

    hanks to Susan Maclagan for suggestions about exposition on this page.

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