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BOTANY PROJECT WORK
MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR UNEFULNESS
NAME :
REG. No. :
STD :
ZOOLOGY PROJECT WORK
BLOOD GROUPS AND BLOOD SMEAR
NAME :
REG. No. :
STD :
MEDICINAL PLANTSAND
THEIR UNEFULNESS
BLOOD GROUPS
BLOOD SMEAR
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is the Bonafide work of the student in the
department of Botany by Name _________________________________
Class ________________ Register Number ______________ for the Project
Report the Academic year 2006-2007.
Subject Teacher Principal Date Date
External ExaminerDate
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to all respectable teachers for
their encouragement.
I extent my thanks to all my friends and classmates who held me in
this endeavour.
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is the Bonafide work of the student in the
department of Zoology by Name ________________________________
Class ________________ Register Number ______________ for the Project
Report the Academic year 2006-2007.
Subject Teacher Principal Date Date
External ExaminerDate
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to all respectable teachers for
their encouragement.
I extent my thanks to all my friends and classmates who held me in
this endeavour.
CONTENT
BLOOD GROUPS
Introduction
ABO blood groups in human beings
The presence of Antigens and Antibodies
Compatibility of donor blood to that of the recipient blood.
Genes determine the Human blood groups.
Relationship between cellular antigens antibodies and Genotypes.
Disputed parentage and blood groups
Rh Factor
Rh antibody.
CONTENT
BLOOD SMEAR
Introduction
Plasma
Formed Elements of Blood.
Red Blood corpuscles (or) RBC
White Blood corpuscles or WBC
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes
Blood plateles or Thrombocytes
Functions of Blood.
BLOOD SMEAR
Blood is the fluid tissue. It is reddish in colour when flowing in the blood
vessels. Adult human contains about 5 litres of blood. The blood is formed of
two components namely a fluid components called Plasma and a Cellular
component called formed elements.
PLASMA
Plasma is the liquid portion of blood out of a 5 litres of blood 3.5 litres
are Plasma. It contains 90% water and the remaining 10% is formed of organic
and inorganic substances.
There are about 200-300 gm of Plasma proteins present in the total
volume of blood. They are of four different varieties, namely:
1. Serum Albumin
2. Serum Globulin
3. Fibrinogen and
4. Prothrombin
FORMED ELEMENTS OF BLOOD:
There are three types of cellular elements namely:
1. Red blood corpuscles (or) RBC
2. White blood Corpuscles (or) WBC
3. Platelets
RED BLOOD CORPUSCLES (OR) RBC:
The red blood corpuscles are otherwise called erythrocytes.
A human erythrocyte is a non nucleated cell having the form of a
biconcave disc.
A single erythrocyte contains 30gm of haemoglobin.
The number of erythrocytes per C4 mm differs in different animals.
The normal average cell count of erythrocyte in adult male is about 5
million and in female 4.5 million per cubic millimeter blood.
Each RBC is composed of an envelope and a spongy elastic substance
called stroma.
Inside the meshes of the stroma is present the Iron pigment haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is conjugated protein composed of a protein part globin and
a non-protein pigment haem.
Haem is an iron containing porphyrin.
HAEMOGLOBIN MOLECULE
Hame Hame
Hame Hame
On combining with oxygen, haemoglobin, is converted to
oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2). Oxyhaemoglobin after giving out its Oxygen is
called reduced haemoglobin (Hb).
The erythrocytes develop from the bone marrow of vertebrates and so the
bone marrow is described as the cradle of RBC.
The life span of circulating human blood is around 120 days and therefore
0.83% of erythrocyte cell mass is renewed every day in man.
RBC’s are disintegrated in the spleen so the spleen is said to be the grave
yard for red cells.
WHITE BLOOD CORPUSCLES (or) (WBC)
The white blood corpuscles are otherwise called Leucocytes. The
Leucocytes differ from the erythrocytes in the following aspects.
1. They have no haemoglobin.
2. They are bigger in size.
3. They are nucleated and amoeboid.
Globin
4. They are much less in number and their life span is longer.
5. There are several varieties and they have different functions.
The average total number ofWBC is 6000 – 8000 per cubic mm of blood and
average ration of WBC to RBC works out to 1:600.
There are several varieties of Leucocytes. Leucocytes are of two main
types:
1. Granulocytes and
2. A Granulocytes.
WBC
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
1. Neutrophils 2. Eosinophils, 3. Basophils
1. Lymphocytes 2. Monocytes
GRANULOCYTES:
Granulocytes are produced in the bone marrow and of three types, namely
neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.
The increase of granulocytes in the blood is called granulocytosis.
Dimunution of granulocytes is called granulocytopenia and complete
disappearance of granulocytes is known as agranulocytosis. They are of the
following type;
1. Neutrophils (or) Scavenger cells:
These are about 79% of the total Leucocyte count. They show amoeboid
movement. When they come across the bacteria, they are engulfed by a process
termed phagocytosis. The absolute number of neutrophil is 3000-6000 per cu
mm.
2. EOSINOPHILS:
These are about 1-4% of the total Leucocyte count. The nucleus is two or
three lobed. They increase during allergic conditions. The eosinophils are
amoeboid but not phagocytic.
The important functions of eosinophils are to bring about destruction and
detoxification of toxin of protein origin.
3. BASOPHILS:
Basophils are about 0.4% of the total Leucocytes count. The nucleus is
lobed and the cytoplasm contains granules of various sizes. Basophil has some
possible role in local anticoagulation and formation of ground substance.
4. AGRANULOCYTES:
Agranulocytes are produced in the Lymphnodes and spleen, and are of
two types; Lymphocytes and monocytes.
5. LYMPHOCYTES:
These are about 25-30% of the total Leucocyte count and their absolute
number is 1500 to 2700 per cu mm. They have a large nucleus compared to the
size of cytoplasm.
6. MONOCYTES:
They are large leucocytes forming about 5-10% of the total leucocyte
count. The nuclic are horse-shoe shaped. They are mofile and have the power of
engulfing bacteria.
BLOOD PLATELES (OR) THROMBOCYTES
Thromobocytes belong to another type of formed elements in the blood.
They have no nucleus. The number of platelets in human blood vacies from
250,000-450,000 per cu mm. The average life span of platelets is about 5-9
days.
They are produced in the megakarya lytes on the bone marrow and are
destroyed in the spleen and other reticuloendo thelial cells.
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
Blood carries oxygen from the lung to the tissues and CI2 from the
tissues back to the lungs.
It transports the hormones from the endo crine glands to the target organs.
With the help of the plasma proteins, it maintains a constant PH.
It helps in maintaining the water balance of the body.
It maintains the body temperature by transporting the heat from the
interior of the body to the surface.
It prevents its own loss by means of the clotting mechanism.
It transports water products to the kidneys, and to the sweat glands for
excretion.
BLOOD GROUPS
Human blood contains certain specific substances called antigens and anti
bodies. These Chemicals differ from one person to other. Based on this human
blood is divided in to many groups. The important blood groups discovered are
ABO groups, Rh groups and MN groups.
A B O BLOOD GROUPS IN HUMAN BEINGS
The ABO blood group system in human beings was established by
K.LANDSTEINER in 1900. It is based on the presences or absence of certain
antigens.
There can be two antigens A or B in the blood, resulting in four blood
groups. Namely A,B,AB,O. These are called ABO blood groups or Landsteiner
blood groups.
The inheritance of a person having A group will have the antigen A and
a person having B group will have the antigen B with these antigens A and B
there are certain naturally occurring antibodies in the serum of the blood. The
antibodies in a particular individual will be found only for those antigens which
are absent in blood of this individual.
THE PRESENCE OF ANTIGENS AND ANTI BODIES OCCUR AS FOLLOWS:
BLOOD GROUPS ANTIGEN ANTIBODY IN THE SERUM
A A anti B
B B anti A
AB A and B None
O None anti A and B
Antibodies in the blood of group ‘A’ will agglutinize red blood
corpuscles of the blood group B. Similarly the antibody in blood group B will
agglutinize red blood corpuscles of the blood group A. Since no antibody is
found in group ‘AB’ blood it will not agglutinize any other group. Group ‘O’
will have antibodies for group A and B. Hence group ‘O’ will agglitinize group
A and B.
COMPATIBILITY OF DONOR BLOOD TO THAT OF THE RECIPIENT
WILL OCCUR AS FOLLOWS:
Blood group of the donor Blood group of the recipient
A A and AB
B B and AB
AB AB
O O,A,B,AB
From the table provided it is obvious that group AB is universal recipient.
Group ‘O’ is universal donor.
GENES DETERMINE THE HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS
The ABO blood groups genes determine the synthesis of polysaccharides
on the surface of red blood corpuscles which are known as antigens (or
agglutinogen
Two district Polysaccharites, ‘A’ and ‘B’ are made, and these are
determined by the alleles IA and IB respectively. I stands for
Isohaemoaglutinin. A third allele Io which is a recessive does not determine
synthesis of either A or B polysaccharides.
A homozygous recessive Io Io individual produces red blood cells lacking
both poly sacharides. Such an individual has type ‘O’ blood.
An IA IA homozygous or an IAIo heterozygous individual has type ‘A’
blood since these two individuals can synthesis polysaccharide ‘A’. Like wise
an IBIB or an IBIO individual has type ‘B’ blood since they produce
polysaccharide ‘B’.
The IAIB heterozygous individual possess both ‘A’ and ‘B’
polysaccharides and hence has type ‘AB’ blood. This is called co-dominance.
The IA IB heterozygous individual possess both ‘A’ and ‘B’
polysaccharides and hence has type ‘AB’ blood. This is called co-dominance.
The ocurence in a population of more than two alleles at a locus such as
IOIO, IBIB is called multiple allele.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CELLULAR ANTIGENS ANTIBODIES AND
GENOTYPES OF THE FOUR PHENOTYPES ABO BLOOD GROUP IS
GIVEN BELOW.
Pheno type RBC antigen
Serum anti bodies
Gene type can give blood to groups
can receive from
groupsA groups A anti-B IAIA (or)
IAIO
A,AB O,A
B group B anti-B IB,IB
(or)IBIO
B,AB O,B
AB group AB - IAIB AB O,A,B,AB
O group - anti-A
and
anti - B
IOIO O,A,B,AB O
DISPUTED PARENTAGE AND BLOOD GROUPS:
The identification of blood group may help to decide in cases concerned
with parentage issues. By knowing the blood groups of parents. It is possible to
determine the possible blood groups in the children. The impossibility of a
particular blood group in the progeny can also be pointed out.
PARENTS BLOOD GROUP IN PROGENY
IMPOSSIBLE BLOOD GROUPS
OxO O A,B,A,B
OxO O,A B,AB
OxB O,B A,AB
OxAB A,B O,AB
AxA A,O B, AB
AxB A,B,AB,O None
AxAB A,B,AB O
BxAB A,B,AB O
ABxAB A,B,AB O
Rh FACTOR:
Landsteiner and Wiener (1940) discovered the existence of a special type
of antigen in the RBC of Rhesus monkey. Since this factor was first discovered
in Rhesus Monkey, it was named thesus factor (or) Rh factor.
The Rh factor is also present in the RBC of some human beings and it is
absent from others. Based on the presence or absence of Rh factor, the human
beings are classified in to two groups. They are Rh positive (Rh+) and Rh
negative (Rh-). The Rh+ person has Rh antigen in the RBC; the Rh- person has
no Rh antigen.
OCCURRENCE:
In the European country 85% of the human beings are Rh+ and the
remaining 15% are Rh-; In India 93% are Rh+ and 7% are Rh-. In China 99.5
are Rh+ and only 0.5% are Rh-.
Rh ANTIBODY:
The Rh antigen has no natural antibody. However, Rh antibody can be
produced artificially. An Rh- person develops Rh antibody when he receives
blood from an Rh+ person. Even a small amount Rh+ blood can evoke the
production of Rh antibody in the Rh- person. The antibody once formed
remains throughout the life.
The presence of Rh+ child in the uterus of the Rh- mother can cause
agglutination in the blood of the fetus. Even though such an unfortunate
incident may not happen in the first pregnancy, it could occur in successive
pregnancies. The death of the fetus in such cases is due to haemolytic anemia.
This disease is called erythroblastosis fetalis.
CONTENT
MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR USEFULNESS
Introduction
Pharmacognosy and Pharmacology
The systems of Medicine
Medicinal plant: NEEM
Morphology
Traditional Uses
Ayurveda
Unani
Homeopathy
Modern use
Medicinal plant: GINGER
Morphology
Traditional
Medicinal Plant: TURMERIC
Morphology
Traditional Use
MEDICINAL PLANTS
INTRODUCTION:
Nature has bestowed on us a very rich botanical wealth. The herbal
wealth of India and knowledge of their Medicinal properties have a long
tradition, as referred to in Rig Veda and other ancient Literature.
Medicinal plants have been the source of many of mankind’s most basic
medicinal therapies, and form the foundation of the modern pharmaceutical
industry.
PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHARMACOLOGY
The branch of science that deals with the study of medicinal or drug
plants, their history, botanical and anatomical, identification, presentation,
extraction and preparation of the drugs from the plants is called pharmacognosy.
The study of the action of the drugs is known as pharmacology.
THE SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE:
The system of medicine, viz Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy
(Ayush) system predominantly use plant based raw materials in most of their
preparations and formulations. Modern medicines also contain atleast 25%
drugs derived from plants. Many drugs are synthetic analogues built on protype
compounds isolated from plants.
The world health organization (WHO) estimated that 80% of the
population of developing countries rely on traditional medicine mostly plant
drugs for their primary health care needs.
Medicinal plants being natural having no side effects offer a range of
safe, cost effective, preventive and curative therapies which could be useful in
achieving the goal of “Health for all” in a cost effective manner.
Demand for medicinal plants is increasing in both developing and
developed countries but 90% material is harvested from wild sources without
applying scientific management.
MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR USEFULNESS:
1. NEEM
Botanical Name : Azadirachta Indica
Family : Meliaceae
Synonym : Melia azadirachta
English Name : Indian lilac, Margosa Tree
Trade Names : Margosa, Neem
MORPHOLOGY
The tree is large, ever green and dense, growing 10-15 meters tall.
Bark dark grey.
Leaves alternate petiolate, imparipinnate.
Flowers in axillary branches, small, white, aromatic, complete and
actinomorphic.
Fruit are green drupaceous berries with single seed and yellow when ripe.
TRADITIONAL USE:
Different parts of this plant are used in the following manner:
Young branch used as tooth-brush.
Gum as stimulant.
Leaf used as antidote to small pox, dried leaves used as insecticide.
Powdered flowers are used as an anthelmintic.
AYURVEDA:
Bark is used as bitter tonic, astringent, antiperiodic and used for liver
pain.
Leaves used for excessive urination associated with itching, blood sugar,
vomiting, acidity, jaundice, intestinal worms.
Flower is used for stomach ache.
Fruits are purgative and anthelmintic.
Seeds oil is used to eradicate ringworm, wounds in gums, rheumatism
and skin disease.
UNANI
Uses similar to Ayurveda system of medicine.
HOMEOPATHY
For control of mind.
Headache and other ailment of eyes, ears, nose, throat, mouth, stomach,
abdomen, genito, urinary organs, chest, nech, fever etc.,
MODERN USE
Antibacterial, antihyperghycacmic and antihelmintic, antiviral,
antineoplastic, antifungal and used to treat wite leprosy, eczema, ringworm,
scabies, dandruft, diabetes, rheumation and skin diseases.
GINGER
Botonical Name : Zingiber officinale
Family : Zingiberaceae
Trade Name : Ginger
MORPHOLOGY:
Ginger is a slender perennial herb 30-100 cm tall with robust branched
rhizome.
Rhizome is the underground stem, tuberous, horizontally growing with is
aromatic and of commercial value.
The Rhizomes is thick and laterally compressed often palmately branched.
Pale yellow within, covered with scale leaves and with fine fibrous roots.
Leaf shoots annuals, erect formed of long leaf sheaths, simple, retolate.
TRADITIONAL USE:
It has carminative and simulative properties hence used as medicine.
Dried ginger paste is used as pain killer and applied on the forehead for
severe headache and externally for sore throat etc.,
The aroma of ginger is pleasant and spicy hence used in the manufacture of
many food producs.
Used in bakery products, confectinary, pickles sauces etc.,
The medical value of ginger lies in its stimulant and carninative properties.
It is a valuable drug administered in dyspe psia, rheumatism, piles, neuralgia,
pulmonary disorders and digestive problems.
The fresh juice of ginger with honey is an excellent medicine and relief for
cough and asthma.
Ginger juice is a good medicine for stomach disorders, mild diarrhoea and
vomiting.
It is also used for veterinary purposes.
TURMERIC
Botanical name : Curcuma domestica
Family : Zingiberaceae
Trade Name : Turmeric
MORPHOLOGY:
It is a perennial herb with large avoid root stock.
sessile thick tuber, bright yellow inside.
petiole, long leaves green, peduncle long hidden by sheathing petiole, spikes,
bracts pale green.
TRADITIONAL USE
Rhizome is used for whooping and other coughs.
In Srilanka Rhizome paste is used in skeletal fracture.
Turmeric is an indispensable culinary ingredient.
It imports a musky flavour and yellow colour to curries.
It is used as colouring matter in pharmacy, confectionery and food
industries.
It is also used as dye in certain cotton textile, medicine and in cosmetics.
Further it is also regarded by the Hindus as sacred for use in ceremonial and
religious functions.
Rhizome used in mental cure.
Inflammation of eye.
Height blindness, indigestion, bronchitis.
Cough and cold, wounds, leprosy, body pain, head ache improves body
complexion effective against bacterial infection, skin diseases, intestinal
worms, liver complaints, stammemering, filarial, asthma, measles, boils,
conjunctivitis, allergic reactions, oil from rhizome is antifungal, anti
flammatory and antibacterial.
NEEM
TURMERIC
GINGER