Biodiversity�

Introduction

Biodiversity is defined as ‘the variabilityamong living organisms from all sources,including terrestrial, marine and other aquaticecosystems and the ecological complexes ofwhich they are a part; this includes diversitywithin species, between species and of ecosys-tems’. Conservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity is fundamental to ecologicallysustainable development. Biodiversity is partof our daily lives and livelihood, and consti-tutes resources upon which families,communities, nations and future generationsdepend. Every country has the responsibilityto conserve, restore and sustainably use thebiological diversity within its jurisdiction.Biological diversity is fundamental to thefulfilment of human needs. An environmentrich in biological diversity offers the broadestarray of options for sustainable economicactivity, for sustaining human welfare and foradapting to change. Loss of biodiversity hasserious economic and social costs for anycountry. The experience of the past few dec-ades has shown that as industrialization andeconomic development in the classical sensetakes place, patterns of consumption, produc-tion and needs, change, straining, altering andeven destroying ecosystems. India, amegabiodiversity country, while following thepath of development, has been sensitive toneeds of conservation and hence is still rich inbiological resources. Ethos of conservation andharmonious living with nature is very muchingrained in the lifestyles of India’s people.

India is one of 12 megadiversity countriesof the world. The innumerable life formsharboured by the forests, deserts, mountains,other land, air and oceans provide food,fodder, fuel, medicine, textiles etc. There are

innumerable species, the potential of which isnot as yet known. It would therefore be pru-dent to not only conserve the species wealready have information about, but alsospecies we have not yet identified and de-scribed from economic point of view. Taxusbaccata, a tree found in the Sub-Himalayanregions, once believe to be of no value is nowconsidered to be effective in the treatment ofcertain types of cancer. The diversity of genes,species and ecosystem is a valuable resourcethat can be tapped as human needs and de-mands change, the still more basic reasons forconservation are the moral, cultural and reli-gious values. The importance of biodiversitycan be understood, it is not easy to define thevalue of biodiversity, and very often difficult toestimate it. The value of biodiversity is classi-fied into direct and indirect values.Biodiversity has direct consumptive value inagriculture, medicine and industry. Approxi-mately 80 000 edible plants have been used atone time or another in human history, ofwhich only about 150 have even been culti-vated on a large scale. Today a mere 10 to 20species provide 80%–90% food requirementsof the world. The indirect values imply thefunctions performed by biodiversity which arenot of any direct use such as ecological proc-esses etc. In India, many rural communitiesparticularly the tribals obtain considerablepart of their daily food from the wild plants.Some examples are: Ceropegia bubosa in Cen-tral India and Western Ghats; Codonopisis ovatain Himalayan region; Ardisia and Meliosmapinnata in the North-east; Eremurus himalaicus,Origanum vulgare and Urtica hyperborea inLahul-Spiti and Ladakh; Allium carolinianumand Cicer microphyllum in Kashmir andSesuvium portulacastrum in Coastal areas.Similarly, a variety of faunal species, e.g.,

������������������������ ������������

insects, molluscs, spiders, wild herbivores areconsumed by many tribal and non-tribalcommunities in India.

At one time, nearly all medicines werederived from biological resources. Even todaythey remain vital and as much as 67%–70% ofmodern medicine are derived from naturalproducts. In developing countries, a largemajority of the people rely on traditionalmedicines for their primary health care, mostof which involve the use of plant extracts(Photo 9.1).

Around 20,000 plant species are believedto be used medicinally in the third world. InIndia, almost 95% of the prescriptions areplant-based in the traditional systems of

examples are the ecosystem’s ability to absorbpollution, maintain soil fertility and micro-climates, recharge ground water, and provideother invaluable services. Many plants,animals and their parts are used in rituals allover the country. To name a few: flowers ofHibiscus, Datura and Euphorbia; leaves of Aeglemarmelos (bel), Eragrostis cynasuroides (kusagrass), rice til, chenopods, odorous roots ofDolomiaea macrocephala (dhup). Further,sacred values are attached to entireecosystems, for example patches of forestswere believed to be the abode of gods, and areused only for prayers and rituals. Manysacred groves still exist in different parts ofIndia (MoEF 1999).

Pressure

Habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollu-tion, and species introduction are the majorcauses of biodiversity loss in India. Otherfactors included fires, which adversely affectregeneration in some cases, and such naturalcalamities as droughts, diseases, cyclones, andfloods. Habitat destruction, decimation ofspecies, and the fragmentation of large con-tiguous populations into isolated, small, andscattered ones has rendered them increasinglyvulnerable to inbreeding depression, highinfant mortality, and susceptibility to environ-mental stochasticity and, in the long run,possibly to extinction.Besides these, the failure to stem this tide ofdestruction results from an amalgamation oflacunae in economic, policy, institutional, andgovernance systems. Among others, theseinclude.� Management with limited local community

participation and involvement and inad-equate implementation of ecodevelopmentprogrammes; poor implementation of theWildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 asamended in 1991.

������ � ��������� ���� ���� �� �� � ���� �����

������ ����� ������� ������ �������

Unani, Ayurveda and Sidha. Manyindigenous medicines also utilize animals andtheir parts or extracts as remedies for variousdiseases. Diverse habitats and species alsohave non-consumptive use-value. Tourism,recreation and scientific research are themajor examples. The indirect use-value ofbiodiversity includes ecosystem process ofbiological diversity, which provides valuableecological services to the biosphere; some

������������������������ ������������

������� ����������

� Poor conviction rates of wildlife cases dueto inadequate legal competence in theforest department, and the lackadaisicalapproach of courts with cases pending foryears.

Biodiversity conservation in India is alsoimpeded by a lack of knowledge of the magni-tude, patterns, causes, and rates ofdeforestation and biodiversity loss at theecosystem and landscape level. Poaching andtrade in wildlife species are among the mostimportant concerns in the management ofprotected areas today but information onpoaching, trade, and trade routes is sketchyand current wildlife protection and law en-forcement measures are inadequate andinefficient (Photo 9.2).

��� ������ ������������

���� ���������

�� ���� � � � �� �� �� ������ ���� ���� ���� ��� ������� �� ����

�����

������� !����� "�� ����� ������ �!� # �� �� �� ����$� %&&&

������ �� ' ����� ( ��� !�� �� ��� ) �� !����$� )�*����� �� ���

����� �� ��

������ ����� ������� ������ ���+��,

Major problems with biodiversity conser-vation� Low priority for conservation of living

natural resources.� Exploitation of living natural resources for

monetary gain.� Values and knowledge about the species

and ecosystem inadequately known.� Unplanned urbanization and uncontrolled

industrialization.Major biodiversity threats� Habitat destruction� Extension of agriculture� Filling up of wetlands� Conversion of rich bio-diversity site for

human settlement and industrial develop-ment

Protected Area Network comprises NationalParks and Sanctuaries which covers a mere4.2% of the land area and is inadequate inprotecting such ecologically important andfragile ecosystems such as wetlands, man-groves, and grasslands that lie outside suchprotected areas. The protected areas them-selves are susceptible to denotification andfurther reduction in extent due to otherpressures emanating from the industrial-commercial-political combine.

������� ����������

������������������������ ������������

� Destruction of coastal areas� Uncontrolled commercial exploitation

This erosion of biodiversity is largely due tohabitat loss caused by the expansion of variousdevelopment projects such as mines, dams,and road and canal construction. It is esti-mated that, after Independence, the countryhas lost 4,696 million hectares of forestland tonon-forestry purposes. While 0.07 million haof forest land has been illegally encroachedupon, 4.37 million ha has been subjected tocultivation, 0.52 million ha given to rivervalley projects, 0.14 million ha to industriesand townships, 0.06 million ha for transmis-sion lines and roads; and the rest formiscellaneous purposes (MoEF 1999). Habitatloss leads to the fragmentation of continuousstretches of land and consequently fragmentswildlife populations inhabiting them. Thesesmall populations are increasingly vulnerableto inbreeding depression, high infant mortal-ity, susceptibility to environmentalstochasticity, and, in the long run, possibly toextinction. Apart from the primary loss ofhabitats, there are numerous other problemscontributing to the loss and endangeredstatus of several plant and animal species.

Habitat degradation such as changes in forestcomposition and quality can in turn lead todeclines in primary food species for wildlife.Poaching is another insidious threat that hasemerged in recent years as one of the primaryreasons for extinction of species such as thetiger. Poaching pressures, however, areunevenly distributed since certain selectedspecies are more heavily targeted than others.Population pressures and concomitantincreases in the collection of fuelwood andfodder, and grazing in forests by localcommunities also take their toll on the forestsand consequently its biodiversity. Otherminor factors include fires, which adverselyaffect regeneration in some cases, and naturalcalamities like droughts, diseases, cyclones,and landslides.

India’s contribution to agro-biodiversityhas been impressive. India stands seventh inthe world as far as the number of speciescontributed to agriculture and animal hus-bandry is concerned. In qualitative terms too,the contribution has been significant, as it hascontributed such useful animal species aswater buffalo and camel and plant speciessuch as rice and sugarcane. India has alsobeen a secondary centre of domestication foranimal species such as horse and goat, and

���

������ ���

����� ����� ��� ��� ���� �

"��� ������ ������ ������ ���� �������

���� ��� %-,, .�%-� �/%0

�������� -&,& �+, ++-.- ,/+%

���������� � +�.�� �+%�0� 12�����3 ��,�0� +/�&

4����2� ��#���� �.%� %% �,�%� �/-+

������������� ��� %�&+ -/+-

� ��� %-0+ 0 %�,%. ��/,%

���� # � %&� ��& . -�-& 0/&+

5�� � � 0-+ %�0 �+ -��, ,/�0

� � �%.% + � ,. �&%+ �./++

����� � .�& . � ,- 0+%� �/0%

������ ����� ����6� �� �� � ���+

������� 7������� ����������! �����������#���! ��� ������� �� ��2�� ���������8����

1��� ���������������� �������� ��!���2�� �������������(�3

������� ���������

����������8 ������� ���! ����������������� � ����������

7��� ���� ��� ��� ���� ���

� ���� - �

��� �� �&0

�� ����������� ���� % ,

9:��#������������ - -

� #������� % 0

4 �����$���$���!!$

��#�����������:����� � %

�� � ���������� .&&&

������ ����� ����

����������8 ������� ���! ������ ������� ����

)���� ����

7���� %,

��� 0&

)���� %%

7���� �

;���� +

<��=� %

������ ��

��!!��� �

������ ����� ����

such plant species as potato and maize(Khoshoo 1996). Animal species, which arereported to be threatened in India, have beenlisted inTable 9.1.

India has 47 000 species of flowering andnon-flowering plants representing about 12%of the recorded world’s flora. Out of 47 000species of plants, 5 150 are endemic and 2532 species are found in the Himalayas andadjoining regions and 1 782 in the peninsularIndia. India is also rich in the number ofendemic faunal species it possesses, while itsrecord in agro-biodiversity is very impressiveas well. There are 166 crop species and 320wild relatives (Table 9.2) along with

numerous wild relatives of domesticatedanimals (Table 9.3). Overall India ranksseventh in terms of contribution to worldagriculture.

State impact

Status of biodiversity in IndiaStatus of biodiversity in IndiaStatus of biodiversity in IndiaStatus of biodiversity in IndiaStatus of biodiversity in IndiaIndia occupies only 2.4% of the world’s landarea but its contribution to the world’sbiodiversity is approximately 8% of the totalnumber of species (Khoshoo 1996), which isestimated to be 1.75 million (As per GlobalBiodiversity Assessment of UNEP of 1995,described number of species so far is 1.75million). Of these, 126 188 have been de-scribed in India. The species recorded includesflowering plants (angiosperms), mammals,fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, constitute17.3% of the total whereas nearly 60% ofIndia’s bio-wealth is contributed by fungi andinsects (Khoshoo 1996). Such a distribution issimilar to that found in the tropics and thesubtropics. Biogeographically, India is situatedat the trijunction of three realms namely afro-tropical, Indo-Malayan and Paleo-Arcticrealms, and therefore, has characteristic ele-ments from each of them. This assemblage ofthree distinct realms probably is a fact whichis believed to partly account for its rich andunique in biological diversity. Based on theavailable data, India ranks tenth in the worldand fourth in Asia in plant diversity, and rankstenth in the number of endemic species ofhigher vertebrates in the world. There are 10biogeographical zones in India. They can beclassified as under:

������������������������ ������������

The Biogeographic classificationThe Biogeographic classificationThe Biogeographic classificationThe Biogeographic classificationThe Biogeographic classificationof India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)� Trans-Himalayas. An extension of the

Tibetan plateau, harboring high-altitudecold desert in Laddakh (J&K) and LahaulSpiti (H.P) comprising 5.7 % of the coun-try’s landmass.

� Himalayas. The entire mountain chainrunning from north-western to north-eastern India, comprising a diverse rangeof biotic provinces and biomes, 7.2 % ofthe country’s landmass.

� Desert. The extremely arid area west of theAravalli hill range, comprising both thesalty desert of Gujarat and the sand desertof Rajasthan. 6.9% of the country’s land-mass.

� Semi-arid. The zone between the desertand the Deccan plateau, including theAravalli hill range. 15.6 % of the country’slandmass.

� Western ghats. The hill ranges and plainsrunning along the western coastline, southof the Tapti river, covering an extremelydiverse range of biotic provinces andbiomes. 5.8% of the country’s landmass.

� Deccan peninsula. The largest of the zones,covering much of the southern and south-central plateau with a predominantlydeciduous vegetation. 4.3 % of the coun-try’s landmass.

� Gangetic plain. Defined by the Gangesriver system, these plains are relativelyhomogenous. 11% of the country’slandmass.

� North-east India. The plains and non-Himalayan hill ranges of northeasternIndia, with a wide variation of vegetation.5.2% of the country’s landmass.

� Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islandsin the Bay of Bengal, with a highly diverseset of biomes. 0.03% of the country’s land-mass.

� Coasts. A large coastline distributed bothto the west and east, with distinctdifferences between the two; Lakshadeepislands are included in this with thepercent area being negligible.

Apart from the biogeographic classificationsdescribed above ecosystems can also be de-marcated on the basis of purely geographicalor geological features like mountains, islands,valleys, plateaux, oceans; on the basis of veg-etative cover like forests, grasslands,mangroves and deserts; on the basis ofclimatic conditions like arid and semi-aridareas, permanently snow-bound areas, highrainfall areas; on the basis of soil characteristicand other such criteria.

In some descriptions the biomes/ecosys-tems are clubbed together into very generalhabitat classifications. The main natural habi-tat types are:� Forests� Grasslands� Wetlands� Mangroves� Coral reefs� Deserts

������ �� � ��� ��� !����� !����

������ ����� ������� ������ �������

������������������������ ������������

������� ����������

ForestsThe forest cover of the country is placed at633 397 sq km according to the forest surveyof India assessment (1997). This presents19.27% of India’s total geographical areas.India is endowed with diverse forest typesranging from the Tropical wet evergreen for-ests in North-Eastern to the Tropical thornforests in the Central and Western India(Photo 9.3). The forests of the country can bedivided into 16 major groups comprising 221types. The distribution of these groups, andthe percentage of total forest area covered byeach are given in Table 9.4.

GrasslandsIn India the spread of grassland andshrubland is put at 12% of the total landmass(Olson et al. 1983) while the planningcommission (1989) and Grasslands andFodder research Institute, Jhansi (1993) givesan estimate of about 3.7 to 3.9%.

The diversity of grasslands in India is highranging from semi-arid pastures of the westernpart of the Deccan peninsula, the humid,semi-waterlogged tall grassland of the Teraibelt, the rolling shola grasslands of thewestern ghat hilltops, and the high-altitudealpine pastures of the Himalayas.

The grass flora in India is also quite di-verse, consisting of about 1256 species in 245genera and an estimated 370 endemic speciesreported (Shukla, 1983). Unfortunately dueto greater neglect than Forests the status ofgrasslands is not so well known or docu-mented.

WetlandsWetlands cover 3% of the Indian landmass, ornearly 100 000 sq. Km (Olson et al. 1983).Wetlands in India harbor a vast variety of lifeforms that are a part of the complex food ofthese transitional ecosystems. About 320species of birds are associated with the Indian

�������� ������ ����>�� ��� #�� �������������:

�������� �� ��� �� �� ��� ����� � ����

��������� �������

"��� ����(�� �:�� ?����������@������$���������@�? ��#��� ����� ��-/�

"��� ������ � �:�� ������@����� ��%/-

"��� ������ ����� ����� 7������@����� .&/.

"��� ���� � �������@��(��� ����:��������� ��&/�

"��� ��������� ����� 8���@�7����� .�/%

"��� ��������� 8���@�7����� ��+/,

"��� ������� �:�� 7������@������ ��&/�

������������ �������

��#���� ����#������� ��� ���!����� ����� ��&/0

��#���� ���� � � ��#�; ������� ����� ��-/&

��#���� ������� �:�� ?����������@������ ��&/%

"������!�����

�������(�� ������ ; ������@�? �: � ��1 ��8�����)����3 ��%/&

; ��������� ��������� "������������! �; ������ ��./0

; ���������������� <���������������!�; ������ ��&/%

����������� �� � ������� �������

��#���� � ; ����� ��0/.

�� ������ ������# ; ����� ��0/.

<����� ������# ; ����� ��0/.

������ )�2� ����

������������������������ ������������

Wetlands (Photo 9.4). Apart from birds, thewetlands support a diverse population ofplants and animals including 150 species ofamphibians. Wetlands are the habitat of someof the world’s endangered and threatenedflora and fauna. The Western and Centralflock of Siberian crane, one of the mostendangered cranes in the world, usesKeoladeo as its winter site. The brownantlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi) or ‘sangai’ isfound only in phumadis (floating landmasses)of Lok Tak Lake. Gahirmatha beach is a majorbreeding site of olive ridley turtles. Chilka isthe habitat of many threatened species such asgreen sea turtle, Hawksbill turtle, dugong,and blackbuck.

MangrovesGovernment of India estimated mangrovecover of 674 000 ha, which is about 7% of theworld’s mangrove.

Mangroves are salt-tolerant ecosystems intropical and subtropical regions. These ecosys-tems are largely characterized by assemblageof unrelated tree genera that share the com-mon ability to grow in saline tidal zone. Indiaharbours some of the best mangroves swampsin the world, located in the alluvial deltas ofGanga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, andCauveri rivers and on the Andaman andNicobar group of Islands (Photo 9.5). Thetotal area covered by mangroves in India isestimated at about 6,700 sq km. amounting toabout 7% of the Worlds mangroves.

The largest stretch of mangroves in thecountry lies in the Sunderbans in West Bengalcovering an area of about 4,200 sq. km. Thepredominant mangroves species are Avicenniaofficinalis Excoecaria agallocha, Heritiera fomes,Bruguiera parviflora, Ceriops decandra,Rhizophora mucronata and Xylocarpus grana-tum. Mangroves also harbour a number ofmolluscs, polychaetes and honeybees. The

Indian mangroves are host to 105 species offish, 20 kinds of shellfish, and 229 crustaceanspecies. The Royal Bengal tiger is found in theSunderban mangroves. Different species ofmonkeys, otters, deer, fishing cats, snakes and

������ �� 8������� �! �8��� ��:��

������ ����� ������� ������ �����%&&&

������ �! 8���(�� �� ��� � ���� ��������:�� � !����� !���=�

#� � ��� �� ���� 5� �������� ���

������ ����� ������� ������ �������

�������" ��!���������1� ����� ����/3��!�������������? ��#���2������

������ ����� ������� ������ ���+��,

������������������������ ������������

������� ���������!

cies are restricted to the Thar area (Rodgersand Pawar 1988). In the remote part of GreatRann, Gujarat lies the nesting ground ofFlamingoes and the only known population ofAsiatic wild ass.

The cold deserts in India cover a vast areaof 109 990 sq. Km, about 87,780 sq. km inLaddakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and 22,210sq. Km in Lahaul -Spiti (Himachal Pradesh).The diversity of the high altitude cold desertshas been studied only recently with manyinsect species being endemic. Interestinglythe cold desert harbors Kiang a close relativeof the Indian wild ass found the Rann ofKachchh. Other distinctive animals includeSnow leopard, Yak, Tibetan antelope, Ibex,Blue sheep, Tibetan gazelle, Woolly hare etc.

Biodiversity hotspotsBiodiversity hotspotsBiodiversity hotspotsBiodiversity hotspotsBiodiversity hotspotsBiodiversity hotspots are areas that are unusu-ally rich in species, most of which areendemic, and are under a constant threat ofbeing overexploited. Among the 18 hot spotsin the world, two are found in India. Theseare two distinct areas: the Eastern Himalayasand the Western Ghats and are also depictedin the National forest vegetation map ofIndia. Together these 18 sites containapproximately 49 955 endemic plant species,or 20% of the world’s recorded plants species,in only 746 400 sq km or 0.5% of the earth’sland surface.

Eastern HimalayasPhytogeographically, the Eastern Himalayasforms a distinct floral region and comprisesNepal, Bhutan, neighbouring states of east andnorth-east India, and a contiguous sectorYunnan province in south western China. Inthe whole of Eastern Himalayas, there are anestimated 9000 plant species, with 3500 (i.e.39%) of them being endemic. In India’s sectorof the area, there occur some 5800 plantspecies, roughly 2000 (i.e. 36%) of them beingendemic.

wild pigs are common. A total of 117 speciesof migratory and residential birds have beenreported. The most common birds are flamin-gos, storks, sea eagles, kites, kingfishers,sandpipers, bulbuls, and whistlers.

Coral reefsAccurate estimates of coral reef extent in theworld are not available. A rough estimate putsit at 600 000 sq Km (Smith 1978) out ofwhich 60% occurs in the Indian Ocean regionand most of it in south-east Asia (Photo 9.6).

The coral reef cover in Indian waters isroughly estimated upto 19,000 sq. Km (Wafar1992). Indian reefs belong to the followingcategories:

PalkBay and Gulf of Mannar : FringingGulf of Kachchh : Fringing,

PatchyAndaman and Nicobar Islands : FringingLakshadeep Islands : AtollsCentral West coast : Patchy

The diversity of the Indian coral reefs is veryimpressive with about 200 coral species be-longing to 71 genera (Untawale andDhargalkar 1993). The richest being Andamanand Nicobar Islands which alone harbors 179species (Subba Rao 1989).

DesertsIn India, deserts extend over about 2% of thelandmass (Olson et al. 1983). Three kinds ofdeserts are noticeable in India:� The sand desert of western Rajasthan and

neighbouring areas.� The vast salt desert of Gujarat� The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu

and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.

Desert fauna in India is also quite diverse,with about 1200 sp. of animals reported fromThar region of which 440 are vertebrates and755 are invertebrates. Desert fox, Desert cat,Houbara Bustard and some Sandgrouse spe-

������� ���������!

�"���������������������� ������������

#��� � ?�� ����� !����� :��� ��� ���� �!� 2�� �� ( ��� # �� �� �

��������

At least 55 flowering plants endemic tothis area are recognized as rare, for example,the pitcher plant (Nepenthes khasiana).

The area has long been recognized as arich centre of primitive flowering plants andthe area is recognized as ‘Cradle of Speciation’.

Species of several families of monocotyledons,Orchidaceae, Zingiberaceae and Arecaceaeabound in the area. Gymnosperms andpteridophytes (ferns) are also well representedin the area.

�"���������������������� ������������

������� ����������

The area is also rich in wild relatives ofplants of economic significance, e.g. ricebanana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute andsugarcane. The region is regarded as the centreof origin and diversification of five palms ofcommercial importance namely, coconut,arecanut, palmyra palm, sugar palm and wilddate palm.

Tea (Thea sinensis) is reported to be incultivation in this region for the last 40,000years. Many wild and allied species of tea, theleaves of which are used as substitute of tea,are found growing in the North East in thenatural habitats.

The ‘taxol’ plant Taxus wallichiana issparsely distributed in the region and hascome under red data category due to its overexploitation for extraction of a drug effectivelyused against cancer.

As regards faunal diversity, 63% of thegenera of land mammals in India are knowfrom this area. During the last four decades,two new mammals have been discovered fromthe region: Golden Langur from Assam –Bhutan region, and Namdapha flying squirrelfrom Arunachal Pradesh indicating the speciesrichness of the region.

The area is also a rich centre of aviandiversity – more than 60% of the Indian birdsare recorded in the North East. The regionalso has two endemic genera of lizards, and 35endemic reptilian species, including two turtle.Of the 204 Indian amphibians, at least 68species are known from North East, 20 ofwhich are endemic.

From Namdapha National Park itself, anew genus of mammal, a new subspecies ofbird, 6 new species of amphibia, four newspecies of fish, at least 15 new spcies of beetlesand 6 new species of flies have been discovered(Babu and Arora 1999).

Western ghatsThe Western Ghats region is considered asone of the most important biogeographiczones of India, as it is one of the richestcentres of endemism. Due to variedtopography and micro-climatic regimes, someareas within the region are considered to beactive zones of speciation.

The region has 490 arborescent taxa, ofwhich as many as 308 are endemics this ende-mism of tree species shows a distinct trend,being the highest (43%) in 8N-10°30’N loca-tion and declining to 11% in 16N - 16°30’Nlocation.

About 1 500 endemic species ofdicotyledonous plants are reported from theWestern Ghats. 245 species of orchids belong-ing to 75 genera are found here, of which 112species in 10 genera are endemic to the region(Photo 9.7).

As regards the fauna, as many as 315species of vertebrates belonging to 22 generaare endemic, these include 12 species of mam-mals, 13 species of birds, 89 species of reptiles,87 species of amphibians and 104 species offish.

������ �� "������#��� "�� ?���� 12��� ����#�� ��3� !����� ���

�� (�� �:��� !����� �! � ���8����� )����

������ ����� ������� ������ ���,���

������� ����������

������������������������ ������������

The extent of endemism is high in am-phibian and reptiles. There occur 117 speciesof amphibians in the region, of which 89species (i.e. 76%) are endemic. Of the 165species of reptiles found in Western Ghats, 88species are endemic.

Many of the endemics and other speciesare listed as threatened (Photo 9.8). Nearly235 species of endemic flowering plants areconsidered endangered. Rare fauna of theregion includes: Lion Tailed Macaque (Photo9.9), Nilgiri Langur, Nilgiri Tahr, FlyingSquirrel, and Malabar Gray Hornbill (Babuand Arora 1999).

Biodiversity contribution to IndianBiodiversity contribution to IndianBiodiversity contribution to IndianBiodiversity contribution to IndianBiodiversity contribution to IndianeconomyeconomyeconomyeconomyeconomyBiodiversity products have obtained a com-mercial value and have been increasinglyexchanged in the markets having a monetaryvalue, from which their share in the nationaleconomy can be judged. In the Indiancontext it is difficult to put a value ondiversity as such because the marketableproducts are of various kinds both legal andillegal e.g wood and non-wood products fromforests where wood comprises the majorcommercial produce is both legally exportedas well as illegally smuggled out of thecountry. Many non-wood forest produce andthe illegal produce is not accounted for in theofficial documents.

The contribution of natural and agricul-tural biodiversity in terms of crops, live stock,fisheries etc is very substantial in terms ofcommercial value.

Such biodiversity has a major contributionto make to the Indian GDP (gross domesticproduct). The large economic implications ofbiodiversity in its wild and domesticatedforms is the rice improvement programme.Rice accounts for 22% of the total croppedarea and 39% of the total area under cereals,which reflects its importance in the country’sstruggle to attain self-sufficiency in food.When the rice crop was doomed due to thegrassy stunt virus in the 1970s, one singlegene from the wild strain of rice, namelyOryza nivara from Uttar Pradesh, showedresistance to this virus and proved vital in thefight against the virus.

With respect to the commercial value ofthe plant species of medicinal value, the worldtrade is of several billion dollars and this isgrowing. The export market for medicinalplants has also increased. India’s foreignexchange reserves from horticulturalproducts are from high yielding varieties(ICAR 1999). Increased production ofoilseeds also helped in saving large amountsof foreign exchange spent on edible oilimport.

������ �� ' ����� ��� ����A��� ��� ����:��� ��� �

������ ����� ������� ������ �����%&&&

������ �� 5�������� ������� ����� �� � :��� �������� ��� �

�! � ���� �� �������� =��(�� ��� B5�� 9����C

������ ����� ������� ������ �������

������������������������ ������������

������� ����������

The aforesaid pressures will lead to loss ofbiodiversity in India and will also result inconsiderable drop in Indian GDP and foreignexchange earnings from horticultural prod-ucts, oil seeds, oil meal, and oil cake will dropdown to a great extent.

Response

The Ministry of Environment and Forests(MoEF) is the nodal agency in the Govern-ment of India for planning, promotion,coordination, and overseeing the implementa-tion of the environmental and forestryprogrammes. The MoEF is also the focal pointfor implementation of the Convention onBiological Diversity. The mandates of theMinistry interalia include survey of flora,fauna, forests and wildlife, and conservationof natural resources (Photo 9.10). Theseobjectives are supported by legislative andregulatory measures. A number of institutions

������ �� ����=� #��=�� ���� ����� �� ��

������ ����� ������� ������ ���,���

affiliated with the Ministry are involved in thework related to various aspects of biologicaldiversity. Survey and inventorization of thefloral and faunal resources are carried out bythe Botanical Survey of India (BSI) estab-lished in 1890, and the Zoological Survey of

India (ZSI) established in 1916. The ForestSurvey of India established in 1981 assessesthe forest cover, with a view to develop anaccurate database for planning andmonitoring purposes. The Wildlife Institute ofIndia undertakes studies of endangeredspecies of animals and critical ecosystems.Over 47,000 species of plants and 89,000

������ � � ����� ������� � ��� ����:��� ��� �

������ ����� ������� ������ ���,���

animals species have been recorded by theBSI and ZSI respectively.

The Survey organizations have publishedover the years, documents on flora and faunaat country, state and in some cases districtlevels and for selected ecosystems. Besides,extensive reports on inventories of resourcesindicating level of biodiversity in selectedareas have also been brought out. The Surveyshave also published Red Data Books onendangered species (Photo 9.11). The voucherspecimens are preserved in Central NationalHerbarium (CNH) of BSI and NationalZoological Collection (NZC) of ZSI.

The Forest Survey of India publishesevery three years, a State of Forest in Indiareport based on remote sensing and groundtruth data.

������� ����������

������������������������ ������������

have been significant in restoring viablepopulation of large mammals such as tiger,lion, rhinoceros, crocodiles, elephants, etc.

� The Indian Council of Forestry Researchand Education (ICFRE) has identified 309forest preservation plots of representativeforest types for conservation of viable andrepresentative areas of biodiversity. 187 ofthese plots are in natural forests and 112 inplantations, covering a total area of 8,500hectares.

� A programme entitled “Eco-develop-ment” for in situ conservation of biologicaldiversity involving local communities hasbeen initiated in recent years. The conceptof eco-development integrates the ecologi-cal and economic parameters for sustainedconservation of ecosystems by involving thelocal communities with the maintenance ofearmarked regions surrounding protectedareas. The economic needs of the localcommunities are taken care of under thisprogramme through provision ofalternative sources of income and a steadyavailability of forest and related produce.

Existing policy rExisting policy rExisting policy rExisting policy rExisting policy responseesponseesponseesponseesponseIn situ conservation (within naturalhabitat)Some important measures taken are as follows:� Approximately 4.2% of the total geographi-

cal area of the country has been earmarkedfor extensive in situ conservation ofhabitats and ecosystems. A protected areanetwork of 85 National Parks and 448Wildlife Sanctuaries have been created(Photo 9.12). The results of this network

�������! � ��������� �������

?����!� ���� � �� �� ��� �� ��� �� ��� ��� !� � �"

? �: � &�/&�/�+ ������! �8����$�?�:�����$����� ���������������� $�? ���#��$�� ����9�������

� �� �� �� ���� 1"�� ��?���3

?�����< ��/&�/�� ������!�7����� $�� �����:���$��������< ��� ���� 1D�����������3

?�=��= &�/&�/�� ����� �!�)����; ���� 1�:�����3

����� �0/&./�� ������!�E�=��*���$����:� :���$�������$�?��#�� $�E�����������<����:�� ��� ��

1�����3

�����#��� %�/&./�� ������! �������! �)��:��@��������������� �������18�����:��3

)��!� �!������� ��/&%/�� 2�����������! �)��! ��! ��������#�(��2�� �������� �'��=��1"�� ��?���3

)����? ��#�� &+/&�/�� ������������� ��������!�������������? ��#���1�@?� ������3

� � ���� %�/&+/�0 ����� �!�����#���*� � ��� ��� 14� ���3

< #����� =��(� %�/&,/�, ������!�< #��:��������" ���= ��� ��� ���1�����3

<���:�<#��: &%/&�/�� ������!�� ��:�����<#��:� ��� ������������������

�������� &./&./�� �������!�����$�;�����:�#�������7� ��(����� ��� �����!�������������

E������*��:� &,/&%/%&&& ������!�E������*��:��; ���� ����� == �

������ ����� %&&&

������ �� �� ���� �!� 7����� ��� ���� ����8 ��� !� ��������

������ ����� ������� ������ �����%&&&

������������������������ ������������

������� ���������

� To conserve the respective ecosystems, aBiosphere Reserve Programme is beingimplemented. Twelve biodiversity rich areasof the country have been designated asBiosphere Reserves (Table 9.5) applyingthe diversity and genetic integrity of plants,animals and microorganisms in theirtotality as part of the natural ecosystems,so as to ensure their self-perpetuation andunhindered evolution of the livingresources (Photo 9.13).

� Programmes have also been launched forscientific management and wise use offragile ecosystem. Specific programmes formanagement and conservation of wetlands,mangroves, and coral reef systems are alsobeing implemented. 21 wetlands, 15 man-grove areas and 4 coral reef areas havebeen identified for management. Nationaland sub-national level committees overseeand guide these programme to ensurestrong policy and strategic support.

� Six internationally significant wetlands ofIndia have been declared as “RamsarSites” under the Ramsar Convention. Tofocus attention on urban wetlands threat-ened by pollution and other anthropogenicactivities, State Governments were re-quested to identify lakes that could beinclude the National Lake ConservationPlan. The activities of the NLCP include

formulation of perspective plans for con-servation based on resource survey usingremote sensing technology and GISstudies on biodiversity and relatedecological matters, prevention of pollutionfrom point and non-point sources,treatment of catchment, desilting and weedcontrol.

� Wild Life Protection Act is in the finalstage of revision and provisions have beenmade for conservation reserves and com-

������ �� <�� �!� ��� 5���� ��:��� " :�� �!� ������#���� � ������ 5�� �

������ ����� ������� ������ �����%&&&

�������"��8������� ��:�� ��

� � ��� ��

E�� ���:��?�� ��������= �����

E������)�����?�� ��������= 5�*������

������8 ��� !� �������� �����

?�����< �?�� ��������= D����� ������

������#���?�� ��������= 8�����:��

munity reserves to allow restrictive use tomake it more people oriented. PresentlyBiodiversity Act which is in the final stage,has got the component of NationalBiodiversity Authority to control access togenetic resources form international com-munity. There will also be StateBiodiversity Boards to control access todomestic consumers.

������� ���������

������������������������ ������������

� Under the World Heritage Convention, fivenatural sites have been declared as “WorldHeritage Sites”, the name of which areunder:

� The Tura Range in Gora Hills ofMeghalaya is a gene sanctuary forpreserving the rich native diversity of wildCitrus and Musa species.

� Sanctuaries for rhododendrons andorchids have been established in Sikkim.

� Large mammal species targeted protectionbased on the perception of threat to themhave been under implementation.

� Project Tiger. A potential example of anhighly endangered species is the IndianTiger (Panthera tigris) The fall and rise inthe number of Tiger’s in India is an indexof the extent and nature of conservationefforts. It is estimated that India had about40 000 tigers in 1900, and the numberdeclined to a mere about 1 800 in 1972.Hence, Project Tiger was launched in 1973with the following objectives:• To ensure maintenance of available

population of Tigers in India for scien-tific, economic, aesthetic, cultural andecological value

• To preserve, for all times, the areas ofsuch biological importance as a nationalheritage for the benefit, education andenjoyment of the people

• At present there are 25 Tiger Reservesspreading over in 14 states and coveringan area of about 33 875 sq km and theTiger population has more than doublednow due to a total ban on hunting andtrading tiger products at national andinternational levels and the implementa-tion of habitat improvement andanti-poaching measures (MoEF 2000)

� Project Elephant was launched in 1991-92to assist States having free ranging popula-tion of wild elephants to ensure long termsurvival of identified viable populations ofelephants in their natural habitats (Photo9.14). Major activities of Project Elephantare:• Ecological restoration of existing natural

habitats and migratory routes of el-ephants

• Development of scientific and plannedmanagement for conservation of el-ephants habitats and value population ofwild Asiatic elephants in India

• Promotion of measures for mitigation ofman-elephant conflict in crucial habitatsand moderating pressures of human anddomestic stock activities in crucial el-ephant habitats

• Strengthening of measures for protectionof wild elephants from poachers andunnatural caused of death

• Research on Project Elephant manage-ment related issues

ˆ Public education and awareness pro-grammes

• Eco-development• Veterinary care

������ �� ;��� �!� �������� �!� ?��������� 2�� �

������ ����� ������� ������ �������

������������������������ ������������

������� ����������

� Rhinos have been given special attention inselected sanctuaries and national parks inthe North East and North-west India. Allthese programmes, though focussed on asingle species, have a wider impact as theyconserve habitats and a variety of otherspecies in those habitats.

currently available survey, CentralGovernment and State Government togetherrun and manage 33 Botanical Gardens.Universities have their own botanic gardens.There are 275 zoos, deer parks, safari parks,aquaria etc. A Central Zoo Authority was setup to secure better management of zoos. Ascheme entitled Assistance to BotanicGardens provides one-time assistance tobotanic gardens to strengthen and institutemeasure for ex-situ conservation ofthreatened and endangered species in theirrespective regions.

Recent conservation initiativesSeveral recent initiatives of the Indian Gov-ernment have focused on wetland, mangrovesand coral reef management. In 1998-99, anamount of Rs. 140 lakhs were released to theState Governments for the preparation ofmanagement action plans for Pongdam inHimachal Pradesh, Wullar in Kashmir, Loktakin Manipur, Rudrasagar in Tripura andKolleru in Andhra Pradesh. Additionally, onemore wetland has been identified for conserva-tion, i.e. Rudrasagar from Tripura, thusincreasing the list to 20 wetlands for intensiveconservation in the country. Additionally, awetland strategy has been drafted.

The National Committee on Conservationand Management of Mangroves and CoralReefs in September 1998 recommended theestablishment of an Indian Coral Reef Moni-toring Network to develop Action Plans forimportant coral reefs of the country. Prepara-tion of these plans is already underway.Moreover, financial assistance from UNDP/GEF has led to a PDF-B project on strength-ening the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve.The ZSI (Zoological Survey of India) hasinitiated another UNDP/GEF project relatingto management of Andaman’s coral reefs.

������ �!� � F� ��� ����������:���

� The Ministry of Environment and Forestsconstituted the National Afforestation andEco-development Board (NAEB) inAugust 1992. National Afforestation andEco-development Board has evolvedspecific schemes for promotingafforestation and management strategies,which help the states in developing specificafforestation and management strategiesand eco-development packages for aug-menting biomass production through aparticipatory planning process of JointForest Management and microplanning(Photo 9.15).

Ex-situ conservation (outside naturalhabitats)To complement in situ conservation,attention has been paid to ex-situconservation measures. According to

������� ����������

������������������������ ������������

Policy gapsPolicy gapsPolicy gapsPolicy gapsPolicy gaps� Lack of policies for protection of wetlands,

grasslands, sacred groves and other areassignificant from the point of view ofbiodiversity.

� Lacunae in economic policy, institutionaland governance system

� Inadequate enforcement of existing laws� Poor implementation of wildlife protection

act 1972 as amended in 1991� Inadequate implementation of eco-devel-

opment programmes� Need for enhanced role of NGOs and

other institutions� Need for political commitment and good

will.� Need for providing Institutional Structure� Need for more sectoral financial outlay� Human resource development - limited

local community participation

Knowledge/inforKnowledge/inforKnowledge/inforKnowledge/inforKnowledge/information/datamation/datamation/datamation/datamation/data� Documentation of biodiversity is an urgent

requirement as latest statistics and data onfloral and faunal biodiversity of India hasnot been compiled and documented.

� The information and data should be madeavailable to the scientific and socio-eco-nomic agencies to support the evaluation/revision of the policies.

� Lack of knowledge of the magnitude,patterns, causes and rates of deforestationand biodiversity laws at the ecosystem andlandscape level.

� Information on poaching trade and traderoutes is sketchy and current wildlife pro-tection and law enforcement measures areinadequate and inefficient procedure.

� Biodiversity Act /Bill should not overridethe provisions of Wildlife Protection Act.

Policy rPolicy rPolicy rPolicy rPolicy recommendationsecommendationsecommendationsecommendationsecommendations� Most of the legal provisions pertain mainly

to use/exploitation of biological resources,rather than their conservation. Even WildLife Protection Act 1972, focuses on pro-tection rather than conservation.Protection under Wild Life Protection Actis largely directed towards large animalspecies (charismatic terrestrial species)rather than the large spectrum of faunaand flora also found in the marine realm.

� Hence the existing laws relating tobiodiversity shall be examined in order tobring them in tune with the provisions ofconvention to reflect current understandingof biodiversity conservation.

� Need for comprehensive legislation onbiodiversity conservation and use especiallyfisheries policies, which is generally ig-nored.

� Formulation of policies for protection ofwetlands, grasslands, sacred groves, marineflora and fauna and other areas significantfrom the point of view of biodiversity.

� Improving policy environment.� Passage of biodiversity bill.� A presence of a biodiversity cell in all

development departments impinging onland and water.

� Documentation of biodiversity.� Increase allocation of financial resources

for conservation of biodiversity.� Integrating conservation with development� Incentives and disincentives for improper

use of biodiversity� Biodiversity Act / Bill should not override

the provisions of Wildlife Protection act.� There should be continuous monitoring of

biodiversity use for review of results ofimplementation of policies and programmes.

������� ���������!

References

Babu, G.V.S.; Arora, S. (1999) Hotspots ofBiodiveristy. New Delhi: Ministry of Environ-ment and Forests. 4–5 pp

Baillie, J. (1996) IUCN of Threatened Animals:analysis. Switzerland: The World of ConservationUnion IUCN

Khoshoo, T.N. (1996) ‘Biodiversity in the IndianHimalayas: conservation and utilization’. InBanking on Biodiversity, edited by Sheggi PKathmandu: International Centre for IntegratedMountain Development

MoEF (1999) National Policy and Macrolevel ActionStrategy on Biodiversity. New Delhi: Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, Government of India

MoEF (2000) Annual Report (1999-2000). NewDelhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests,Government of India

GoI (1987) Mangroves a status report. New Delhi:Government of India

GoI (1990) Wetlands of India: a directory. New Delhi:Government of India

Olson, J.S.; Watts, J.A.; Allison, L.J. (1983) Carbonin live vegetation of major world ecosystems. OakRidge National Laboratory: WCMC 1992

Subba Rao, N.V. (1989) Fauna of Andaman andNicobar Islands: Diversity, endemesim, endangeredspecies and conservation strategies. New Delhi:Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd

Wood, A.; Pamela, S.E.; Johanna, M. (2000) TheRoot causes of biodiversity loss. United Kingdom:Earthscan Publications