Biodiversity IIBiodiversity IIES 118 Spring 2008ES 118 Spring 2008

Value of biodiversityValue of biodiversity

BenefitsBenefits– Goods (e.g., forests and fisheries)Goods (e.g., forests and fisheries)– Services (e.g., recreation or Services (e.g., recreation or

ecosystem services)ecosystem services) Intrinsic valueIntrinsic value

– E.O. Wilson E.O. Wilson BiophiliaBiophilia (1984): (1984): Humans seem to inherently enjoy Humans seem to inherently enjoy diversity of lifediversity of life

Medical valueMedical value

Biodiversity has value to people as Biodiversity has value to people as medicinemedicine– 1700 plants in China and 2500 in India are 1700 plants in China and 2500 in India are

used for medicinal purposes used for medicinal purposes – About 1/2 of the About 1/2 of the medicinal drugsmedicinal drugs used in the used in the

world (25% in the United States) have active world (25% in the United States) have active ingredients extracted from wild organismsingredients extracted from wild organisms

– At least 1400 plant species in tropical At least 1400 plant species in tropical forests are believed to contain forests are believed to contain anticanceranticancer chemicalschemicals

Example: Example: Taxol - found in the bark of the Taxol - found in the bark of the Yew treeYew tree

TaxolTaxol

Economic valueEconomic value

Many plants and insects have value to Many plants and insects have value to peoplepeople– Agriculture: Most of the plants that supply Agriculture: Most of the plants that supply

90% of the world’s food today from tropics 90% of the world’s food today from tropics – Insects: important for the pollination of Insects: important for the pollination of

crops, and used as foodcrops, and used as food– Natural insecticides (pyrethrin for Natural insecticides (pyrethrin for

example)example)– Many other products: silk, glue, soap Many other products: silk, glue, soap

(animal fats), leather, musk, down, wool(animal fats), leather, musk, down, wool Example: Neem treeExample: Neem tree

Neem TreeNeem Tree

Aesthetic and Aesthetic and RecreationalRecreational Almost 50% of all Americans participate Almost 50% of all Americans participate

each year in some form of outdoor each year in some form of outdoor recreational activity involving wildlife recreational activity involving wildlife

Spend about $37 billionSpend about $37 billion

– 95 million observe, feed, or photograph wild 95 million observe, feed, or photograph wild animals and plantsanimals and plants

– 54 million people fish each year54 million people fish each year

– 16 million people hunt each year16 million people hunt each year

Ecological importanceEcological importance

Produce oxygen, filter toxic Produce oxygen, filter toxic substances, decompose wastes substances, decompose wastes and perform many other functionsand perform many other functions

Keystone speciesKeystone species

Genetic diversity is the basis for Genetic diversity is the basis for all future evolution all future evolution

Value of biodiversityValue of biodiversity

Economic benefits of the world’s Economic benefits of the world’s “ecosystem services” estimated “ecosystem services” estimated at $33 trillionat $33 trillion– Maybe much moreMaybe much more– Some have estimated 100:1 Some have estimated 100:1

beneficial return on conservation beneficial return on conservation investmentinvestment

Costanza et al. 1997 “Value of the world’s ecosystem services” Nature

- Roderick Nash

Ethical importanceEthical importance

The biocentric view The biocentric view holds that each holds that each species has an species has an inherent value on inherent value on its own its own

““We must be concerned about conservation and We must be concerned about conservation and environmental responsibility not because it is profitable or environmental responsibility not because it is profitable or beautiful, and not even because it promotes our survival, beautiful, and not even because it promotes our survival, but because it is right.”but because it is right.”

InformationInformation

IUCN Red List of Threatened IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Species (www.redlist.orgwww.redlist.org))– Critically endangered, endangered, Critically endangered, endangered,

vulnerablevulnerable– Extinct, extinct in the wildExtinct, extinct in the wild

The Encyclopedia The Encyclopedia of Lifeof Life

Influence of E.O Wilson

What should we protect?What should we protect?

Conservation PlanningConservation Planning

Different strategies to deciding Different strategies to deciding what to protectwhat to protect– Species-based approachesSpecies-based approaches

Flagship or umbrella species (African Flagship or umbrella species (African elephant, tiger, giant panda)elephant, tiger, giant panda)

– Ecosystem based approachesEcosystem based approaches– What areas are most threatened and What areas are most threatened and

valuable? (e.g., Gap analysis)valuable? (e.g., Gap analysis)

Species-based Species-based approachesapproaches

Case Study: Tiger Conservation LandscapesCase Study: Tiger Conservation Landscapes

Ecoregions at riskEcoregions at risk

Hoekstra et al. 2005

Hot SpotsHot Spots (CI)(CI)

What tools do we What tools do we have? have? Many different strategies, some of Many different strategies, some of

most common include:most common include:– Zoos and aquariumsZoos and aquariums– International agreementsInternational agreements– Debt-for-nature swapsDebt-for-nature swaps– National lawsNational laws– Strict protected areas (e.g. National Parks) Strict protected areas (e.g. National Parks)

and areas that integrate conservation and and areas that integrate conservation and developmentdevelopment

– Economic incentivesEconomic incentives

Zoos and AquariumsZoos and Aquariums

Captive breedingCaptive breeding one way to protect one way to protect threatened and endangered speciesthreatened and endangered species– Act as “genetic ark”Act as “genetic ark”– But limited space (e.g., only 3 of 5 tiger But limited space (e.g., only 3 of 5 tiger

subspecies in US zoos; globally 280,000 subspecies in US zoos; globally 280,000 vertebrates, 7,000 sps)vertebrates, 7,000 sps)

– Zoos prefer “attractive” wildlife speciesZoos prefer “attractive” wildlife species– Important education role (600 milllion Important education role (600 milllion

visitors/year)visitors/year)– Major source of funds from Major source of funds from ex situex situ ( (captive) captive)

facilities to facilities to in situin situ (wild) conservation areas (wild) conservation areas

Seed BanksSeed Banks

Secure repository for backup Secure repository for backup supplies of seeds from plant supplies of seeds from plant varietiesvarieties

1,400 seed banks around the world 1,400 seed banks around the world Svalbard Global Seed Vault, Svalbard Global Seed Vault,

Norway, opened yesterday Norway, opened yesterday – Goal: to protect the genetic diversity Goal: to protect the genetic diversity

of the world’s main food cropsof the world’s main food crops

International International agreementsagreements 1973: Convention on International Trade in 1973: Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)(CITES)– Attempts to regulate international trade in species Attempts to regulate international trade in species

that may be imperiled by tradethat may be imperiled by trade 1992 “Earth Summit” (UN Conference on 1992 “Earth Summit” (UN Conference on

Environment and Sustainable Development)Environment and Sustainable Development)– >Convention on Biological Diversity called for a >Convention on Biological Diversity called for a

“fair and equitable” sharing of profits obtained by “fair and equitable” sharing of profits obtained by biotechnological development based on biological biotechnological development based on biological resources resources

– 188 countries (US not party)188 countries (US not party)

International programsInternational programs

UNESCO Man and the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere ProgramBiosphere Program– Biosphere ReservesBiosphere Reserves

1971 RAMSAR 1971 RAMSAR Convention on WetlandsConvention on Wetlands– List of Wetlands of List of Wetlands of

International ImportanceInternational Importance

Core Area

Buffer zone

Transition area

Core Area

Buffer zone

Transition area

settlements

tourist spot

research

settlements

tourist spot

research

Debt-for-nature swapsDebt-for-nature swaps

Many nations have borrowed money from Many nations have borrowed money from international lenders to support international lenders to support development of infrastructure, dams, etc.development of infrastructure, dams, etc.– Beginning in 1987 conservation groups and Beginning in 1987 conservation groups and

countries have bought discounted debt bonds countries have bought discounted debt bonds to generate funds for conservationto generate funds for conservation

– Ex: 1990 coalition of governments and Ex: 1990 coalition of governments and organizations purchased almost $11 million organizations purchased almost $11 million worth of Costa Rica’s debt, in exchange, worth of Costa Rica’s debt, in exchange, Costa Rica agreed to invest in conservation Costa Rica agreed to invest in conservation projectsprojects

National laws example:National laws example:

Endangered Species Endangered Species ActAct Since 1973, primary wildlife Since 1973, primary wildlife

conservation law in USconservation law in US– Realization that much habitat being lostRealization that much habitat being lost– Act: “various species of fish, wildlife, Act: “various species of fish, wildlife,

and plants in the United States have and plants in the United States have been rendered extinct as a been rendered extinct as a consequence of economic growth and consequence of economic growth and development untempered by adequate development untempered by adequate concern and conservation.”concern and conservation.”

– As noted by Supreme Court, “The plain As noted by Supreme Court, “The plain intent of Congress in enacting [ESA] intent of Congress in enacting [ESA] was to halt and reverse the trend was to halt and reverse the trend toward species extinction, toward species extinction, whatever the whatever the costcost.” .”

ImplementationImplementation

ImplementationImplementation– US Fish and Wildlife Service (Dept. Interior) US Fish and Wildlife Service (Dept. Interior)

and NOAA Fisheries Service (Dept. Commerce) and NOAA Fisheries Service (Dept. Commerce) responsible for day-to-day implementationresponsible for day-to-day implementation

– Authorized to identify and list animal and Authorized to identify and list animal and plant species that are endangered or plant species that are endangered or threatened in US and abroadthreatened in US and abroad

DefinitionsDefinitions– EndangeredEndangered: “in danger of extinction : “in danger of extinction

throughout all or a significant portion of its throughout all or a significant portion of its range”range”

– ThreatenedThreatened: “likely to become an endangered : “likely to become an endangered species in the foreseeable future”species in the foreseeable future”

Key Elements of ESAKey Elements of ESA

All All federal agenciesfederal agencies must consult with must consult with FWS before taking action that might FWS before taking action that might affected listed species affected listed species

Regulates private conductRegulates private conduct by making it by making it illegal for any person to sell, import, illegal for any person to sell, import, export, or transport any plant or export, or transport any plant or animal species or remove plants from animal species or remove plants from federal lands listed as endangered or federal lands listed as endangered or to “to “taketake” them ” them – Take broadly defined to mean “to harass, Take broadly defined to mean “to harass,

harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or to attempt to trap, capture, or collect, or to attempt to engage in any such conduct” engage in any such conduct”

Promoting RecoveryPromoting Recovery

Once species listed, FWS typically prepares Once species listed, FWS typically prepares recovery planrecovery plan for speciesfor species– About 80% of listed species have recovery planAbout 80% of listed species have recovery plan

1982 amendment that authorizes UFWS to issue 1982 amendment that authorizes UFWS to issue non-Federal entities a permit for the non-Federal entities a permit for the ““incidental incidental taketake”” of endangered and threatened wildlife. of endangered and threatened wildlife. – Defined as “Defined as “incidental to, and not the purpose of, the incidental to, and not the purpose of, the

carrying out of an otherwise lawful activity.”carrying out of an otherwise lawful activity.”– FWS can now permit “taking” if (1) taking is merely FWS can now permit “taking” if (1) taking is merely

incidental to an otherwise lawful activity (such as incidental to an otherwise lawful activity (such as property development), (2) the permit applicant has property development), (2) the permit applicant has devised an acceptable devised an acceptable habitat conservation plan (HCP)habitat conservation plan (HCP)

– To date, more than 450 HCPs have been approved To date, more than 450 HCPs have been approved covering 38 million acres and 200 listed speciescovering 38 million acres and 200 listed species

Reforming ESAReforming ESA

No surprises assurancesNo surprises assurances: : provided to private provided to private landowners to assure that if “unforeseen landowners to assure that if “unforeseen circumstances” arise, FWS will not require circumstances” arise, FWS will not require additional compensation or restrictions of their additional compensation or restrictions of their use of land, water, or other natural resources use of land, water, or other natural resources beyond what was agreed upon in HCP beyond what was agreed upon in HCP – FWS has adopted a “FWS has adopted a “Permit Revocation RulePermit Revocation Rule” to ” to

address concern if unforeseen circumstances arise address concern if unforeseen circumstances arise Safe harborSafe harbor agreements are used to encourage agreements are used to encourage

landowners to enhance, restore, or create landowners to enhance, restore, or create habitat on their propertyhabitat on their property– FWS agrees that if landowner enhances land, problems FWS agrees that if landowner enhances land, problems

won’t arise if they return to initial condition at later won’t arise if they return to initial condition at later timetime

– By 2005, over 30 agreements covering 30 million By 2005, over 30 agreements covering 30 million acresacres

Protected areasProtected areas

Evolution: Protecting dramatic landscapesEvolution: Protecting dramatic landscapes Recognition that we were losing wild placesRecognition that we were losing wild places

Protected areasProtected areasGrowth in number of marine and terrestrial protected areas

(area represents terrestrial only)

12.65% of earth’s surface

Early protected areasEarly protected areas

““Fences and fines” & “Fortress Fences and fines” & “Fortress conservation”conservation”

Emphasis on single protected Emphasis on single protected areas over reserve systems areas over reserve systems

Conservation-Conservation-DevelopmentDevelopment Integrated Conservation and Integrated Conservation and

Development Projects (ICDPS)Development Projects (ICDPS)– Community-based conservationCommunity-based conservation

IncentivesIncentives– Certification, subsidies, grants, job creationCertification, subsidies, grants, job creation

Ecotourism:Ecotourism:– Financing protected areas through Financing protected areas through

entrance fees and concession paymentsentrance fees and concession payments– Alternative livelihoodsAlternative livelihoods– StewardshipStewardship– Impetus for private conservationImpetus for private conservation

© P. Nyhus

TradeoffTradeoffs?s?

Subsistence use Multi-national tradeLocal markets National markets

Sustainability

PerformancePayments

Do local communities Do local communities benefit?benefit? Assumption: When local communities receive Assumption: When local communities receive

direct benefit from protected areas, they will direct benefit from protected areas, they will have the incentive to conserve those areashave the incentive to conserve those areas

Salafsky et al. (2001) tested this hypothesisSalafsky et al. (2001) tested this hypothesis– 39 community-based conservation efforts in Asia 39 community-based conservation efforts in Asia

and Pacificand Pacific Successful projects associated withSuccessful projects associated with

– Non-cash benefits, particularly development of Non-cash benefits, particularly development of high community confidence and close relationships high community confidence and close relationships with project staffwith project staff

– Local ownership and managementLocal ownership and management– Conservation threats posed by people or factors Conservation threats posed by people or factors

outside the community more effectively countered outside the community more effectively countered than those within the communitythan those within the community