biodiversity. community ecology i. introduction ii. multispecies interactions with a trophic level...

BIODIVERSITY

Community Ecology

I. Introduction

II. Multispecies Interactions with a Trophic Level

III. Multispecies Interactions across Trophic Levels

IV. Succession

V. Biodiversity: Patterns and Processes

A.The Species-Area Relationship

1. The pattern

"species - area relationship"

S = CAz

log10S = log10 C + z log10 A

where C is the y intercept and z is the slope of the line.


Breedings Birds - North Am.


Island Area log(square km)

Num

ber

of B

at S

peci

es lo

g(N

)

Community Ecology

I. Introduction



IV. Succession



1. The pattern

2. The Theory of Island Biogeography

MacArthur and Wilson (1967)

THEORY OF ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY

Edward O. Wilson

Prof. Emer., Harvard

Robert MacArthur

1930-1972

MacArthur and Wilson (1967)

THEORY OF ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY

- Species Richness is a balance between

COLONIZATION (adds species)

and

EXTINCTION (subtracts species)

- Colonization Increases with Area

- larger target

- more habitats

Mainland

confirmation: greater immigration rate on larger islands


- larger target

- more habitats


- larger target

- more habitats (except very small)

Niering, W.A. 1963. Terrestrial ecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands. Ecological Monographs 33:131-160.


- larger target

- more habitats

- Extinction Decreases with Area

- more food means larger populations that are less likely to bounce to a size of "0" (extinction)

- Extinction Decreases with Area

Wright, S.J. 1980. Density compensation in island avifaunas. Oecologia 45: 385-389.

Wright, S. J. 1985. How isolation affects rates of turnover of species on islands. Oikos 44:331-340.

Reduced Turnover on larger islands

http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/image/358

RA

TE

species richness

COL - smallEXT - small

COL - large

EXT - large

SMALL LARGE

- Colonization Decreases with Distance

- fewer species can reach

Mainland

saturation is the % of species found on a patch of mainland that size

- Colonization Decreases with Distance

- fewer species can reach

- Extinction Increases with Distance

- recolonization less likely at distance

Mainland

"Rescue Effect"

- Extinction Increases with Distance

- recolonization less likely at distance

Wright, S.J. 1980. Density compensation in island avifaunas. Oecologia 45: 385-389.

Wright, S. J. 1985. How isolation affects rates of turnover of species on islands. Oikos 44:331-340.

RA

TE

species richness

COL - farEXT - far

COL - close

EXT - close

far close

Equilbrium Island Biogeography & TurnoverTurnover on "Landbridge" islands (California Channel Islands)

IslandArea km2

Distance km

Bird Spp. 1917

Bird Spp. 1968

Extinctions

Human Introd.

Immigrations

Turnover %

Los Coronados

2.6 13 11 11 4 0 4 36

San Nicholas

57 98 11 11 6 2 4 50

San Clemente

145 79 28 24 9 1 4 25

Santa Catalina

194 32 30 34 6 1 9 24

Santa Barbara

2.6 61 10 6 7 0 3 62

San Miguel 36 42 11 15 4 0 8 46

Santa Rosa 218 44 14 25 1 1 11 32

Santa Cruz 249 31 36 37 6 1 5 17

Anacapa 2.9 21 15 14 5 0 4 31

Diamond, J.M. 1969. Avifaunal equilibria and species turnover rates on the Channel Islands of California. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci 64: 57-63. Jones, H.L. and Diamond, J.M. 1976. Short-time-base studies of turnover in breeding bird populations on the Channel Islands of California. Condore 73: 526-549. [+]

equilibria


Equilbrium Island Biogeography & TurnoverTurnover on "Landbridge" islands (California Channel Islands)

IslandArea km2

Distance km

Bird Spp. 1917

Bird Spp. 1968

Extinctions

Human Introd.

Immigrations

Turnover %

Los Coronados

2.6 13 11 11 4 0 4 36

San Nicholas

57 98 11 11 6 2 4 50

San Clemente

145 79 28 24 9 1 4 25

Santa Catalina

194 32 30 34 6 1 9 24

Santa Barbara

2.6 61 10 6 7 0 3 62

San Miguel 36 42 11 15 4 0 8 46

Santa Rosa 218 44 14 25 1 1 11 32

Santa Cruz 249 31 36 37 6 1 5 17

Anacapa 2.9 21 15 14 5 0 4 31

Diamond, J.M. 1969. Avifaunal equilibria and species turnover rates on the Channel Islands of California. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci 64: 57-63. Jones, H.L. and Diamond, J.M. 1976. Short-time-base studies of turnover in breeding bird populations on the Channel Islands of California. Condore 73: 526-549. [+]

equilibria and turnover


Dramatic evidence that, although the communities had recovered in terms of species richness, the composition was very different with typically about 80% of the species turning over.

Community Ecology

I. Introduction



IV. Succession



1. The pattern


3. Why is this important? Fragmentation

- Why is this important?

- all habitats except the atmosphere are islands.

Continents -

big islands

White-faced Saki (Pithecia pithecia)


Monk Saki (Pithecia monachus)



White-footed Saki (Pithecia albicans)



White-footed Saki (Pithecia albicans)

Rio Tapajos Saki (Pithecia irrorata)

Minnesota: Land O'Lakes

"Sky Islands"

High elevation habitats separated by inhospitable (desert) habitat.


- all habitats except the atmosphere are islands.

- human activity fragments a landscape, making lots of islands, too.

Bolivia has lost 50% of its rainforest in last 30 years

Even Costa Rica has lost 95% of its old growth forest that is outside of national parks...

Community Ecology

I. Introduction



IV. Succession



1. The pattern



4. The SLOSS debate

- The SLOSS Debate

- So, to preserve biodiversity (and the ecosystem services it provides to humanity), conservationists began to consider the best strategy for maximizing the preservation of diversity...should we preserve several small areas, or a single large one?

• Large > Small

• Minimize Edge

• Clumped

• CorridorsWilson and Willis (1975)


- Conserving Diversity: the SLOSS debate

Num

ber o

f Spe

cies

Area in Square Meters


- Conserving Diversity: the SLOSS debate

Simberloff and Gotelli (1983)

BUT! Can we maintain all the species if they live on different islands?

A B

C D

E F

G H

A B

C D

E F G H

All species preserved while accommodating the species area effect!

- BUT! Can we maintain all the species if they live on different islands?

- Probably not, because communities are NESTED.

A B

C D

E F

G H

A B

C D

E F G H



Nested Subset Structure: Species on species-poor islands are also found on species-rich islands.

A B

C D

E F

G H

A B

C D

E F G H



Nested Subset Structure: Species on species-poor islands are also found on specie-rich islands.

A B

C D

E F

G H

A B

C D

E F G H

NOT NESTED

A A

A B

A B C A

NESTED

Community Ecology

I. Introduction



IV. Succession



1. The pattern



4. The SLOSS debate

5. Nestedness

NESTED-SUBSET STRUCTURE:(Darlington 1957, Patterson and Atmar 1986)


- Conserving Diversity: the SLOSS debate - "Nestedness" (Darlington (1957); Patterson and Atmar (1986)

Communities are ‘nested’ if the Communities are ‘nested’ if the species in depauperate species in depauperate assemblages are also found in assemblages are also found in progressively more species rich progressively more species rich communitiescommunities

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y ZA B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z2626

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X 2424

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O ++ Q R S T U V W X Q R S T U V W X 2323

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U ++2121

A B C D E F G H I J K L M A B C D E F G H I J K L M ++ O P Q R S T O P Q R S T ++1919

A B C D E A B C D E ++ G H I J K G H I J K + ++ + N O P N O P ++ 1313

A B C D E A B C D E ++ G G ++ I J K I J K + ++ + N O N O ++ Q Q ++ V V 1414

A B C D E A B C D E + ++ + H I J K L H I J K L ++ N O N O ++ ++ 1212

A B C D E F G H A B C D E F G H + ++ +K L K L + ++ + O P O P ++ 1111

A B C D E F G A B C D E F G ++ I J K I J K + + + + ++ + + + + 1010

A B C D E F G H I J A B C D E F G H I J + + + + ++ + + + + 1010

A B C D E F G A B C D E F G + + ++ + + ++ M M ++ R R 9 9

A B C D E F A B C D E F ++ H H + ++ + L L + ++ + P P 9 9

A B C A B C ++ E E ++ I J I J ++ N N 7 7

A B C D E F I A B C D E F I ++ 77

A B C D E F A B C D E F ++ M M 7 7

A B C D E A B C D E ++ G G ++ M M 7 7

A B C D E F H A B C D E F H ++ 77


A B C D E FA B C D E F ++ 66

A B C D A B C D + + F LF L 6 6

A B C D E A B C D E ++ 55

A B C A B C + ++ + F L F L 5 5

A B A B ++ D E D E 4 4

A B A B + + F F 3 3

A B A B ++ 22

CC 1 1

CC 1 1

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y ZA B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z2626

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X 2424

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O ++ Q R S T U V W X Q R S T U V W X 2323

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U ++2121

A B C D E F G H I J K L M A B C D E F G H I J K L M ++ O P Q R S T O P Q R S T ++1919

A B C D E A B C D E ++ G H I J K G H I J K + ++ + N O P N O P ++ 1313

A B C D E A B C D E ++ G G ++ I J K I J K + ++ + N O N O ++ Q Q ++ V V 1414

A B C D E A B C D E + ++ + H I J K L H I J K L ++ N O N O ++ ++ 1212

A B C D E F G H A B C D E F G H + ++ +K L K L + ++ + O P O P ++ 1111

A B C D E F G A B C D E F G ++ I J K I J K + + + + ++ + + + + 1010

A B C D E F G H I J A B C D E F G H I J + + + + ++ + + + + 1010

A B C D E F G A B C D E F G + + ++ + + ++ M M ++ R R 9 9

A B C D E F A B C D E F ++ H H + ++ + L L + ++ + P P 9 9

A B C A B C ++ E E ++ I J I J ++ N N 7 7

A B C D E F I A B C D E F I ++ 77

A B C D E F A B C D E F ++ M M 7 7

A B C D E A B C D E ++ G G ++ M M 7 7



A B C D E FA B C D E F ++ 66

A B C D A B C D + + F LF L 6 6

A B C D E A B C D E ++ 55

A B C A B C + ++ + F L F L 5 5

A B A B ++ D E D E 4 4

A B A B + + F F 3 3

A B A B ++ 22

CC 1 1

CC 1 1

NESTEDNESSNESTEDNESS (Patterson and Atmar 1986)(Patterson and Atmar 1986)

Goby 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1Gudgeon 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1Catfish 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1Hardyhead 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Perch 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NESTEDNESS AND NICHE SPACENESTEDNESS AND NICHE SPACE(Kodric-Brown and Brown 1993)(Kodric-Brown and Brown 1993)

NESTEDNESS AND NICHE SPACE(Kodric-Brown and Brown 1993)

GobyGudgeon

Catfish

Hardyhead

Perch



- Fragmentation causes decreased diversity

- non-random loss of predators

- subsequent declines – keystone effects



- Fragmentation causes decreased diversity

- increased stress decreases diversity non-randomly

• Small (4-6g)

• Medium (10-15g)

• Large (21-32g)

MYCOPHAGOUS FLY COMMUNITIES:SPECIES-AREA AND NESTEDNESS PATTERNS

(Worthen, Carswell and Kelly 1996)

L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L

MMMMM M MM MMMMMMM

S S S S S S S S

RICHNESS 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Phorid sp. 1 1 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

D. putrida 1 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

L. varia + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 1 + + + + + 1 1 1 1

D. tripunctata 1 1 + + + + + + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

M. dimidiata 1 1 1

D. falleni + + 1 1

Muscid sp. + + 1 1

Leptocera sp. ‘B’ 1 + 1

Leptocera sp. ‘A’ + + 1 1

MYCOPHAGOUS FLY COMMUNITIES:SPECIES-AREA AND NESTEDNESS PATTERNS

(Worthen, Carswell and Kelly 1996)

MYCOPHAGOUS FLY COMMUNITIES:DIFFERENCES IN DESICCATION TOLERANCE?

(Worthen and Haney 1999)

39.0

39.5

40.0

40.5

41.0

41.5

13 15 20 25 30 33

ACCLIMATION TEMPERATURE (oC)

39.0

39.5

40.0

40.5

41.0

41.5

13 15 20 25 30 33

ACCLIMATION TEMPERATURE (oC)

D. putrida

D. falleni

D. tripunctata

7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

L. varia 1 x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x 1 x 1 1 1 x 1 1 x 1 1 1 1 1 x x x x x 1 x 1 x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Phorid x 1 1 1 1 x x x 1 x 1 1 1 1 1 x 1 x x 1 1 1 x x 1 x x x x x x x 1 x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

D. falleni 1 x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x x x 1 x 1 1 x 1 1 x x x 1 1 x 1 1 1 1

Muscid 1 1 1 1 x 1 1 1 1 x x x x 1 x 1 x x x x 1 x x 1 1 1 1

D. putrida 1 x 1 x 1 1 1 1 1 1 x x x x x 1 x 1 x x x x 1 x x 1 1 1

Mycetophilid x x x 1 x x x 1 x x x x x x 1 x x x x x x 1 x x x x x x 1 x x 1 1 x x x x x 1 1 1 1

S. alternatus 1 1 1 1 x 1 1 x x 1 x x x 1 x x x x x x x x x x x x 1 x x x x x x x x x x x 1

Tipulid 1 1 1 x x x x x x x 1 1 x 1 x x x x x x 1 x x x x x x 1 x x x x x x x x x x 1

D. tripunctata x x x x 1 x x x x x 1 x 1 x x x 1 1 1

M. dimidiata x x x x x x x x x x 1 1 x x x x x x x x x x x x x 1

Cecidomyiid 1 1 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 1

D. neotest. x 1 x x x x x x x 1 x x x x x x 1

N = 231 P&A (1986) RANDOM1 = 265.4 + 23.4 z = -1.45 ns

EFFECT OF DESICCATION ON NESTEDNESS(Worthen, Jones and Jetton 1998)

4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

L.varia 1 x 1 1 x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Phorid x 1 x x 1 1 x x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Muscid 1 x x x x x 1 1 1 x x x x 1 1 1

Tipulid x 1 1 1 1

D. putrida 1 1 x 1

M. dimidiata x x 1

Psychodid 1

S. alternatus 1

N = 22 P&A (1986) RANDOM1 = 45.1 + 10.5 z = -2.15*

EFFECT OF DESICCATION ON NESTEDNESS(Worthen, Jones and Jetton 1998)

THE EFFECT OF AN INDUSTRIAL SPILL ON THE MACROFAUNA OF THE UPPER ENOREE

(Worthen, Haney, Cuddy, Turgeon and Andersen 2001)

The Upper Enoree River

NESTEDNESS, STRESS, AND THE STRUCTURE OF LARVAL ODONATE ASSEMBLAGES

R1 = 10.41 + 3.78;

x + 1.96 sd = 2.59 to 17.82

N = 4, ns

Not nested

C9 C8 T4 C7 C6 C5 C4 T1 T2 T3 C3Distance 7.2 6.3 4.7 3.4 2.4 1.8 0.7Richness 7 5 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1

NCordulegaster 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0Progomphus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0Macromia 1 1 1 1 1 1 0Boyeria 1 1 x x x 1 x 1 1 4Gomphus 1 1 0Stylurus 1 0Hagenius 1 0

R1 = 3.00 + 1.50;

x + 1.96 sd = 0.04 to 8.98

N = 0, p < 0.05

Nested

C9 C8 C7 C6 C5 C4 C3Distance 7.2 6.3 4.7 3.4 2.4 1.8 0.7Richness 7 5 3 3 3 3 1

NCordulegaster 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0Progomphus 1 1 1 1 1 1 0Macromia 1 1 1 1 1 0Boyeria 1 1 1 0Gomphus 1 1 0Stylurus 1 0Hagenius 1 0

NESTEDNESS, STRESS, AND THE STRUCTURE OF LARVAL ODONATE ASSEMBLAGES

Summary: Causes of nestedness - nested niche space

- differences in dispersal capabilities

-differences in extinction probabilities

As these are the same factors that cause the species-area relationship, itself, we should not be surprized that communities distributed across habitats of different size are often nested, too.

biodiversity. community ecology i. introduction ii. multispecies interactions with a trophic level...

Documents

area larger target

species turnover rates

distance fewer species

size colonization decreases

caroline islands

larger populations

island avifaunas

multispecies interactions