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BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033XVolume 13, Number 3, July 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722Pages: 107-113 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130301

A comparative phylogenetic analysis of medicinal plant Tribulusterrestris in Northwest India revealed by RAPD and ISSR markers

ASHWANI KUMAR1,♥, NEELAM VERMA2

1Department of Biotechnology, Shri Ram Group of Colleges, Muzaffarnagar 251001, Uttar Pradesh, India. Tel. +91-7417076417,♥email: [email protected]

2Department of Biotechnology, Punjabi University, Patiala 147002, Punjab, India.

Manuscript received: 6 June 2012. Revision accepted: 31 August 2012.

ABSTRACT

Kumar A, Verma N. 2012. A comparative phylogenetic analysis of medicinal plant Tribulus terrestris in Northwest India revealed byRAPD and ISSR markers. Biodiversitas 13: 107-113. Several DNA marker systems and associated techniques are available today forfingerprinting of plant varieties. A total of 5 RAPD and 8 ISSR primers were used. Amplification of genomic DNA of the 6 genotypes,using RAPD analysis, yielded 164 fragments that could be scored, of which 47 were polymorphic, with an average of 9.4 polymorphicfragments per primer. Number of amplified fragments with random primers ranged from 6 (AKR-1) to 10 (AKR-4) and varied in sizefrom 200 bp to 2,500 bp. Percentage polymorphism ranged from 16% (AKR-4) to a maximum of 41% (AKR-4), with an average of29.6%. The 8 ISSR primers used in the study produced 327 bands across 6 genotypes, of which 114 were polymorphic. The number ofamplified bands varied from 7 (ISSR 7) to 12 (ISSR 1&3), with a size range of 250-2,800 bp. The average numbers of bands per primerand polymorphic bands per primer were 40.87 and 14.25, respectively. Percentage polymorphism ranged from 24% (ISSR 4) to 53.84%(ISSR 2), with an average percentage polymorphism of 35.59% across all the genotypes. The 3′-anchored primers based on poly (AC)and poly (AT) motifs produced high average polymorphisms of 53.84% and 40.81%, respectively. ISSR markers were more efficientthan the RAPD assay, as they detected 35.59% polymorphic DNA markers in Tribulus terrestris as compared to 29.6% for RAPDmarkers. Clustering of genotypes within groups was not similar when RAPD and ISSR derived dendrogram were compared, whereasthe pattern of clustering of the genotypes remained more or less the same in ISSR and combined data of RAPD and ISSR.

Key words: Genetic diversity, Phylogenetic analysis, Tribulus terrestris, RAPD, ISSR

Abbreviations: CTAB: Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, ISSR: Inter simple sequence repeat, RAPD: random amplified polymorphicDNA, PCR: Polymerase chain reaction, PCA: principal component analysis, TT: Tribulus terrestris, UPGMA: unweighted pair group method

INTRODUCTION

Puncture vine (Tribulus terrestris) is an importantmedicinal weed found wildly in India, most parts of centraland east Africa and in other Asian countries including SriLanka, China and Japan. Tribulus terrestris belonging tothe Zygophyllaceae family grows naturally in moist placesin woods, low mountains and hills. Its geographicaldistributions are wide in East Asia, particularly in China.This plant species, commonly called puncture vine, is aperennial herb highly valued in Chinese traditionalmedicine. In addition, the claimed therapeutic values of T.terrestris include treatment for dyspepsia, poor appetite,fatigue and psychoneurosis. Recent years have seen ahighly accelerated demand for T. terrestris, fruits whichhas inevitably led to destructive over-harvesting anddepletion of its natural resources (Van Valkenburg andBunyapraphatsara 2001).

Molecular markers are highly heritable and exhibitenough polymorphism to discriminate genotypes. They canbe very useful in identifying varieties at early stages ofgrowth and characterize the genotype comprehensivelysince they are available in very high numbers and aredistributed throughout the genome. Application of

molecular markers as complementary approach for geneticcharacterization has been reported in many crops (Karp etal. 1998). ISSR (Gupta et al. 1994; Zietkiewicz et al. 1994;Bornet and Branchard 2001) markers are consideredsuperior to RAPD (Qian et al. 2001). RAPD analysisprovides high resolution and can be carried out on smallamount of DNA (Carter and Sytsma 2001; Jolner et al.2004). However, it is well known that RAPD markers canbe sensitive to changes in reaction conditions, resulting inlow reproducibility and inconsistencies in amplificationefficiencies among samples (Weising et al. 1995). ISSRmarkers have been used to characterize gene bankaccessions (Blair et al. 1999) as well as to identify closelyrelated cultivars (Fang and Roose 1997). The potentialsupply of ISSR marker depends on the variety andfrequency of microsatellites, which changes with speciesand the SSR motifs that are targeted (Depeiges et al. 1995).ISSR primers with a given microsatellite repeat shouldreflect the relative frequency of that motif in a givengenome and would provide an estimate of the motif’sabundance. A large number of polymorphic markers arerequired to measure genetic relationships and geneticdiversity in a reliable manner (Santalla et al. 1998). Thislimits the use of morphological characters and isozymes,

BIODIVERSITAS 13 (3): 107-113, July 2012108

which are few or lack adequate levels in Tribulus terrestris.Molecular genetic markers have developed into a powerfultool to analyze genetic relationships and genetic diversity.Both RAPD and ISSR remain attractive options despiteavailability of sophisticated techniques because they areeasy, quick, simple and economical. Present study reportsmolecular characterization of 6 cytotypes of T. terrestris,from Northwest India employing RAPD and ISSRtechniques. Our aims also were to: (i) provide a betterunderstanding of the phylogenetic relationships betweenTribulus population, and (ii) determine the degree to whichPCR based markers such us as RAPDs or ISSRs are able toassess the variation and genetic relationship withinTribulus terrestris population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Several experiments were carried out, however, onlythe optimized protocol is described here.

Plant material and DNA preparationHere, we used the set of 6 cytotypes of Tribulus

terrestris (Table 1). The leaves of Tribulus terrestris werecollected from naturally grown population of the sixdifferent districts (Patiala, Delhi, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar,Baghpat and Haridwar) of Northwest India in 2006, andtheir identity was confirmed and voucher specimens weredeposit in the herbarium, Department of Botany, PunjabiUniversity, Patiala, India.

Young and healthy leaves from single trees of eachaccession were used for DNA isolation by CTAB methodwith minor modifications (Doyle and Doyle 1990; Saghai-Maroof et al. 1984). Essentially, the extraction buffercomposition was 4% w/v CTAB, 1.4MNaCl, 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8), 20 mM EDTA, 2% PVP w/v, and 0.2% 2-mercapto ethanol v/v. DNA was treated with bovinepancreatic RNAse and extracted once with phenol:chloroform (1:1) and twice with chloroform: iso-amylalcohol (24:1). After precipitation with iso-propanol, a 70%ethanol wash was given. DNA was dissolved to appropriatedilution in TE buffer and quantified in a spectrophotometer.

Primer screeningA preliminary experiment on 6 randomly selected

Tribulus accessions was carried out to select most suitable

primers for identification. 6 random primers and 8 ISSRprimers were screened for repeatability, scorability, andtheir ability to distinguish within varieties. Random primersAKR-1, AKR-2, AKR-3, AKR-4, AKR-5 and AKR-6procured from (Imperial LifeSci Ltd. India); and primersISSR1-8 from (custom made from Bangalore Genei)exhibited maximum efficiency of discrimination in termsof resolving power (Prevost and Wilkinson 1999). Theseprimers were employed for varietal identification.

Amplification conditions for RAPD and ISSR-PCR andgel electrophoresis

In order to select optimal primers for effective use inRAPD-PCR analysis, 6 random primers (10 bp) of theImperial biotech company were screened using TTpopulation genomic DNA; 5 primers that generated clearbands and reproducible fragments were selected for furtherinvestigation (Table 2).

RAPD assay was carried out in 25 μl reaction mixturecontaining 2.5 μl 10x Taq DNA-polymerase PCRamplification buffer, 10 mM dNTPs, 1.0 U/μl of Taq DNApolymerase (Genei, India), 15 pmoles of 10-mer primer(Operon Technologies Inc, USA) and 50 ŋg of genomicDNA. Amplification was performed in PCR (Techne,India).

The sequential PCR steps involved: 1 cycle of 2 min at93°C, 2 min at 35°C and 2 min at 72°C followed by 44cycles of 1 min at 93°C, 1 min at 36°C and 2 min at 72°C.The last cycle was followed by 10 min extension at 72°C.The amplified products were resolved in 1.8% agarose gel(1xTBE) followed by Ethidium Bromide staining and thebands detected then photographed using a geldocumentation system (BioRad, USA) (Figure 1).

A total of 8- primers were tested to amplify DNAbanding patterns using the total genomic DNA (Table 2).These were: ISSR-1 (GAGA)4 GAT, ISSR-2(GAGA)4GAAC, ISSR-3 (GAGA)4 GAAT, ISSR-4(ACC)4Y, ISSR-5 (GACA)4, ISSR-6 (GATA)4, ISSR-7(GA)9 C and ISSR-8 (GA)9 A.

The PCR reaction mixture (25 µL) was composed of 50ng of total cellular DNA (2 µL), 10 µM of primer (2.5 µL),2.5 µL of Taq DNA polymerase reaction buffer, 0.35 µL ofTaq DNA polymerase and 10 mM of each dNTPs (DNApolymerization mix). Each reaction mixture was overlaidwith 25 µL of mineral oil to avoid evaporation during PCRcycling. Amplifications were performed in a DNA

Table 1. Localities and their geographical coordinates from which Tribulus terrestris samples were collected for the morphological andchromosomal characterization.

Coll.no.

Locality Geographicalcoordinates

Chromo-some no.

(2n)Ploidy Accession

No.

01 New Delhi; Railway Line, Near Old Delhi railway station 28º36” N, 77º12” E 12 Diploid 4931802 Uttaranchal, Haridwar; PAC Play ground, Jwalapur 29º48” N, 78º36” E 48 Octaploid 4931603 Uttar Pradesh, Baghpat; Railway Line, Near Baraut railway station 28º00” N, 77º00” E 36 Hexaploid 4932004 Punjab, Patiala; Road side, Punjabi Univ. Patiala Campus 30º09” N, 76º17” E 24 Tetraploid 4932105 Uttar Pradesh, Meerut; Play ground, CCS Univ. Meerut Campus 29º00” N, 77º00” E 24 Tetraploid 4931906 Uttar Pradesh, Muzaffarnagar; Waste Land of Titawi village 29º09” N, 77º43” E 24 Tetraploid 49317

KUMAR & VERMA – Phylogenetic analysis of Tribulus terrestris based on RAPD and ISSR 109

Table 2. Analysis of banding patterns generated by RAPD and ISSR assay for the six Tribulus terrestris cultivars

Primer name and sequence Total no. of amplifiedproducts

Polymorphicbands % Polymorphism

Expected PCRproduct size

(bp)

Annealingtemperature

(0C)RAPDAKR-1 (3’TGTGTGCCAC5’) 23 6 26 200 to 2,500

for all products 360C for all 5primers

AKR-3 (3’AGGCTGTGCT5’) 25 7 28AKR-4 (3’GTGCCGTTCA5’) 50 8 16AKR-5 (3’GGGTGGGTAA5’) 27 10 37AKR-6 (3’CCGACAAACC5’) 39 16 41

Total = 164 47 Average = 29.6ISSRISSR-1 (GAGA)4 GAT 49 20 40.81 300-1500 52ISSR-2 (GAGA)4GAAC 26 14 53.84 250-2500 52ISSR-3 (GAGA)4 GAAT 51 18 35.29 250-1500 52ISSR-4 (ACC)4Y 50 12 24 250-2800 60ISSR-5 (GACA)4 42 15 35.71 250-2000 52ISSR-6 (GATA)4 45 17 37.77 250-2000 42ISSR-7 (GA)9C 35 8 22.85 250-2000 55ISSR-8 (GA)9A 29 10 34.48 300-2000 55

Total = 327 114 Average = 35.59

amplification thermo cycler (Techne India). The apparatuswas programmed to execute the following conditions: adenaturation step of 7 min at 94°C followed by 30 cycleseach composed of 30 s at 94°C, 45 s at the primer’sspecific melting temperature (Tm) at 52-60°C and 2 min at72°C. A final extension step of 7 min also at 72°C was runat the end of the last PCR cycle.

PCR reactions were electrophorezed on 1.4% agarosegels in 10xTBE buffer by loading 25 µL of the reactionmixture into prepared wells. Gels were run for 4-5 h at 90V, stained with ethidium bromide (10 µg ml−1) according toSambrook et al. (1989), and ISSR banding patterns werevisualized using a UV transilluminator (Figure 2).

Statistical data analysisFor RAPD and ISSR analysis, the banding patterns

were recorded using a gel documentation system (Bio-RedGel Doc 1000), and the image profiles and molecularweight of each band were determined by MolecularAnalyst/pc (Version 1.2) software. The fragment sizescored ranged from 250 to 1000 bp. Both weak bands withnegligible intensity and smearing bands were excludedfrom final data analysis. The bands with the samemolecular weight and mobility were treated as identicalfragments. In the data matrices, Amplicons were scored asdiscrete variables, using 1/0 as presence/absence ofhomologous bands for all samples. The data matrices wereanalyzed by the SIMQUAL program of NTSYS-pc(Version 1.8), and similarities between accessions wereestimated using the Jaccard coefficient. For phylogeneticanalysis, Dendrograms were produced from the distancematrices using the unweighted pair group method witharithmetic averages (UPGMA). In order to compare thelevels of genetic diversity between the Tribulus species(Sneath and Sokal 1973). Finally, a principal componentanalysis (PCA) was performed in order to highlight theresolving power of the ordination.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Marker profile and discrimination of genotypesMolecular markers generated by RAPD and ISSR target

different regions of the genome, though in a randommanner. Theoretically, a combination of RAPD and ISSRmarkers would give a better coverage of genome. Primerwise and technique wise results are given in Table 2Amplification of genomic DNA of the 6 TT genotypes,using RAPD analysis, yielded 164 fragments that could bescored, of which 47 were polymorphic, with an average of9.4 polymorphic fragments per primer. Number ofamplified fragments with random primers ranged from 6(AKR-1) to 10 (AKR-4) and varied in size from 200 bp to2,500 bp. Percentage polymorphism ranged from 16%(AKR-4) to a maximum of 41% (AKR-4), with an averageof 29.6%. Polymorphism was high enough to enablediscrimination of all the varieties, though none of theprimers discriminated all the accessions independently. The8 ISSR primers used in the study produced 327 bandsacross 6 genotypes, of which 114 were polymorphic. Thenumber of amplified bands varied from 7 (ISSR 7) to 12(ISSR 1&3), with a size range of 250-2,800 bp. Theaverage numbers of bands per primer and polymorphicbands per primer were 40.87 and 14.25, respectively.Percentage polymorphism ranged from 24% (ISSR 4) to53.84% (ISSR 2), with an average percentagepolymorphism of 35.59% across all the genotypes. The 3′-anchored primers based on poly (AC) and poly (AT) motifsproduced high average polymorphisms of 53.84% and40.81%, respectively. ISSR markers were more efficientthan the RAPD assay, as they detected 35.59%polymorphic DNA markers in Tribulus terrestris ascompared to 29.6% for RAPD markers. This deduced thatthese primers employed in the study returned a high degreeof confidence in identification.


A B C

D E

Figure 1. A. Screening of 6 RAPD primers for Tribulus terrestris genotypes DNA fingerprinting; and RAPD-PCR products of 6different Tribulus terrestris DNA samples with random primers: B. AKR-1, C. AKR-2, D. AKR-3, E. AKR-4, F. AKR-5. From left toright: Lane M. 100bps DNA ladder, lane 1. Haridwar, 2. Meerut, 3. Delhi, 4. Baghpat, 5. Muzaffarnagar, and 6. Patiala

A B C

D E F

G H I

Figure 2. A. Screening of ISSR primers; and ISSR profile of 6 Tribulus terrestris genotypes with primer: B. ISSR-1, C. ISSR-2, D.ISSR-3, E. ISSR-4, F. ISSR-5, G. ISSR-6, H. ISSR-7, I. ISSR-8. From left to right: Lane M. 100bps DNA ladder, lane 1. Haridwar, 2.Meerut, 3. Delhi, 4. Baghpat, 5. Muzaffarnagar, and 6. Patiala


A B C

Figure 3. Dendrograms generated using UPGMA analysis, showing relationships between Tribulus terrestris genotypes, using: A.RAPD, B. ISSR, C. combining both RAPD and ISSR data. Note: 1. Haridwar, 2. Meerut, 3. Delhi, 4. Baghpat, 5. Muzaffarnagar, and 6.Patiala

Genetic relations and utilization of diversityAlthough major emphasis of this work was to generate

DNA profiles of the varieties, the marker data was alsoused to study genetic relations among varieties. Clusteranalysis was used to generate three dendrograms based onthe Jaccard coefficient of RAPD, ISSR and combined ofboth for all 6 plant samples (Figure 3.A, 3.B, 3.Crespectively). The resultant dendrograms from RAPD andISSR showed that the populations were divided into twogroups but some differences were observed in theallocation of populations to these groups in the RAPD andISSR data sets, while combined data represent three groupsof Tribulus population. In the dendrograms derived fromthe RAPD data set the Jaccard coefficient ranged from 0.61to 1.00. Populations from Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Delhi,Patiala and Haridwar all formed one main group, andanother second group was composed of Baghpatpopulation. Within the latter group, populations of Meerutand Delhi constituted one sub-group and populations fromPatiala and Haridwar clustered into the other subgroup.Populations from Patiala and Haridwar appeared to becloser to each other than clusters of the other populations.Dendrograms derived from the ISSR data set the Jaccardcoefficient ranged from 0.525 to 1.00. Populations fromMuzaffarnagar and Delhi formed one group, and anothersecond main group was composed of Meerut, Patiala andHaridwar and Baghpat population. Within the latter group,populations of Meerut and Baghpat constituted one sub-group. Populations from Meerut and Baghpat also appearedto be closer to each other than clusters of the otherpopulations

In the combined dendrogram derived from RAPD andISSR analysis, the Jaccard coefficient ranged from 0.582 to1.00. Populations from Muzaffarnagar and Delhi formedone group, Patiala and Haridwar formed the second groupand remaining samples those from Meerut and Baghpat,

formed the third group. Populations of Meerut and Baghpatalso appeared to be closer to each other than anotherclustered populations of Tribulus terrestris. Thedendrogram based on RAPD showed some variation within the clustering of genotypes. The ISSR and combineddendrogram indicated a similarity that Meerut and Baghpatpopulations were closer to each other than otherpopulations. All the Tribulus genotypes could bediscriminated based on these total 13 RAPD and ISSRprimers.

PCA output produced by NTSYS using the simplematching matrix for RAPD and ISSR combined data

In order to visualize the data, you may wish to presentthe PCA graph, which gives a good three-dimensionalpicture of the variation. Principal Component Analysisassociated with the Minimum Spanning Tree, based on thesix genotypes of Tribulus and provided complementaryinformation to cluster analysis, as it allows a graphicalpresentation of the distribution of the cultivars in a three-dimensional plot (Figure 4.A, 4.B, 4.C). In thisrepresentation Populations from Meerut and Baghpat arethe most similar cultivars similar like ISSR-PCA analysis.The Eigenvalues indicate that three components provide avery good description of the data, as account for 69.68% ofthe standardized variance. The analysis of Eigenvectorsprovides information about the traits responsible for theseparations along the first three Principal Components. PC1had 29.2124% of the total variation. This PrincipalComponent is responsible for the individualization of Delhiand Muzaffarnagar populations. PC2 exhibited 21.6469%of the total variability, and is responsible for the separationof Meerut and Baghpat from Haridwar and Patialapopulations. A part from the other cultivars PC3 had18.9246% of the total variation. PC3 is responsible for theseparation of Haridwar and Patiala population.

5

2

3

6

1

4

5

3

6

2

4

1

5

3

6

1

2

4


A B C

Figure 4. Three-dimensional plot of principal component analysis of using Tribulus terrestris genotypes using: A. RAPD, B. ISSR, C.combining both RAPD and ISSR analyses.

The evolution of varieties in distinct agro-climaticzones demonstrates significant levels of variation inresponse to the selection pressure in the zones (Singh et al.1998). It is, therefore, not surprising to find significantlevels of polymorphism among the 6 genotypes ofpuncturevine in RAPD (29.6%) and ISSR (35.59%)markers. The RAPD technique has been applied to assessmolecular polymorphism in Vigna (Kaga et al. 1996),mung bean (Santalla et al. 1998; Lakhanpaul 2000). Thesuccess of our study in identifying polymorphism is due tothe use of a number of randomly selected prescreenedhighly informative primers.

CONCLUSION

With the increasing use of DNA fingerprinting in plantand its potential use in herbal drug industry, the preparationof good quality and quantity DNA has become a majorconcern. The extraction from tissue needs to be simple,rapid, efficient and inexpensive when many samples areused, such as in population studies, molecular breeding andscreening of raw herbal drug materials.

Here we report a study on the genetic variation ofTribulus terrestris populations of Northwest India bymeans of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)and ISSR fingerprinting. Our aim was to investigate thegenetic variation within population of Tribulus terrestris.Accessions with the most distinct DNA profiles are likelyto contain the greatest number of novel alleles. It is theseaccessions that are likely to uncover the largest number ofunique and potentially agronomic useful alleles. Thisstrategy has resulted in a high proportion (50%) of new anduseful quantitative trait loci alleles in rice and tomato(Tanksley and McCouch 1997). This information mayassist in the development of an effective cultivationstrategy on the Tribulus terrestris. Further studies areenvisaged to quantify the genetic gain in populationsderived from genotypes with distinct DNA profiles. The

study of a big collection should provide a better knowledgeabout genetic diversity and its relationship withgeographical origin. This information could be veryvaluable in the management and cultivation of plant geneticresources for the herbal drug formulation research.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by the Department ofBiotechnology and Department of Botany, PunjabiUniversity, Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.

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In Silico chloroplast SSRs mining of Olea species

ERTUGRUL FILIZ1,♥, IBRAHIM KOC2

1Department of Crop and Animal Production, Cilimli Vocational School, Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey. Tel. +90 380 681 7312, ext.7406,Fax: +90 380 681 73 13, email: [email protected]

2Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Gebze Institute of Technology, Kocaeli, Turkey

Manuscript received: 4 June 2012. Revision accepted: 21 June 2012.

ABSTRACT

Filiz E, Koc E. 2012. In Silico chloroplast SSRs mining of Olea species. Biodiversitas 13: 114-117. Simple sequence repeat (SSR)markers are highly informative and have been widely applied as molecular markers in genetic studies. The purpose of present study is toanalyze the occurrence and distribution of chloroplast SSRs in genic and intergenic regions from Olea species viz., Olea europaea, Oleaeuropaea subsp. cuspidate, Olea europaea subsp. europaea, Olea europaea subsp. maroccana, Olea woodiana subsp. woodiana byusing bioinformatics tools. We identified 1149 chloroplast SSRs (cpSSRs) in all genome and a total of 340 (29.6%) was located in genicregions. It was observed that the most abundant repeat types were found mononucleotide SSR (66.7 %) followed by trinucleotide SSR(28.3 %), dinucleotide (2.7%), tetranucleotide (1.5%) and pentanucleotide (0.8%). cpSSRs located in genic regions were identified onlymono- and trinucleotide motifs, the most abundant of which was trinucleotide (16.2%) followed by mononucleotide (14.3%). All typesof repeat motif (mono-, di-, tri-, tetra- and pentanucleotide) were detected except hexanucleotide motifs. According to SSRs analysis, themost abundant observed motifs were identified for mono-, di-, tri-, tetra- and pentanucleotide cpSSRs A/T, AT/TA, AAG/CTT,AAAG/AGTTT, and AATCC/ATTGG respectively. This study results provided scientific base for phylogenetics, evolutionary geneticsand diversity studies on different Olea species in future.

Key words: Olea, olive, chloroplast SSRs, SSR mining, in silico analysis

INTRODUCTION

Olea is a genus of about 40 species in the familyOleaceae and it is distributed warm temperate and tropicalregions of southern Europe, Africa, southern Asia andAustralasia. Olea known as olive (Olea europaea L.), is themost important oil crop in the Mediterranean region andhas been used for pharmaceutical, industrial and consumerpurposes (Hannachi et al. 2010). Olive is also the secondmost important oil fruit crop cultivated worldwide after oilpalm (Baldoni and Belaj 2009). Olea species wereevaluated by using various genetic markers such as SSRsgenotyping (Taamalli et al. 2008; Ercisli et al. 2011,Gomes et al. 2009, Carriero et al. 2002); RAPDsgenotyping (Bogani et al. 1994; Belaj et al. 2004); AFLPsgenotyping (Owen et al. 2005; Baldoni et al. 2006), SNPs(Reale et al. 2006), Ribosomal DNA polymorphisms (Hesset al. 2000, Besnard et al. 2007), and organelle DNApolymorphisms (Besnard et al. 2002; Intrieri et al. 2007).

Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) or microsatellites aretandem repeated motifs which are 1-6 nucleotide lengthand located in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes(Zane et al. 2002). Microsatellites are being used formapping and tagging of genes, marker assisted selection(MAS), genome mapping and functional genomics (Kaliaet al. 2011). SSRs are associated with coding andnoncoding regions and can be found nuclear, chloroplastand mitochondrial genome (Provan et al. 2001;Rajendrakumar et al. 2007). The chloroplast genome

includes about 120-130 genes and usually ranges in sizefrom 120-200 kb (Sugiura 1992) and is characterized byhaploidy and a lack of recombination and uniparentalinheritance. Therefore, chloroplast markers (cpSSRs) aremore effective indicator of population genetic structurethan nuclear SSRs markers (Birky 1995; Petit et al. 1995).In the last decade, chloroplast SSRs (cpSSRs) have beenwidely used for plant taxonomic and phylogenetic studies,diversity analysis and population genetics (Provan et al.2001). The main objective of this study was to analysisSSRs in chloroplast genome (cpDNA) of Olea species fortheir occurrence and distribution in both coding and non-coding regions.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All the chloroplast genome sequences of olive (Oleaeuropaea, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidate, Olea europaeasubsp. europaea, Olea europaea subsp. maroccana, Oleawoodiana subsp. woodiana) were downloaded in FASTAformat from GenBank (ftp://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/genomes/) (Table 1.). The identification of chloroplastmicrosatellites was carried out by MISA perl script(http://pgrc.ipk-gatersleben.de/misa/). The minimum motifrepeat size were set to 8 for mononucleotide, 5 fordinucleotide, 3 for trinucleotide, tetranucleotide,pentanucleotide and hexanucleotide in locating themicrosatellites with maximum differences two SSRs was

FILIZ & KOC – Chloroplast SSRs of Olea 115

100. SSRs were searched in full chloroplast genome as wellas separate coding and non-coding regions for each species.Also, GC content was calculated.

Table 1. Details of chloroplast genomes in Olea species

Plant species Plastomesize (bp)

AccessionNumber

G+Ccontent(%)

Olea europaea 155888 NC_013707 37.80%O. europaea subsp. cuspidata 155862 NC_015604 37.81%O. europaea subsp. europaea 155875 NC_015401 37.81%O. europaea subsp. maroccana 155896 NC_015623 37.81%O. woodiana subsp. woodiana 155942 NC_015608 37.79%

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Abundance of SSRsA total of five Olea species chloroplast complete

genome sequences were evaluated for chloroplast SSRsand we found 1149 SSRs, of which 340 (29.6%) werelocalized in genic regions and the 809 (70.4%) cpSSRswere localized in intergenic regions (Table 2.). G+Ccontent of the species are closely similar frequency rangingfrom 37.79 to 37.81% (Table 1.)

Table 2. The number of the genic and intergenic cpSSRs based onmotif size for each species

Mono Di Tri Tetra Penta HexaG I G I G I G I G I G I Total

Olea europaea 33 122 0 6 35 31 0 4 0 2 0 0 233Olea europaeasubsp. cuspidata

33 119 0 6 35 30 0 3 0 2 0 0 228

Olea europaeasubsp. europaea

33 120 0 6 35 30 0 3 0 2 0 0 229

Olea europaeasubsp. maroccana

33 120 0 6 35 30 0 3 0 2 0 0 229

Olea woodianasubsp. woodiana

32 121 0 7 36 28 0 4 0 2 0 0 230

Total 1149Note: G: genic, I: intergenic

Total number of cpSSRs in the chloroplast genomesranged from 228 to 233 and the density of microsatellitesranged from 1.46-1.49 cpSSR per kb. Olea europaeasubsp. cuspidate chloroplast has the least number ofcpSSRs (228) while Olea europaea chloroplast had themost abundant cpSSRs (233). The density ofmicrosatellites were found for Olea europaea, Oleaeuropaea subsp. cuspidate, Olea europaea subsp.europaea, Olea europaea subsp. maroccana and Oleawoodiana subsp. woodiana 1.49, 1.46, 1.47, 1.47 and 1.47cpSSR per kb respectively. An average frequency was 1.47cpSSR per kb which was higher than some cereal speciescpSSRs (1.36 cpSSR per kb) (Melotto-passarin et al. 2011),Solanaceae species cpSSRs (1.26 cpSSR per kb)(Tambarussi et al. 2009), Solanum lycopersicum EST-SSRs(1.3 SSR per kb) (Gupta et al. 2010). However, an average

frequency of SSRs in Olea species in present study (1.47SSR per kb) is lower than found in loblolly pine EST-SSRs(42.9 SSR per kb), some cereal species EST-SSRs (6 SSRper kb) (Varshney et al. 2002), palm EST-SSRs (4.4 SSRper kb) (Palliyarakkal et al. 2011).

Distribution of cpSSRsThe investigation of different types of SSR repeats

showed that the percentage of occurrence ofmononucleotide SSR (66.7 %) was the highest followed bytrinucleotide SSR (28.3%), dinucleotide (2.7%),tetranucleotide (1.5%) and pentanucleotide (0.8%) (Figure1.).

Figure 1. Frequencies (%) of different repeats in genic andintergenic regions.

The most abundant genic cpSSRs type was trinucleotide(16.2%) followed by mononucleotide (14.3%). This findingsupports that triplet SSR repeats can be located easilywithin coding regions (Hancock and Simon 2005). Ourresults revealed that A/T repeats (98%) were found to bemore abundant than the G/C (2%) motifs. These resultswere consistent with SSRs analysis of major cerealorganelle genome data (Rajendrakumar et al. 2008) (Figure2.).

Figure 2. The most abundant cpSSRs motifs in all chloroplastgenomes.

Mon

onuc

leot

ide

Din

ucle

otid

e

Tri

nucl

eotid

e

Tet

ranu

cleo

tide

Pent

anuc

leot

ide

Hex

anuc

leot

ide

AT

/T

AT

/TA

AA

G/C

TT

AA

AG

/CT

TT

AA

AC

T/A

GT

TT

AA

TC

C/A

TT

GG


For dinucleotide repeats, AT/TA motif was the mostcommon dinucleotide repeat with a frequency of 83.9%.These results are in agreement with previous findings(Gandhi et al. 2010; Rajendrakumar et al. 2007; Kuntal etal. 2012). The higher AT/TA frequencies in chloroplastgenomes can be explained to be the conclusion of the highA/T content of the genomes. Among the trinucleotiderepeats, AAG/CTT motif was the most common (28.9%)followed by AAT/TTA (24.9%) and AAC/GTT (16%) andthis finding was not consistent with earlier studies results(Rajendrakumar et al. 2007; Melotto-passarin et al. 2011;Kuntal et al. 2012). In tetranucleotide SSR motifs, themaximum frequency of 47.1% was showed byAAAG/CTTT followed by AAAT/ATTT (29.4%). Inpentanucleotide SSR motifs, frequency of AAACT/AGTTT and AATCC/ATTGG motifs were found to beequal (50%). Interestingly, there are no any hexanucleotiderepeats in all chloroplast genomes. A total of 340 cpSSRs(30.5%) were found to be in genic regions while a total of809 cpSSRs (69.5%) were found to be in intergenic regionsand genic cpSSRs were identified only mono andtrinucleotide motifs. In general, intergenic cpSSR (69.5%)in Olea species were more abundant than genic cpSSR(29.6%) and this result is consistent with earlier studiesAsteraceae (Timme et al. 2007), Fabaceae (Saski et al.2005), and Solanaceae (Daniell et al. 2006), Saccharum(Melotto-passarin et al. 2011). According to the analysis,the most abundant genic cpSSRs were found fortrinucleotide motifs (57.2%). The SSRs in genes show ahigher mutation rate (instability) than nonrepetitive regionsin genome. Also, SSRs variations affect gene expression,inactivation of gene activity, and/or a change of function(Li et al. 2004). Thus, our results corroborate thishypothesis that the most number of genic trinucleotidecpSSRs may cause dynamic evolution and mutationalforces in exons and exhibit genetic and phenotypicvariations. The number of plastome genes with cpSSRwere identified (Table 3.) and we found Olea europaea,Olea europaea subsp. cuspidate, Olea europaea subsp.europaea, Olea europaea subsp. maroccana with 49 geneswhile Olea woodiana subsp. woodiana has 46 genes.

Table 3. Frequency (%) of plastome genes with cpSSRs

Species

Numberof

plastomegenes

Geneswith

cpSSR

Geneswith

cpSSR%

Olea europaea 130 49 37.7%Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata 130 49 37.7%Olea europaea subsp. europaea 130 49 37.7%Olea europaea subsp. maroccana 130 49 37.7%Olea woodiana subsp. woodiana 130 46 35.4%

Many studies revealed that large numbers of SSRs aredistributed in genic regions of genomes, containing protein-coding genes and expressed sequence tags (ESTs). SSRsdistributions play key role for history of genome evolutionand mutational processes (Morgante et al. 2002). In thisstudy, we investigated the distribution of different types of

SSR in coding and non-coding regions of five differentspecies of Olea genus by using bioinformatic tools. Thelocation of SSR in the genome determines its functionalrole like gene regulation, development and evolution (Kaliaet al. 2011). According to analysis, intergenic cpSSRs arepredominant over genic cpSSRs and as expected,trinucleotide repeats are more common in coding regions.Except mononucleotide and trinucleotide repeats, otherclasses of repeats were low in number in the chloroplastgenomes.

CONCLUSION

SSR markers are very informative because they arecodominant and highly polymorphic. In addition, SSRsmarkers are highly mutable loci and they can be used forcharacterization of genome and a particular region can beidentified in the genome. This study results can be targetedtowards the diversity and evolutionary studies of Oleaspecies.

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Taxonomy of Indonesian giant clams (Cardiidae, Tridacninae)

UDHI EKO HERNAWAN♥

Biotic Conservation Area of Tual Sea, Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences. Jl. Merdeka, Katdek Tual, Southeast Maluku97611. Tel. +92-916-23839, Fax. +62-916-23873, ♥email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 20 December 2010. Revision accepted: 20 June 2011.

ABSTRACT

Hernawan E. 2012. Taxonomy of Indonesian giant clams (Cardiidae, Tridacninae). Biodiversitas 13: 118-123. A taxonomic study wasconducted on the giant clam’s specimens deposited in Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (MZB), Cibinong Indonesia. Taxonomicoverviews of the examined specimens are given with diagnostic characters, remarks, habitat and distribution. Discussion is focused onspecific characters distinguishing each species. From seven species known to distribute in Indonesian waters, there are six species,Tridacna squamosa Lamarck, 1819; T. gigas Linnaeus, 1758; T. derasa Roding, 1798; T. crocea Lamarck, 1819; T. maximaRoding,1798; and Hippopus hippopus Linnaeus, 1758. This study suggests the need for collecting specimen of H. porcellanusRosewater, 1982. Important characters to distinguish species among Tridacninae are interlocking teeth on byssal orifice, life habits,presence of scales and inhalant siphon tentacles.

Key words: Tridacninae, taxonomy, Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense

INTRODUCTION

Giant clams, the largest bivalve in the world, occurnaturally in association with coral reefs throughout thetropical and subtropical waters of the Indo-Pacific region.From the southeast Pacific westwards to East Africa, itsdistribution extends up north to the Red Sea (bin Othman etal. 2010). They can generally be found in marine shallowwater habitats (1-20 m) and are restricted in only clearwaters due to their phototrophic characteristic (Jantzen etal. 2008). Their strong requirement of photosynthetic lightis a consequence of their symbiotic relationship withzooxanthellae of the genus Symbiodinium (Hirose et al.2006). Scientifically, there has been an increasing interestto the clams for more than the last four decades becausetheir high commercial value has led the natural populationto extinction. Vulnerable status, or even local extinction,for some species has been reported in Indonesia(Raymakers et al. 2003), Malaysia (Shau-Hwai and Yasin2003) and several regions in Pacific (UNEP-WCMC 2010).

Recently, there are ten described species of the livinggiant clams, in only two genera, Tridacna and Hippopus(bin Othman et al. 2010). Three sub-genera are withinTridacna, Tridacna sensu stricto, consisting only T. gigas(Linnaeus, 1758); Persikima consisting T. derasa (Roding,1798) and T. tevoroa (Lucas, Ledua and Braley 1990); andChametrachea comprising T. squamosa (Lamarck, 1819),T. crocea (Lamarck, 1819), T. maxima (Roding, 1798), T.rosewateri (Sirenko and Scarlato 1991) and T. costata(Richter, Roa-Quiaoit, Jantzen, Al-Zibdah, and M.Kochzius 2008). The genera Hippopus comprises of twospecies, H. hippopus (Linnaeus, 1758) and H. porcellanus(Rosewater 1982). There has been much discussion as towhether the giant clams should be placed still on their own

family (Tridacnidae) or revised to be subfamilyTridacninae, included in family Cardiidae. Recently, basedon sperm ultrastructure and molecular phylogenetic studies,the clams are belonging to family Cardiidae, subfamilyTridacninae (Schneider and Foighil 1999; Keys and Healey2000).

Globally, various studies focusing on many aspects ofthe clams have been done, from biological experiments tomariculture and conservation strategy, for example Keysand Healy (2000), Buck et al. (2002), Kinch (2002),Harzhauser et al. (2008), and Teitelbaum and Friedman(2008). In context of Indonesia, taxonomic notes of giantclams are rare although Indonesian waters are the habitatfor most of giant clams species in the world (bin Othman etal. 2010). This paper reports a taxonomic study of giantclams specimens deposited in Museum ZoologicumBogoriense, Cibinong, Bogor, Indonesia.


The study was conducted in June 2009 as a part ofWorkshop on Marine Taxonomy 2009, organized byResearch Center for Oceanography. The giant clamsspecimens were observed from the dry collection ofMuseum Zoologicum Bogoriense (MZB), CibinongIndonesia. All specimens were personally described, re-identified and determined based on Braley and Healy(1998), Newman and Gomez (2002), Dharma (2005), andter Porten (2007). An overview of the examined specimenswas given with diagnostic characters, remarks, habitat anddistribution. Discussion is focused on specific charactersdistinguishing each species.

HERNAWAN – Giant clams of Indonesia 119


ResultsFrom the ten extant giant clams, seven species are

known to inhabit Indonesian waters, i.e. Tridacnasquamosa Lamarck, 1819; T. gigas Linnaeus, 1758; T.derasa Roding, 1798; T. crocea Lamarck, 1819; T. maximaRoding,1798; Hippopus hippopus Linnaeus, 1758 and H.porcellanus Rosewater, 1982 (Newman and Gomez 2002;bin Othman et al. 2010). However, the specimen collectionof giant clams in MZB is obviously not complete sinceonly six species are deposited (Figure 1). None of thespecimens is H. porcellanus Rosewater, 1982. Here is thetaxonomic overview.

Class Bivalvia Linnaeus, 1758Subclass Heterodonta Neumayr, 1884

Order Veneroida H. and A. Adams, 1856 Superfamily Cardioidea Lamarck, 1809

Family Cardiidae Lamarck, 1809 Subfamily Tridacninae Goldfuss, 1820

Genus Hippopus

Hippopus hippopus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 1A)Syn. Chama hippopus Linnaeus, 1758: 691; Hippopus

maculatus Lamarck, 1801: 117.Material examined. No. Lam 1327; Figure 1 (1); 7

specimens, paired valves (height : length; 6,05 : 8,10 cm;6,62 : 9,25 cm; 5,85 : 8,12 cm; 5,95 : 7,05 cm; 5,00 : 8,10cm; 5,72 : 8,18 cm; 5,27 : 7,35 cm; 5,82 : 8,05 cm); Loc.Laratuka Strait, Flores; Date 1953; Coll. Fr. L. Viannay,Det. U. E. Hernawan (22 June 2009)

Diagnostic characters. Solid shell, thick and heavy;equivalve, inequilateral, strongly inflated and longer thanhigh (maximum length 40 cm, commonly 20 cm). Umboposition is in midline. Outline of shell fan-shape; posteriorand ventral margin meet at an angle less than 900; anteriorand ventral margin meet an angle less than 900;posterioventral and anterioventral margin meet at an anglemore than 900. Hinge with 1 ridge-like cardinal tooth, 2lateral teeth on right valve, 1 lateral tooth on left valve.Pallial line presence but no pallial sinus; 1 adductor musclescar. Outer surface sculptured with 9 to 14 large radial foldwith 2 to 3 small rib-like at each interstices; anteriodorsalmargin with interlocking crenulations, byssal orificepresence on anteriodorsal area but without byssal gape.Inner margin with irregular crenulations correspond withthe sculpture of outer surface. Coloration on outer surfacewhitish, irregular reddish blotches arranged in irregularconcentric bands; inner surface porcelaneous white.Inhalent siphon without tentacles.

Remarks. This species is easily distinguished to theother giant clams by the presence of irregular semi-tubularspines and numerous riblets on the principal ribs andinterstices. Irregular reddish blotches arranged in irregularconcentric bands are the other specific character.

Habitat. Found on sandy areas in coral reefs, sometimeon seagrass beds adjoining reefs; not attached by a byssusto the substrate.

Distribution. Tropical eastern Indian Ocean to westernPacific, from Andaman Islands to eastern Melanesia; northto southern Japan and south to Queensland

Genus Tridacna

Tridacna (Persikima) derasa (Roding, 1798) (Figure 1B)Syn. Tridacna serrifera Lamarck, 1819; Persikima

whitleyi Iredale, 1937Material examined. No. Lam 899; Figure 1(2); 1

specimen, paired valves (11 cm in height and 16,5 cm inlength); Loc. Maluku; Date (?); Coll. Rykschroeff, Det. U.E. Hernawan (22 June 2009)

Diagnostic characters. Shell solid, thick and heavy;equivalve, inequilateral, inflated and longer than high(maximum length 60 cm, commonly 50 cm). Umboposition posterior. Outline of shell fan-shaped; roundedmargin. Hinge with 1 ridge-like cardinal tooth, 2 lateralteeth on right valve, 1 lateral tooth on left valve. Pallial linepresence but no pallial sinus; 1 adductor muscle scar. Outersurface sculptured with 7 to 12 large radial fold with 7 to12 small rib-like at each interstices; no scales and spines onthe fold; anteriodorsal margin with non-interlockingcrenulations, byssal orifice presence on anteriodorsal areawith small byssal-gape (less than a half of anteriodorsalmargin length). Inner margin with distinctivelycrenulations, correspond to the small rib-like sculpture atthe interstices. Coloration on outer surface white, innersurface porcelaneous white. The inhalant siphon withtentacles.

Remarks. This species has outer surface without scalesor spines, smoother than the others.

Habitat. Found in coral reefs, shallow water to a depthof 20 m.

Distribution. Tropical western Pacific, from westernIndonesia to eastern Melanesia; north to the Philippines andsouth to New South Wales.

Tridacna (Tridacna) gigas (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 1C)Syn. Chama gigas Linnaeus, 1758.Material examined. No. Lam 899; Figure 1(3); 1

specimen, paired valves (13.44 cm in height and 22,5 cmin length); Loc. Maluku; Date (?); Coll. Rykschroeff, Det.U. E. Hernawan. (22 June 2009).

Diagnostic characters. Shell solid, thick and heavy;equivalve, equilateral, inflated and longer than high(maximum length 137 cm, commonly 80 cm). Umboposition midline. Outline of shell fan-shaped; roundedmargin. Hinge with 1 ridge-like cardinal tooth, 2 lateralteeth on right valve, 1 lateral tooth on left valve. Pallial linepresence but no pallial sinus; 1 adductor muscle scar. Outersurface sculptured with 4 to 6 deep radial fold; formingdistinctively elongate-triangular projections on ventral freemargin (V-shape) with 7 to 12 small rib-like at eachinterstices; no scales and spines on the fold; anteriodorsalmargin with non-interlocking crenulations, byssal orificepresence on anteriodorsal area with small byssal-gape (lessthan a half of anteriodorsal margin length). Inner marginwith indistinctively crenulations. Coloration on outersurface white, inner surface porcelaneous white. The


inhalant siphon without tentacles.Remarks. The specific characters are deep radial folds

forming V-shape projection in ventral view. Outer surfacerelatively smooth and extremely large shell.

Habitat. Found in sand, coral reefs, shallow water to adepth of 20 m.

Distribution. Eastern Indian Ocean and tropicalwestern Pacific, from southwestern Myanmar and westernIndonesia to Micronesia and eastern Melanesia; north tosouthern Japan and south to Queensland and NewCaledonia.

Tridacna (Chametrachea) crocea (Lamarck, 1819) (Figure1D)

Syn. Tridacna crocea Lamarck, 1819: 106; Tridacnacumingii Reeve, 1862: pl. 7, fig. 7a (part); Tridacnaferruginea Reeve, 1862: pl. 8, fig. 8a-b.

Material examined. No. Lam. 443; Figure 1(4); 2specimens, paired valves (6,65 cm in height and 8,05 cmin length,); Loc. (?); Date (?); Coll. Duwens, Det. U. E.Hernawan. (22 June 2009).

Diagnostic characters. Shell solid, thick; equivalve,inequilateral, inflated and longer than high (not exceeding15 cm in length, commonly 11 cm). Umbo positionposterior. Outline of shell fan-shaped; rounded margin.Hinge with 1 ridge-like cardinal tooth, 2 lateral teeth onright valve, 1 lateral tooth on left valve. Pallial linepresence but no pallial sinus; 1 adductor muscle scar. Outersurface sculpture with 6 to 8 low radial fold with scales,closely spaced, near free ventral margin; no spines; nosmall rib-like at each interstices; anteriodorsal margin withnon-interlocking crenulation; byssal orifice presence onanteriodorsal area with wide byssal-gape (more than a halfof anteriodorsal margin length). Inner margin withindistinctively crenulations. Coloration on outer surfacecreamy white; inner surface: porcelaneous, white; oftenpinkish. The inhalant siphon with tentacles.

Remarks. The smaller species with wide byssal gape.Outer surface with fingernail-shape scales, closely spaced,undulate, arranged regularly on radial fold, but only nearfree ventral margin.

Habitat. Found in coral reefs, burrower, totallyembedded, burrowed into a coral boulder on the reef top,only shell margin and mantle are visible to the diver.

Distribution. Tropical eastern Indian Ocean to westernPacific, from Andaman Islands to Fiji Islands; north toJapan and south to New Caledonia and Queensland.

Tridacna (Chametrachea) maxima (Roding, 1798) (Figure1E)

Syn. Tridachnes maxima Röding, 1798: 171, no. 184;Tridacna elongata Lamarck, 1819: 106; Tridacna rudisReeve, 1862: pl. 5, fig. 4a-c; Tridacna compressa Reeve,1862: pl. 6, fig. 5; pl. 7, fig 5b; Tridacna cumingii Reeve,1862: pl. 7, fig. 7b (part); Tridacna acuticostata Sowerby,1912: 30-31, fig.

Material examined. No. Lam 1301; Figure 1(5); 1specimen, right valve (6,79 cm in height and 13,22 cm inlength); Loc. (?); Date (?); Coll. (?), Det. U. E. Hernawan.(22 June 2009).

Diagnostic characters. Shell solid, thick; equivalve,inequilateral, inflated and longer than high (not exceeding35 cm in length, commonly 25 cm). Outline of shell fan-shaped; rounded margin; anterior about twice in length thanposterior. Umbo position posterior. Hinge with 1 ridge-likecardinal tooth, 2 lateral teeth on right valve, 1 lateral toothon left valve. Pallial line presence but no pallial sinus; 1adductor muscle scar. Outer surface sculpture with 6 to 8low radial fold with fingernail-shape scales, closely spaced,arranged regularly on radial fold, near free ventral margin;anteriodorsal margin with non-interlocking crenulations;byssal orifice presence on anteriodorsal area with mediumbyssal-gape (about a half of anteriodorsal margin length).Inner margin with distinctively crenulations. Coloration ofouter surface, white; inner surface, porcelaneous, white,pale yellowish tinge near the inner margin. The inhalantsiphon with tentacles.

Remarks. The elongate giant clam. Shell growthwidely elongated in anterior position. The scales presenceonly near the upper margin.

Habitat. Found in coral reefs, coral burrower partiallyembedded into a coral boulder on the reef top, sandybottoms, firmly attached to coral head, in shallow and cleanwaters with majority living at less than 7m.

Distribution. Widespread in the Indo-West Pacific,from East Africa, including Madagascar, the Red Sea andthe Persian Gulf to eastern Polynesia; north to Japan andsouth to New South Wales and Lord Howe Island.

Tridacna (Chametrachea) squamosa (Lamarck, 1819)(Figure 1F)

Syn. Tridacna squamosa Lamarck, 1819: 106; Chamasquammata Rumphius 1705; female Littoralis’, pl. 42, fig. A.

Material examined. No. Lam. 890; Figure 1(6); 3specimen, 2 paired valves, 1 right valve (9,15 cm in heightand 12,7 cm in length); Loc. (?); Date (?); Coll.Rykschroeff; Det. U. E. Hernawan. (22 June 2009)

Diagnostic characters. Shell solid, thick; equivalve,inequilateral, inflated and longer than high (not exceeding40 cm in length, commonly 30 cm). Outline of shell fan-shaped; rounded margin. Umbo position midline. Hingewith 1 ridge-like cardinal tooth, 2 lateral teeth on rightvalve, 1 lateral tooth on left valve. Pallial line presence butno pallial sinus; 1 adductor muscle scar. Outer surfacesculptured with 5 to 6 low radial fold with more than 6small rib-like at each interstices. Scales presence; nospines. Anteriodorsal margin with non-interlockingcrenulations; byssal orifice presence on anteriodorsal areawith medium byssal-gape (about a half of anteriodorsalmargin length). Inner margin with distinctivelycrenulations. Coloration of outer surface, white; innersurface, porcelaneous, white. The inhalant siphon withtentacles.

Remarks. This species have specific character, viz.blade-like, spoon-shape scales, arranged regularly on radialfold. The scales still presence near the umbo, but beingsmaller.

Habitat. Found in coral reefs, littoral and shallow waterto a depth of 20 m, live not embedded into a coral boulder,attached by the byssus to the substrate.


Figure 1. Giant clams specimens deposited in MZB; outer surface view; L (left valve), R (right valve). A. Hippopus hippopus(Linnaeus, 1758), L; B. Tridacna (Persikima) derasa (Roding, 1798), R; C. Tridacna (Tridacna) gigas (Linnaeus, 1758), L; D. Tridacna(Chametrachea) crocea (Lamarck, 1819), R; E. Tridacna (Chametrachea) maxima (Roding, 1798), R; F. Tridacna (Chametrachea)squamosa (Lamarck, 1819), R

4 cm

6 cm

10 cm

6 cm

4 cm6 cm

A B

C D

E F


Distribution. Widespread in the Indo-West Pacific,from East Africa, including Madagascar, the Red Sea, butnot the Persian Gulf, to eastern Melanesia; north tosouthern Japan and south to Queensland and NewCaledonia.

DiscussionThe fact that specimens of only six species of the giant

clams are deposited in the MZB suggests the need forcollecting specimens of H. porcellanus Rosewater, 1982.The distribution of H. porcellanus is the smallest amongdistribution of six other species. It is distributed in easternpart of Indonesian waters. In a larger scale, it can be foundalso in Philippine (Braley and Healy 1998; Newman andGomes 2002).

Tridacninae can be easily distinguished from otherbivalves based on its large shell with a strong radial fold ina few number and brightly colored mantel. Each shell hasonly one adductor muscle scar where a pedal retractormuscle attached, but no pallial sinus. The shell ligament isexternal with hinge teeth. One character easily separatingTridacna and Hippopus is the teeth on byssal orifice ofopposed valves. Hippopus has interlocking teeth, whileTridacna does not. In turn, Tridacna bears a byssal gapewhich is not present in Hippopus. Additionally to the shellcharacter, mantle character can also be used to differentiateliving Hippopus and Tridacna. When it fully opens,Tridacna’s mantle expands laterally beyond the ventralmargin shell. On the contrary, Hippopus’s mantle expandswithout passing through the ventral margin shell.

Phylogenetically, T. squamosa, T. maxima, and T.crocea are grouped in a single clade taxonomically knownas subgenus Chametrachea (Benzie and Williams 1998)because of the character of their life habit attaching andboring coral substrate. T. squamosa is unique for its spoon-like scales. T. crocea embeds totally its shell into coralsubstrates, whilst only half part of T. maxima shell isembedded into coral substrate. Subgenus Tridacna sensustricto and Persikima do not attach to their substrate. Theyare separated each other based on the presence of tentaclesin the inhalant siphon. T. derasa has low and weak radialfolds on its shells. In contrast, T. gigas is specific for itsremarkable large, smooth shell and strong U-shape radialfolds.

CONCLUSION

Despite many field observations reporting that sevenspecies of the giant clams inhabit Indonesian waters, theMZB deposits specimens of six species (Tridacnasquamosa Lamarck, 1819; T. gigas Linnaeus, 1758; T.derasa Roding, 1798; T. crocea Lamarck, 1819; T. maximaRoding, 1798 and Hippopus hippopus Linnaeus, 1758),suggesting the need for collecting specimen of H.porcellanus Rosewater, 1982. Important characters todistinguish species among Tridacninae are interlockingteeth on byssal orifice, life habits, presence of scales andinhalant siphon tentacles.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author thanks to the staffs of MalacologicalLaboratory, Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense for theirassistance in examining specimens; Pitra Widianwari, Dr.Rosichon Ubaidillah, Dr. Teguh Triyono, Dr. Hari Sutrisnoand Dr. Yayuk R. Suhardjono for the fruitful discussion.

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The exploration and diversity of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus L.) fromPapua based on its physical characteristics and chemical composition

MURTININGRUM1,♥, ZITA L. SARUNGALLO1, NOUKE L. MAWIKERE2

1Department of Agriculture Technology, Papua State University. Manokwari 98314, West Papua, Indonesia. Tel. +62-986-214991,Fax: +62-986-214991. email: [email protected]

2Department of Agriculture, Papua State University, Manokwari, West Papua, Indonesia

Manuscript received: 20 December 2010. Revision accepted: 20 June 2011.

ABSTRACT

Murtiningrum, Sarungallo ZL, Mawikere NL. 2012. The exploration and diversity of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus L.) from Papuabased on its physical characteristics and chemical composition. Biodiversitas 13: 124-129. The aim of this study was to determine thediversity of red fruit based on its physical characteristics and chemical composition. Exploratory survey method and laboratory research(pure experiment) were used to assess the physical character and chemical composition of crude red fruit. Physical character of eachaccession showed a variation on fruit color (dark red and red); the fruit and single fruit (drupa) length ranged from 21-71 cm and 1.2-1.8cm, respectively. The dried red fruit contains 2.03- 3.50% ash, 3.12-6.48% protein, 11.21-30.72% fat, 43.86-79.66% carbohydrate, 3.78-21.88 mg/100g vitamin C, 2.00-3.14 mg/100g vitamin B1, 0.53-1.11% Ca, 8.32-123.03 ppm Fe, and 0.01-0,33% P, with totalcarotenoids and total tocopherol ranging from 332.65-3309.42 ppm and 964.52-11917.81 ppm. The clustering analysis result of red fruitbased on its physical characteristic and chemical composition showed that the related accessions was U Saem and Tawi Magari, havinga 25% similarity. The accession U Saem and Tawi Magari had the highest level of similarity in total carotenoids and total tocopherol.Furthermore, they also perform similar physical characteristics by having triangular cylinder shape, red flesh color, and fruit length category.

Key words: red fruit, Pandanus conoideus, accession, physical, chemical, cluster

INTRODUCTION

The genus Pandanus is a complex plant with highestspecies diversity. It is believed that there are approximately600-700 species of this genus around the world. Theseplants are prevalent in tropical areas, especially in thePacific islands, Malaysian islands and Australia (Wagner etal. 1990; Jong and Chau 1998). In Indonesia, a total of 100species, 60 species and 20 species are found in Papua,Borneo and Maluku, respectively (Purwanto 2007). Somespecies of the genus Pandanus are very important forpeople whom live in the highlands of the Papua and WestPapua Provinces, one of which is Pandanus conoideus L.P. conoideus is known with different local names inIndonesia, such as pandan seran (Maluku), saun (Seram),sihu (Halmahera), while Papuan call this plan as buahmerah which literally means red fruit. This plant is alsoused by people of Papua New Guinea and it is commonlyknown as marita (Pidgin) (Stone 1997).

Red fruit grows at wider altitudes ranging from thecoast up to 1700 m above sea level (Wiriadinata 1995).These plants spread almost all over of Papua and WestPapua territory. However, the tree is predominantly inJayawijaya Mountains, Jayapura, Manokwari, Nabire,Timika, and Sorong (sub-district of Ayamaru) (Budi andPaimin 2004). Besides the difference of the deployment,red fruit also composed of different accessions, which isused by local people for various purposes. Papua and West

Papua society, especially who lives in the surroundingmountains of Arfak and Wamena, utilize red fruit as food.They may consume it directly, or used it as a sauce for sagoand sweet potato, or consumed directly (Sadsoeitoeboen1999).

The diversity of red fruit accession which spread inPapua and West Papua is not yet known. It is probablybecause the public have not intensively cultivated theseplants, and only a few people who has tried to cultivate thiscrops. The diversity of red fruit accessions can be identifiedbased on their physical characteristics and chemicalcomposition. Chepalium of red fruit consists of a tubular(cylindrical) triangle-shaped, bright yellow to dark red witha length of 42-70 cm (100-110 cm), and 9.6-11 cm indiameter (circumference 30-34.5 cm), which is the centerof the pedicel chepalium white; and composed by manysingle fruit (drupa). Drupa or single fruit has triangular-shape with pericarp (layer of single fruit) and contains fat(pulp) yellow or red that is surrounding seed (Walujo et al.2007). Physical character of a fairly prominent red fruitvaries in form of fruit (pericarp), drupa size, and color,while its chemical composition varies mainly on thecontent of carotene, vitamins, and minerals.

The aim of this study was to determine the diversity ofred fruit in some areas of Papua and West Papua Provincesbased on their physical traits and chemical composition. Itcan be assumed that by identifying the chemicalcomponents in red fruit flesh, there is an opportunity of red

MURTININGRUM et al. – Diversity of Papuan Pandanus conoideus 125

fruit to be utilized as a good source of natural antioxidantsfor food and non food products.


The selected areas for exploration were the central areasof red fruit (P. conoideus) distribution. Those areas were (i)in the Province of West Papua, Indonesia consisted ofManokwari, Teluk Bintuni, and South Sorong Districts, and(ii) in the Province of Papua, there were Nabire andJayawijaya Districts (Figure 1). In Manokwari District,sampling was conducted in the Sub-district of Masnirepresenting lowland and Sub-district of Minyambourepresenting highland. In Teluk Bintuni District, samplingwas carried out in the Sub-district of Merdey representingthe lowland area. In South Sorong District, sampling wastaken in Kampung Susai, Sub-district of Aifat, belonging tomiddle latitudes. In Nabire District, sampling wasperformed in Kampung Rawawudo and Kalisemen, Sub-districts of Nabire representing the lowlands; while in theJayawijaya District sampling conducted in the Sub-districtof Kelila which classified as highland.

This study used exploratory survey which was included:(i) inventory of red fruit accessions that are known by thename of their local community, and (ii) observation in thecommunity to examine the use of red fruit based on thesociety knowledge. After red fruit accessions exploration inevery area of research, as much as 1-3 accessions of redfruit which is related to the criteria of most widely grownand consumed by local people was taken as a sample.Moreover, further observations of physical character andchemical composition were performed on selectedaccessions.

Laboratory analysis was conducted to study thephysical characteristics and chemical composition ofdrupa. Observation of the physical characteristics whichare consists of the cross-sectional shape of fruit, fruit color,fruit length, and drupa length. Analysis of chemicalcomposition on the drupa include water content (ovenmethod), ash (furnace method), fat (Soxhlet extraction),protein (micro Kjeldahl), levels of calcium (Ca), iron (Fe),phosphorus (P), vitamin B1 and vitamin C (oxidometrymethod), and total carotene (spectrophotometry) and totaltocopherol (spectrophotometry) (AOAC 1999).

Figure 1. Study area to explore the diversity of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus) in Indonesian Papua. Note: 1. Manokwari, 2. SouthSorong, 3. Teluk Bintuni, (West Papua Province), 4. Nabire, 5. Jayawijaya (Papua Province).

1

2

3

4

5


Data of physical character and chemical compositionwas analyzed using a Cluster Analysis. Dendogramcharacter diversity among accessions was constructed byUnweighted Pair-Group Method with Arithmetic (UPGMA)using NTSYS-pc computer program version 2.0 (Rohlf 1993).


Exploration of the red fruit accessionsThe exploration result of some target area showed that

there was a variety on physical and chemical characteristicsof each accession of red fruit. In Manokwari, there were 18accessions of red fruit. It is included two accessions in theSub-district of Masni and 16 accessions in the Sub-districtof Minyambouw. In Teluk Bintuni (Sub-district of Merdey)they were 32 accessions and in South Sorong (Sub-districtof Aifat) and Jayawijaya (Sub-district of Kelila) there were12 accessions, moreover in Nabire, there were only 11accessions. Total red fruit accessions which found in Papuaand West Papua were 85 accessions.

The naming for these red fruit accessions based on thetraditional classification which was called ‘emic’ by thelocal peopled. The local people differentiated eachaccession based on the characteristics of its growth, fruitsize, fruit color, drupa size, and utilization. The naming forthe red fruit accessions in every region started by the nameof a specific area. For example in Jayawijaya it was namedas Tawi, the letter U in South Sorong District. In Sub-district of Minyambou, it was called Hib/Him/Hit in andwhile in District Teluk Bintuni, it was called Mongk.

The interview results showed that not all accessions ofred fruit had a potential to be utilized by the localcommunity. Trees that had been cultivated, rich in oil,highly productive, and resistance to disease are accessionsthat had the potential to be developed. Based on thisevaluation, it was found that the accessions which have apotential to be developed were 7 accessions of Manokwari(1 accession in Masni, 3 accessions in Minyambouw and 3accessions of Teluk Bintuni (Sub-district of Merdey), therewere also 3 accessions each from Nabire, Jayawijaya andSouth Sorong, so overall there were 16 accessions in total(Table 1).

It is believed that this study might reveal the potentialnatural resources of Papua based on community localknowledge. Red fruit accessions have not highly-cultivated,therefore commonly planted accession was a primitivenative race, and even some of them are taken directly fromthe nature.

Physical characteristics of red fruitThe identification of accessions of red fruit in some

areas of Papua and West Papua shows a diversity ofphysical characteristics (Table 1). Generally, the cross-sectional units (cores) of red fruit had triangular shaped andyellow white color. Outer shape of red fruit is not alwaysinfluenced by the shape of cross-section. For example,there are accessions of red a fruit that form a triangularcross-section, but has round fruit shape extending from thebase to the tip of fruit. The color of the set pieces of red

fruit is red to dark red, which is influenced by the contentof carotenoid and environmental conditions. In addition,there are some set of pieces of red fruit color such asorange and yellow color, but this accessions are rarelyfound in society.

The size and length of red fruit can be classified intolong pieces (size > 50 cm), medium (size 49-53 cm), andshort (size < 35 cm). The highland generally have mediumfruit size (42 cm) to long size (80.2 cm), while the lowlandareas tend to have a length ranging from 59 to 66 cm. Inlowland areas, the size of the fruits is more varied, that is inshort (25-29 cm) to long (70 cm).

The variation of length of the red fruit drupa rangingfrom 1.2 to 1.8 cm. Accession of MMS-M has a shortestgrain size length (1.2 cm), while accessions MHY-M, andMHB-M and MTM-N have the longest drupa length (1.8cm). Long fruit size does not corresponded to the length ofdrupa. For instance, the accessions MID-M has long pieces(62 cm) but has a shorter length of drupa (1.3 cm). MMW-M accessions have short pieces (21 cm), and a longerlength of drupa (1.7 cm) (Table 1). Regarding to the heightof growth, red fruit in the highland have relatively long size(1.5-2.0 cm), in the lowland varies from short (1.2 cm) tolong (1.7 cm), whereas in the middle land have moderate tolong grain length (1.4-1.6 cm).

Diversity of red fruit accessions physical characterpopulations in one area may differ in other populations. Itis assumed that the growth of red fruit is dependent on thetype of its ecogeography. This phenomenon was similar toJatropha curcas L. which was growing scattered in someareas of Mexico in differences altitude, averagetemperature, and type of climate. It has a different proteincontent (19-33%) and fat (46-64%), and also has differentphysical characteristics, especially shape and size of seeds(Makkar et al. 1998; Herrera et al. 2010). Diversity of physicalcharacteristics, especially those controlled genetically arevery useful as a source for red fruit breeding program. Inagricultural technology, physical characteristics arerequired to accomplish the equipment design for handling,processing, and storage (Asoegwu et al. 2006).

Chemical composition of red fruitThe chemicals compositions of selected red fruit

accessions were varied among others (Table 2 and Table3). The average value was ash 2.03-3.50%, protein 3.12-6.48%, fat 11.21-30.72%, carbohydrate 43.86-79.66%,vitamin C 3.78- 21.88 mg/100g, vitamin B1 0.97-3.14mg/100g, calcium (Ca) 0.53-1.11%, iron (Fe) 8.32-123.03%, phosphorus (P) 0.01-0.33%, total carotenoids333-3309 ppm and total tocopherol 964-11918 ppm. Table2 shows that the drupa containing the highest fat comparedto other proximate components. It can be said that the redfruit is a good source of oil. Drupa of accessions fromlowlands are higher in fat than accessions from mediumand highland. Red fruit accession with the highest fatcontent was MMS-M (30.72%).

A variety of fat content can be affected by a variety ofplants, genetic, climate conditions, level of maturity,harvest time, and method of extraction (Idouraine et al.1996; Egbekun and Ehieze 1997). Younis et al. (2000)


states that the yield of Cucurbita pepo L. African plant oilsthat grows in the highlands to the low temperatures have ahigher fat content than those grown in the lowlands to hightemperatures. Although accessions of MMS-M were foundin the lowland, the growth has average air temperaturewhich is sufficient for their growth. As a result, it containsthe highest fat content (30.72%). Merdey sub-district whereMMS-M accession found has an average air temperature of27.4oC and humidity of 82.83%. Required air temperatureto grow crops of red fruit is 23-33oC and in moderatehumidity (Budi and Paimin 2004).

Drupa of the accessions which were found in thelowlands also contain higher vitamin C, iron (Fe),phosphorus (P), total carotenoids, and total tocopherol thanaccessions originating from medium and highland. Thehighest content of vitamin C is produced by MMW-Maccession (21.88 mg/100g), the highest of vitamin B1 isproduced by MUSW-S accessions (3.14 mg/100g), thehighest calcium levels produced by MUSW-S and MTM-W accessions (0.90%), the highest iron levels resulting inMID-M accessions (123.03 ppm), the highest phosphorus

levels resulting in MUA-S accessions (0.33%), the highesttotal carotenoids is produced by MTM-N accessions(3309.42 ppm), and the highest total tocopherol is producedby MID-M accessions (11917.81 ppm) (Table 3).

Cluster analysisOf the 16 accessions of red fruit used in this study, each

accession showed different characteristics. The differencesare due to the red fruit habitat. The habitat of plants isinfluenced by sunlight, weather or climatic conditions,temperature, humidity, and the availability of nutrientswhich can be absorbed by plant. It is also known thathabitat of plants be affected the physical characteristics andchemical composition of the plant.

Even though there were different characteristics on eachaccession, there were also similar characteristics of the 16red fruit-accessions as shown in Table 1, 2 and 3. Thesimilarities in some of red fruit plant were evaluated todetermine the genetic relationship by Cluster Analysis.Pattern of each red fruit accession similarity depicted in thedendogram of physical and chemical characters (Figure 2).

Table 1. Physical character red fruit (Pandanus conoideus) from Papua, Indonesia

No Origin of accession(district/sub-district)

Locallyname

Red fruitaccession

CoreFruitfleshcolor

Fruitlength (cm)

Length ofDrupa(cm)

1 Manokwari/Masni Idebebcs MID-M Triangular cylinder Dark red 62/long 1.32 Manokwari/ Minyambow Hityom MHY-M Triangular cylinder Red 76/ long 1.83 Manokwari/ Minyambow Himbiak MHB-M Triangular cylinder Dark red 71/ long 1.84 Manokwari/ Minyambow Hibnggok MHG-M Triangular cylinder Red 42/ long 1.75 Teluk Bintuni /Merdey Monsmir MMS-M Triangular cylinder Red 68/ long 1.26 Teluk Bintuni /Merdey Memyer MMY-M Triangular cylinder Red 70/ long 1.37 Teluk Bintuni /Merdey Memiwuk MMW-M Triangular cylinder Red 21/short 1.78 South Sorong /Aifat U Saem MUSM-S Triangular cylinder Red 66/ long 1.69 South Sorong /Aifat U Sauw MUSW-S Triangular cylinder Red 61/ long 1.410 South Sorong /Aifat U Aupat MUA-S Triangular cylinder Red 59/ long 1.611 Nabire/Nabire Tawi Bilim MTB-N Triangular cylinder Red 52/ long 1.512 Nabire/Nabire Tawi Muni MTM-N Triangular cylinder Red 53/ long 1.813 Nabire/Nabire Tawi Kubu MTK-N Triangular cylinder Dark Red 54/ long 1.614 Jayawijaya/Kelila Tawi Ugi MTU-W Triangular cylinder Red 75/ long 1.615 Jayawijaya/Kelila Tawi Magari MTM-W Triangular cylinder Red 60/ long 1.616 Jayawijaya/Kelila Tawi Kenen MTK-W Triangular cylinder Red 60,1/long 1.5

Table 2. Proximate composition of 16 accessions red fruit (Pandanus conoideus)

Red fruit accessions Water (%,bb) Ash (%,bk) Protein (%,bk) Carbohydrate (%, bk) Fat (%,bk)

MID-M 40.82±0.08 2.62±0.04 4.01±0.04 71.15±0.19 22.23±0.20MHY-M 52.70±1.04 2.77±0.09 5.53±0.31 71.19±0.78 20.50±0.56MHB-M 51.18±0.06 2.99±0.00 5.78±0.02 74.67±0.36 16.55±0.34MHG-M 46.95±0.72 3.50±0.28 6.48±0.09 78.81±0.59 11.21±0.22MMS-M 40.26±0.40 2.10±0.08 5.54±0.26 61.64±0.14 30.72±0.19MMY-M 43.96±0.01 2.09±0.07 5.30±0.15 71.43±0.44 21.18±0.36MMW-M 51.93±0.91 2.64±0.11 4.33±0.15 68.33±0.65 24.70±0.39MUSM-S 51.53±0.29 2.45±0.31 4.77±0.35 77.77±0.17 15.00±0.13MUSW-S 47.10±0.13 2.78±0.07 5.37±0.65 64.96±0.41 26.88±0.18MUA-S 45.18±0.39 2.03±0.01 5.20±0.18 71.66±1.11 21.10±0.92MTB-N 41.57±1.29 2.31±0.07 6.22±0.07 79.66±0.45 11.81±0.32MTM-N 44.07±2.61 3.15±0.28 5.69±0.25 68.01±1.82 23.15±1.86MTK-N 41.42±1.01 2.95±0.00 5.45±0.37 79.33±0.52 12.27±0.15MTU-W 51.26±0.38 2.76±0.16 5.50±0.18 75.66±0.36 16.07±0.37MTM-W 42.99±0.03 3.03±0.02 3.12±0.10 66.46±0.21 27.39±0.09MTK-W 49.02±0.64 2.65±0.87 5.15±0.02 74.24±0.26 17.96±0.36


Table 3. Vitamins, minerals, total of carotene and tocopherol composition of 16 accessions red fruit (Pandanus conoideus)

Red fruitaccessions

Vit. C(mg/100 g)

Vit. B1(mg/100 g)

Ca(%, bk) Fe (ppm) P

(%, bk)

Totalcarotenoids

(ppm)

Totaltocopherol

(ppm)MID-M 20.61±0.93 1.88±0.02 0.60±0.00 123.03±2.09 0.11±0.00 2584.82±224.78 11917.81±72.32MHY-M 16.18±0.59 2.60±0.12 0.77±0.02 20.86±0.12 0.01±0.00 748.86±18.39 5927.11±512.26MHB-M 8.02±0.16 2.30±0.04 0.83±0.01 14.65±1.73 0.01±0.00 332.58±92.36 2988.76±26.57MHG-M 9.97±1.20 2.39±0.15 0.74±0.00 16.27±0.86 0.02±0.00 704.04±37.72 6778.49±293.79MMS-M 12.53±0.11 0.97±0.03 0.68±0.00 22.52±0.91 0.32±0.00 1264.28±38.96 2294.12±211.48MMY-M 18.90±0.00 1.09±0.01 0.54±0.00 11.83±1.58 0.25±0.00 1137.98±37.24 1180.54±46.37MMW-M 21.88±1.27 2.47±0.00 0.58±0.00 17.18±1.20 0.31±0.00 593.89±27.94 2424.49±101.38MUSM-S 9.42±0.61 2.11±0.00 0.90±0.05 39.37±0.36 0.29±0.00 547.96±51.29 2853.23±7.15MUSW-S 8.45±0.28 3.13±0.02 1.11±0.05 21.88±1.01 0.31±0.00 857.90±15.62 1043.04±49.21MUA-S 10.30±0.13 2.22±0.00 0.59±0.01 22.29±0.51 0.33±0.02 603.16±4.63 964.52±39.39MTB-N 3.78±0.08 2.00±0.10 0.55±0.00 29.07±0.90 0.08±0.00 759.12±16.72 4529.84±1178.36MTM-N 5.64±0.82 2.97±0.13 0.79±0.04 26.69±3.72 0.07±0.00 3330.51±902.91 6736.36±1625.27MTK-N 7.33±1.25 3.09±0.16 0.71±0.01 26.6±4.76 0.07±0.00 1185.80±198.52 6419.41±723.01MTU-W 4.39±2.30 2.54±0.11 0.57±0.04 8.32±0.99 0.02±0.00 388.75±11.95 1848.96±150.63MTM-W 7.40±1.07 2.21±0.11 0.90±0.04 24.54±0.02 0.01±0.00 545.80±63.46 2599.00±297.95MTK-W 15.41±1.57 2.04±0.06 0.53±0.02 12.34±0.79 0.01±0.00 730.63±106.65 3665.85±521.64

Coefficient0.09 0.13 0.17 0.21 0.25

MID-M

MMY-M

MHY-M

MHB-M

MTM-N

MHG-M

MMW-M

MUSW-S

MUSM-S

MTM-W

MTU-W

MUA-S

MTB-N

MTK-W

MMS-M

MTK-N

Figure 2. Dendogram of similarity of physic characters and chemical composition in 16 accessions red fruit (Pandanus conoideus) fromPapua and West Papua Provinces. Note: Abbreviation of the red fruit accession follows Table 1.

The results of clustering analysis by UPGMA method(Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic) showsthat the patterns of accessions was not based on region oforigin, but grouped randomly according to charactersimilarity. These results provide evidence that the

accessions of red fruit in Papua and West Papua were veryheterogeneous. Several factors that can cause a highdiversity of plant characters were (i) the occurrence ofhybridization between accessions, (ii) gene mutation, (iii)migration, (iv) introduction, and (v) the difference of


ecogeographic. Natural hybridization can lead to highdiversity in populations derived when the differentcharacters are passed down from elders (Grant 1971).Migration or movement of an individual or population ofplants from one place to another followed by theoccurrence of geographical isolation and hybridization canlead to gene flow, which ultimately leads to increase thediversity of plant characters (Nagy 1997; Mawikere 2007).

MTK-N accession was grouping in a single group anddiffer from 15 other accessions, with the similarity just asmuch as 9%. It is indicated that the MTK-N accessionsfrom Nabire have a fairly distant genetic relationship withother accessions, both accessions from the same region orfrom other areas. Characters that distinguish the MTK-Nwith other accessions were their chemical characters.Accessions that have the closest genetic relationship wereaccession MUSM and MTM-W, with 25% similarity ofcharacter. Although comes from different regions of origin,accessions MUSM-S (South Sorong) and MTM-W(Jayawijaya) have the same chemical and physicalcomponents i.e. the highest content of total carotenoids,total tocopherol, the fruit-sectional shape (triangle), colorof flesh (red), and fruit length (length). This phenomenonindicates that the red fruit that comes from a region notnecessarily have a closer genetic relationship compared toother regions.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that in order to have more accuratedata of genetic relationships among red fruit accessions, theidentification cannot be measured only by the physicalcharacteristics and chemical composition, but also on othercharacters such as molecular traits. It might be due to thefacts that physical characteristics and chemical compositionwere still more influenced by ecogeographic conditions ofplants.

The dried red fruit contains 2.03-3.50% ash, 3.12-6.48% protein, 11.21-30.72% fat, 43.86-79.66%carbohydrate, 3.78-21.88 mg/100g vitamin C, 2.00-3.14mg/100g vitamin B1, 0.53-1.11% Ca, 8.32-123.03 ppm Fe,and 0.01-0,33% P, with total carotenoids and totaltocopherol ranging from 332.65-3309.42 ppm and 964.52-11917.81 ppm. The results of clustering analysis based onphysical characteristics and chemical composition of 16accessions of red fruit showed that the accessions MTK-Ninto a single cluster was different from 15 other accessions,with only 9% similarity of character. Accessions that havethe closest genetic relationship were accession MUSM-S andMTM-W with of 25% similarity of character. AccessionMUSM-S and MTM-W were similar on their chemicalcomponents of the highest content of total carotenoids andespecially total tocopherol and also common features of thephysical character of which is fruit sectional shape(triangle), fruit flesh color (red) and fruit length.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank to the Directorate forResearch and Community Service, Directorate General forHigher Education for funding through CompetitionResearch Grant XIV No. 037/SP3/PP/DP2M/II/2006.Thanks to Sergius Wamafma and Sefnad Asmorom fortheir assist in the study.

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Assessment of biodiversities and spatial structure of Zarivar Wetland inKurdistan Province, Iran

MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM♥, KAMAL HOSHMAND♥♥

Department of Environment, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran, P.O.BOX: 734, Professor Mosivand st. Tel: +988114494170,Fax: +988114494170, Email: ♥ [email protected]; ♥♥ [email protected]

Manuscript received: 3 July 2010. Revision accepted: 22 December 2011.

ABSTRACT

Reyahi-Khoram M, Hoshmand K. 2012. Assessment of biodiversities and spatial structure of Zarivar Wetland in Kurdistan Province,Iran. Biodiversitas 13: 130-134. Wetlands are valuable ecosystems that occupy about 6% of the world’s land surface. Iran has over 250wetlands measuring about 2.5 million hectares. Zarivar wetland (ZW) is the only natural aquatic ecosystem in Kurdistan province inIran. The present research was carried out during 2009 through 2010 with the aim of recognizing the capabilities and limitations of ZWthrough documentary, extensive field visits and also direct field observations during the years of study. Geographic Information System(GIS) has been used to evaluate the land as a main tool. The results of this research showed that ZW has a great talent regardingdiversity of bird species and the ecological status of wetland has caused the said wetland welcome numerous species of birds. Theresults of this research showed that industrial pollutions are not considered as threats to the wetland but evacuation of agricultural runoffand development of Marivan city toward the wetland and the resulting pollution load could be introduced as an important part of thewetland threats. It is recommended to make necessary studies in the field of various physical and biological parameters of the wetland,and also the facing threats and opportunities.

Key words: aquatic, biodiversity, environment, wetland, Zarivar

INTRODUCTION

The environment is a giant and sophisticated set ofdifferent processes that have emerged due to gradualevolution of living beings and their interference withnonliving parts on earth. Wetlands are ecosystems thatprovide numerous goods and services that have aneconomic value, not only to the local population living inits periphery but also to communities living outside thewetland area (Reyahi Khoram et al. 2011, 2012). Wetlandsare valuable ecosystems that occupy about 6% of theworld’s land surface. They comprise both land ecosystemsthat are strongly influenced by water, and aquaticecosystems with special characteristics due to shallownessand proximity to land. The Convention on Wetlands is anintergovernmental treaty, adopted on 2nd February 1971, inRamsar, a northern coastal city in Iran; its aim is topromote the conservation and wise use of wetlands,acknowledging that these are extremely importantecosystems for the conservation of biological diversity andwelfare of human communities. At present the Ramsar listincludes 1933 wetlands of international importance,summing up 189 million of hectares protected in the 160member states (Ramsar Convention of Wetlands 2011).

Iran has over 250 wetlands measuring about 2.5 millionhectares. 22 out of these wetlands measuring 1.8 millionhectares have been registered as international wetland inRamsar Convention (Ramsar Convention of Wetlands2011). Although the ecological value of wetlands is 10

times as forests and 200 times as farmlands, butunfortunately, 6 international wetland sites of 22 registeredwetland sites of Ramsar conversion with the area of583000 hectares (over 30% of the area of the wetlands ofthe country registered with Ramsar Convention) areexposed to the threat and acute ecological changes, so thattheir name is in Montreux Record (Ramsar Convention ofWetlands 2009). Although various different classificationsof wetlands exist, a useful approach is one provided by theRamsar Convention on Wetlands. It divides wetlands in tothree main categories of wetland habitats: marine (coastal)wetlands; man-made wetlands and inland wetlands. Inlandwetlands refer to such areas as lakes, rivers, streams andcreeks, waterfalls, marshes, peat lands and floodedmeadows (Schuyt 2004).

Zarivar wetland (ZW) is inland wetland according tomentioned classification. ZW is the only natural aquaticecosystem in Kurdistan province in Iran. This wetland hasformed due to sever erosion of geological formations of theregion. This important ecological zone is located in thenorthwest of Marivan city and situated in the north ofZagros fold belt. According to the classification of wetlandhabitats approved by Ramsar convention, ZW is in thesweet water section of permanent reservoirs of permanentsweet water wetlands (more than 8 hectares). From atectonic point of view, Marivan region is an active regionand its fold belongs to the middle of the third geologicalperiod. ZW is located between 46○, 06', 11" to 46○, 9', 16"eastern longitudes and between 35○, 30', 53" to 35○, 35',

KHORAM & HOSMAND – Recognition of Zarivar Wetland (ZW), Iran 131

12" northern latitude with altitude of 1285 meters from sealevel, and 2 Kilometers far from Marivan city in Kurdistanprovince (Figure 1)

The aim of this research is to determine characteristicsof ZW and providing management strategies which touristscould visit the attractions without damaging the area.


The present research was carried out during 2009through 2010 to recognizing the capabilities and limitationsof ZW in Kurdistan province in Iran through documentary,extensive field visits and also direct field observationsduring the years of study. Through the period, using themap, Global Positioning System (GPS) and in some casesthrough afoot surveying or using car, the geographicallocation of aquatic species of the region were identified. Inthis research, valid academic resources were used foridentification of Birds, Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians(Latifi 2000; Mansoori 2008; Ziaie 2008). To identify anddefine ecological resources of the region, digital maps wereused and on this basis the topology situations as well asground cover of studied area have been accomplished. Inaddition, Geographic Information System (GIS) has been

used to evaluate the land as a main tool. The software usedwas Arc View (version 3.2a) with the Universal TransverseMercator (UTM) projection and scale was 1/50,000(Demers 2009).


Physical and hydrological statusZW covering 3292 hectares was officially declared as a

wildlife refuge in 2009 by Department of Environment(DoE) of Iran. The semi humid to humid climaticconditions of the area surrounding the ZW causedformation of a unique forest covering in the mountains ofthis region, and despite the numerous devastatingconsequences, it has still beautiful landscapes. The pasturesof ZW were one of the first grade and appropriate pasturesof Iran. But today, due to irregular use, its ecologicalbalance has changed. ZW was more extensive with aspherical zone shape was made in the past due to functionof some faults with northwestern-southeastern alignmentand falling of its middle part. Other natural functions ofZW are related to sweet water wetland that creating anappropriate medium for growth of plants, fish and alsoliving of migrating and native birds and animals.

Figure 1. Location of the study area, Zarivar Wetland, Marivan City, Kurdistan Province in Iran

Zarivar Wetland

MarivanCity


The surroundings of wetland are Forest Mountainsrelated with Zagros Mountains. The water of sweet waterwetland is supplied from a number of springs on the bottomof wetland and also climatic precipitations and numeroussprings surrounding the wetland. Due to the changes in thevolume of wetland water in the seasons of the year, itswater level changes. Its minimum depth is 6 meters andmaximum 12 meters. The Zarivar basin with a populationof 70,445 (over 85% city dwellers) has two sub basins;Marivan sub basin with the area of 5000 hectares andZarivar sub basin with the area of 10,827 hectares. Thevolume between the minimal and maximal figures ofwetland water height reaches 19 million cubic meters, andthe average annual water evacuation of springs at thebottom of wetland reaches 13 million cubic meters. Theaverage annual water entering the wetland is about 54million cubic meters, of which 41 million cubic meters issupplied through surface runoff and the remainder throughthe springs at the bottom of wetland. The average annualprecipitation of the region is 786 millimeters. The area ofwetland varies due to the changes of water volume duringvarious seasons. The wetland medium perimeter is about22 Km, relative humidity of 58% and the average annualevaporation of approximately 1900 mm. The highest pointin the studied area is 1895 meters above sea level, onnorthwest of wetland.

The soils around the wetland and shallow lands aredeep with brownish grey color. Most of these soils are ofsilt clay or loam silt clay. The soil textile is light in thewater surface parts and is heavy in depth. The undergroundwater table in these types of soil has been estimated 1 to 2meters. ZW acts in the center of the basin as water flowregulator. The status of springs at the bottom of wetland isnot precisely known. Some deem it likely that the water ofsprings is supplied through carset resources. On this basis,the said springs are related with the confined aquifer fromgeohydrological point of view. An aquifer may be definedas a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeablematerial to yield significant quantities of water to springsor wells. Confined aquifers, also known as pressureaquifers, occur where groundwater is confined underpressure grater than atmospheric by overlying relativelyimpermeable strata. Therefore, if the wetland water level ismanipulated by measures such as dam construction, thepressure of water due to increasing water level of wetlandwill prevent from water flow of wetland bottom springs.

Field studies showed that the industrial plants are notlocated around the wetland. Hence ZW is not exposed toindustrial wastewater pollution and the source of wetlandpollution is related to surface runoff and compared to theflow rate of springs, it is more important as regards qualityand quantity.

Based on the existing reports, the amount of five-dayBiochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) and ChemicalOxygen Demand (COD) of wetland water is very small sothat BOD5 of wetland water has been reported between 1to 2 milligrams per liter and the amount of DissolvedOxygen (DO) was acceptable (Rahnamai 1996). Ghaderiand Ghafouri (2006) showed in their research that from thepollutants transferred to ZW and regarding the intensity of

pollution production, the non point source pollution relatedto agricultural activities was first rank among otherpollutant as community wastewater, solid waste grasslandpollution and forest. These pollutions are transferreddirectly to wetland and threaten the biological systems ofZW.

In this situation, the results obtained from theexperiments made on the wetland water show that theamount of DO of wetland water is in favorable limit andthe amount of the measured BOD and COD is acceptable.It is obvious that the low amount of pollution indicesincluding BOD and COD indicate that the amount of self-purification capacity of wetland is favorable and the reedysurrounding the wetland has an effective role indiminishing the pollution.

The results of this research showed that industrialpollutions are not considered as threats to the wetland butevacuation of agricultural runoff and development ofMarivan city toward the wetland and the resulting pollutionload could be introduced as an important part of thewetland threats. Also evacuation of urban and ruralwastewaters inside the wetland will create sever problemsfor the ecological status of the wetland.

Biological statusZW is considered among the important habitats of the

province, and its surrounding regions are appropriatehabitat for various animals. Reedy that is connected to thewetland coasts and the reedy that have been formed theislands inside the wetland, are among the main habitats forthe birds and amphibious of wetland. Each year numerousspecies of migrating birds including waterfowl and waderbirds spend part of their winter times and birth givingseason in this wetland. The biological statuses of wetlandinclude the following sections.

Animal phoneThe said wetland is important as concerns biological

conditions. First its surrounding reedy's is ecologicallyappropriate for egg laying of the birds and amphibious.Also the wetland water ecosystem provides appropriateconditions for the life of various amphibious and aquatics(Rahnamai 1996). The most important known biologicalelements existing within ZW adopted by its environment isas follows:

Phytoplanktons:Blue-green algae (Microcystis sp.)Brown algae (Macrocystis sp.)Diatom (Cymbella sp.)Diatom (Navicula sp.)Diatom (Synedra sp.)Green algae (Chalmydomonas sp.)Green algae (Chlorella sp.)Green algae (Scenedesmus sp.)

Zooplanktons:Cyclops (Cyclops sp.)Daphnia (Daphnia sp.)Diaphanosoma (Diaphanosoma sp.)Phyllodiaptomus (Phyllodiaptomus sp.)Rotifer (Rotifera sp.)

KHORAM & HOSMAND – Recognition of Zarivar Wetland (ZW), Iran 133

Fishes:Caspian shemaya, Blea (Chalcalburnus sp.)Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)Crucian carp (Carassius auratus)Eel (Mastacembelus mastacembelus)Grass carp & White amur (Ctenopharyngodon idella)Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis)Parma levantská (Capoeta damascina)Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)Stone morocco (Pseudorasbora parva)

Birds:Common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus)Eurasian Coot (Fulica atra)Grate crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus)Great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)Grey heron (Ardea cinerea)Lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythropus)Little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis)Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)Purple heron (Ardea purpurea)Squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides)Water rail (Rallus aquaticus)

Mammals:Otter, european oteter (Lutra lutra)Water vole (Arvicola terrestris)Wetland cat (Felis catus)Wild boar (Sus scrota)

Reptiles:Caspian pond turtle (Mauremys caspica)Common grass snake (Natrix natrix)Tesselated snake (Natrix tessellate)

Amphibians:Green toad (Bufo viridis)Green tree frog (Hyla cinerea)Wetland frog (Rana ridibanda)

It is to be noted among the said fish species, Stonemorocco (Pseudorasbora parva), Crucian carp (Carassiusauratus) and Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis (species areintroduced to the said ecosystem and the remainders arenative.

Plant floraThe flora of ZW includes the flora of the regions

surrounding the wetland and the parts inside it. Theecological status around the lake, namely penetration of dryregions inside the water or more movement of watertoward dry regions makes an inseparable tie betweenhydrophilic and xerophytes units. The natural changes ofthe water level of wetland during various seasons areaccompanied by stress on the plant coverage, but its role inbiodiversity of the coverage around the wetland is positiveand causes formation of different units around it.

Aquatic plants of ZW are divided into four categories ofemergent plants, submerged plants, floating-leaved plantsand floating plants. Emergent plants grow in the humidlands of the margins of ZW and may penetrate into wetlandfrom the humid lands. The emergent plants in ZW areCommon reed (Phragmites australis), cats tail (Typha sp.),ruch (Juncus sp.), flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus),cypress grass (Cyperus rotundus), alkali bulrush (Scirpusmaritimus) and sedge (Carex sp.).

Submerged plants spend their entire life cycle under thewater unless the flowering stage. This group of aquatic

plants is rooted in the water bed. Submerged plants couldbe observed from near shore to the deepest part of ZW. Themost area covering these plants could be observed in thedistance between water bed of wetland just in vicinity offarmlands in south of ZW and the eastern and southeasterncoasts. Submerged plants in ZW are: common bladderwort(Utricularia neglecta), common hornwort (Ceratophyllumdemersum), pondweed (Potamogeton Sp.), and longrootsmartweed (Polygonum amphibium).

The third category of aquatic plants of ZW includesfloating-leaved plants whose leaves are floating on thewater surface and their roots are inside the bed. The mostlocation of accumulation of this type of wetland plants is inthe distance between the wide band of straw farms in thesouthern coasts of ZW and eastern coasts of wetland incontact with slope lands on which recreation installationshave been constructed. The most species of floating-leavedplants on ZW is white lotus water lily (Nymphaea alba).

The fourth category of aquatic plants of this wetland isfloating plants which are also known as free floating plantswith leaves and stems floating on water surface. The rootof this category of aquatic plants in the water column isfree, with no contact with the bed. Although the root is freeand there is no dependence on the bed, these plants in ZWare only observed in shallow waters (depth of 0.5 to 1meter). The most extensive species of floating plants in ZWis Common duckweed (Lemna minor) species.

Based on the results, ZW has a grate capabilityregarding diversity of birds, Fishes, Mammals, Reptiles,Amphibians and flora species and the ecological status ofwetland has caused the said wetland hosts numerousecotourists every year including school and universitystudy groups as local and international tourists.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The obtained results show that this wetland is verytalented in the field of ecotourism, bird watching andrecreation. It is obvious that investment of public andprivate sectors will help to realization of potential talents ofthe wetland and the native people will enjoy its graces. Onthis basis, they will show more interest in protection andmaintenance of the wetland. Local people have goodexperiences and have inherited such experiences from theirancestors. In this situation, providing an initial trainingsrelated to environmental conservation and ecotourism, theymay take part in the related economic activities like localaccommodation centers department, restaurants, visitors'guide production of handicraft, and other tourist services.Certainly training to villagers about the values of ZW,guarantees sustainable ecotourism in the area and soimplementing ecotourism programs must provide aneconomic base for preservation and restoration of ZW. It isobvious that programming must be made in such a way asto guarantee the preservation and durability of the areas,increasing income of local people and also increasing thefans of nature and environment.

Study and investigation of the area can berecommended to determine and identify the borders of


wetland. Also, Comprehensive study and topographicsurveying of the status of actual evaporation and potentialevaporation of the wetland water is recommended. Sinceenvironmental management of ZW is very important, it issuggested that the authorities consider and Efforts fordeclaration of ZW as an International Wetland according toRamsar Convention.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by Department ofEnvironment (DoE) of Islamic Republic of Iran, to whichthe authors’ thanks are due. The authors also thankKhairollah Moradi, the head of Kurdistan ProvincialDirectorate of Environmental Protection, for theircollaboration in this study.

REFERENCES

Demers M. 2009. Fundamental of Geographic Information System. 4th ed.Johne Wiley & Sons, New York.

Ramsar Convention of Wetlands. 2011. The Ramsar List of Wetlands ofInternational Importance. The Ramsar Convention of Wetlands.http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/sitelist.pdf

Ghaderi N, Ghafouri AM. 2006. Comparative assessment of natural(forest and range) versus manmade (agriculture and urbane)environment in lake Zarivar, Iranian J For Range Protect Res 4: 19-27.

Latifi M. 2000. Snakes of Iran. DoE of Iran, Tehran.Mansoori J. 2008. A guide to the birds of Iran. Farzan Book Publisher,

Tehran.Rahnamai MT. 1996. Sustainable protect and enjoying of Zarivar lake.

Kurdistan Provincial Directorate of Environmental Protection,Sanandaj.

Ramsar Convention of Wetlands. 2009. List of wetlands of internationalimportance included in the Montreux record.http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-montreux-montreux-record/main/ramsar/1-31-118%5E20972_4000_0 #remove

Reyahi-Khoram M, Norisharikabad V, Vafaei H. 2011. Review ofseasonal wetlands, case study: AG-GOL Wetland in HamadanProvince, IRAN. Proceeding of 4th USM-JIRCAS Joint InternationalSymposium, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia, 18-20January 2011.

Reyahi-Khoram M, Norisharikabad V, Vafaei H. 2012. Study ofbiodiversity and limiting factors of Ag-gol Wetland in HamadanProvince, Iran. Biodiversitas 13: 135-139.

Schuyt K, Brander L. 2004. Living waters conserving the source of life(The Economic Values of the World’s Wetlands). Swiss Agency forthe Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL), Amsterdam.

Ziaie H. 2008. A filed guide to the mammals of Iran. DoE of Iran, Tehran.


Study of biodiversity and limiting factors of Ag-gol Wetland inHamadan Province, Iran

MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM1,♥, VAHID NORISHARIKABAD2, HOSHANG VAFAEI1

1Department of Environment, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Professor Mosivant st., P.O.Box 65138-734, Hamadan, Iran. Tel: +98-811-4494170, Fax: +98811 4494170, ♥email: [email protected]

2Graduate School of the Environment and Energy, Islamic Azad University-Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran.

Manuscript received: 24 June 2012. Revision accepted: 30 July 2012.

ABSTRACT

Reyahi-Khoram M, Norisharikabad V, Vafaei H. 2012. Study of biodiversity and limiting factors of Ag-gol Wetland in HamadanProvince, Iran. Biodiversitas 13: 135-139. Ag-gol Wetland is one of the important and seasonal wetlands of Iran. This wetland islocated on southeast of Hamadan Province and was declared as a prohibited hunting area by Department of Environment (DoE) of Iran.Identifying the characteristics, capabilities and limiting factors of Ag-gol Wetland is the most important objective of this study. Thepresent study was conducted during 2007 through 2010. Documentary and observation methods have been used to access toinformation. For general identification of the area, digital maps and Geographic Information System (GIS) were used. Identifyingcapabilities and limitation factors of the studied area was made through extensive field inspections and direct field observations. Birdspecies of the region were identified and statistics of the population of bird species were gathered. In this research, valid academicresources were used. According to field inspections and studies, 46 species of waterfowl birds and wader birds of Iran have beenidentified at this wetland. The results of this research showed that Ag-gol Wetland has a high potential regarding the variety ofwaterfowl and wader birds. Continuous study in order to determine the depth of wetland water in different time intervals to estimate thevolume of wetland water during different seasons of the year is recommended.

Key words: biodiversity, environment, prohibited hunting area, seasonal wetland

INTRODUCTION

Global warming and climate change could severelyimpact streams, wetlands, and other sensitive areas. Thewater levels and ecology of the wetlands are sensitive toatmospheric change. Wetlands all over the world have beenlost or are threatened in spite of various internationalagreements and national policies. This is caused by: thepublic nature of many wetlands products and services; userexternalities imposed on other stakeholders; and policyintervention failures that are due to a lack of consistencyamong government policies in different areas. All threecauses are related to information failures which in turn canbe linked to the complexity and invisibility of spatialrelationships among groundwater, surface water andwetland vegetation (Conly and Van Der Kamp 2001).

Wetlands measure about 885 million hectares which1888 wetlands measuring and 185 million hectares havebeen registered in Ramsar Convention. Iran has over 250wetlands measuring about 2.5 million hectares. 22 out ofthese wetlands measuring 1.8 million hectares have beenregistered as international wetland in Ramsar Convention(Ramsar Convention of Wetlands 2010). In this situation,only a small part of the world's wetlands (0.3%) is locatedin Iran (Reyahi-Khoram and Hoshmand 2012). RamsarConvention classified wetlands in 3 main types; marine(coastal) wetlands; man-made wetlands and inland

wetlands. Many of Inland wetlands are seasonal andparticularly in the arid and semiarid area, may be wet onlyperiodically. Seasonal wetland, known commonly as vernalponds, are isolated from river and other water bodies andcharacterized by a seasonally fluctuating water level, oftendrying out completely for some part of the year. Seasonalwetlands are particularly important to amphibianpopulations and often are small. These habitats providebreeding sites for wetland wildlife that are not populated bypredatory fish or other major predators.

Throughout the world, endemic flora and fauna areadapted to the physical and chemical environment found inseasonal wetlands, which are biodiversity hotspots for abroad array of organisms. Several species of smallmammals apparently readily use seasonal pools and we donot have a clear understanding of how important seasonalwetlands are to these species (Peter 2005). Seasonalwetlands are beginning to achieve recognition as importanthabitats because of its richness in biodiversity and thehabitat they provide for plants and animals during periodsof high water levels. Seasonal wetland dry up in summerand only contain water during wetter months of the year.As a result of this periodic drying, species requiring wateryear-round are not able to survive.

Ag-gol Wetland is one of the important and seasonalwetlands of the country; this wetland is located onsoutheast of Hamadan Province, 30 km northeast of


Malayer city and is situated between 34º, 32', 10'' and 34º,33', 2'' northern latitudes and between 49º,1',23'' and49º,1',27'' eastern longitudes (Figure 1). Ag-gol Wetlandwas declared as a prohibited hunting area by Department ofEnvironment (DoE) of Iran in second half of 2009.Thereafter, it was protected as per the law.

Identifying the characteristics, capabilities and limitingfactors of Ag-gol Wetland is the most important objectiveof this study. The said research may provide a means ofidentifying the threatened species and critically endangeredspecies and also determine the effective causes ofprotecting and survival of the said species and maycontribute to improvement of the programming andmanagement overall study area.


The present study was conducted in Ag-gol Wetland,Hamadan Province, Iran, during 2007 through 2010.Documentary and observation methods have been used toaccess to information. This means that identifyingcapabilities and limitation factors of the studied area wasmade during the research years through extensive fieldinspections and direct field observations.

During the period, using the map, camera, GlobalPositioning System (GPS) and in some cases through afootsurveying, the status of Ag-gol Wetland was identified.Means, the status of Ag-gol Wetland was inspected in all

seasons of the year. Regarding that this wetland is one ofthe seasonal wetlands of Iran, it was not possible to easilyinspect all parts of the wetland in all of seasons, but thehummocks islands of the wetland were also inspected andstudied afoot over the swamp. Bird species of the regionwere identified and statistics of the population of bird andanimal species were gathered. In this research, validacademic resources were used for identification of birdsand animals (Mansoori 2008) and (Brati 2009). In order todetermine the volume of annual precipitation, the figuresand information gathered via the meteorological stationsaround the wetland were used. For general identification ofthe area, digital maps and Geographic Information System(GIS) were used and on this basis, the topological status ofthe area was identified. The software used was Arc View(version 3.2a) with the Universal Transverse Mercator(UTM) projection and scale was 1/50,000 (Demers 2009).


Physical and hydrologic statusAg-gol Wetland is a nearly plain wetland, which it's

lowest part has a height of 1653.65 meters from free sealevel. The villages surrounding this wetland are Eslamabad,Nasirabad, Majidabad, Ghasemabad and Tootal. The bed ofAg-gol Wetland is comprised- up to 70%- of hardformations, namely lime stones, sand stones and hardschist. About 30% are shale formations, which their final

Figure 1. Location of the study area, A. Hamadan Province, Iran, B. Malayer City, C. Ag-gol Wetland

Zarivar Wetland

MarivanCity

Iran, Islamic Republic

Hamadan Province

Malayer City

A

B C

REYAHI-KHORAM et al. – Biodiversity of Ag-gol Wetland, Iran 137

destruction and decomposition leads to small granules suchas silt and clay. The wetland's adjacent lands includealluvium plains, flood plains and closed basins. Alluviumplains include Kardkhord soil series (with mean texture),Ghahavand soil series (including heavy texture) andAhmadabad soil series (with mean alluvium texture). Alsoflood plains include Ghasemabad soil series (with veryheavy alkali texture) and Abdolrahim soil series (withheavy texture and high salinity and alkali). Closed basinsare meant the soil around the wetland, which are comprisedof heavy-texture alkali soils with low slope.

Its general slope from the focal point of wetland towardthe north is 0.03% and from the center toward the south is0.02%. The real area in closed curve of 1653.7 meters is116 hectares, and the area in the curves of 1653.7 and 1654is about 500 hectares, and the area in the curves of 1654and 1654.5 is 313 hectares. In recent years, governmentalorganizations have constructed flood gate around thewetland in order to protect the wetland and also to preventfrom water flood in the adjacent lands and villages. Thisflood gate measure 10 meters in width and 1.5 meters inheight and has encompassed the surrounding area ofwetland. On this basis, the area of the wetland restricted inthis flood gate is estimated over 500 hectares. From thetime of construction of this flood gate, during winter andspring seasons, water height has increased in the wetland(Figure 1C).

Due to irregular entry of water and evaporation, thesurface of wetland is changing; but the wetland area duringwinter and spring seasons reaches to over 500 hectares andas the water advances into the middle parts, two hummocksislands will appear that their height reaches 6 meters. Alsoduring these days, the average water height in Ag-golWetland reaches 1 meter and in the best conditions, theamount of water available in the wetland is about 5 millioncubic meters.

The results showed that the average precipitation in thesurface of Ag-gol Wetland watershed equals about 271millimeters per year. Also the area of Ag-gol Wetlandbasin is equivalent to 125 Square Kilometers. Therefore,the amount of water from atmospheric precipitations inwetland basin is equivalent to 30 million cubic meters peryear, which a part of it flows toward the farms andagricultural lands through the constructed channel. So, thesources of supplying water of this wetland areprecipitations in the surface of the wetland's basin and alsothe seasonal channels and streams floodway which isconnected to Ghare-Chay River somehow. The waterscoming to the wetland (during watery seasons) accumulateon the surface of wetland and then flow as flood from northof wetland toward north of the region. Based on theapprovals made in the 180th session of ministry of Energy'swater allocation commission, 2 million cubic meters waterright per year has been confirmed as right of environmentalwater need of Ag-gol Wetland per year. When the watercurrent from Ghare-Chay reaches zero, farmers begintaking water from the wetland. It is obvious that in thiscase, Ag-gol Wetland act such as a reservoir foragricultural affairs of villagers of the region. Also undersome conditions, farmers of the region use pumping

systems to take the wetland's water. The studies showedthat this wetland is dry during July, August, September,October and November months and hence, wetlandimpounding begins in December each year.

Biological and ecological statusAg-gol Wetland is considered as one of the important

habitats of the province. Every winter, a large number ofmigratory birds, including waterfowl and wader birdsspend a part of their winter times and birth giving season inthis wetland. In Ag-gol Wetland, the wader bird speciesexceed than waterfowl birds and wader birds are usuallywas show in the margins of wetland, and these regions areregarded as wader birds. The trend of changes related tospecies population of index species such as waterfowl birdsand wader birds of Ag-gol Wetland has been estimated byusing the numerous statistics methods. Study of generalchanges show the reduction of the number of populationfrom July to December and increase in the number of birdsfrom March to May and further reduction in June. Thespecies that were identified in this wetland in June aremostly reproductive species.

According to field inspections and studies, 46 species ofwaterfowl birds and wader birds of Iran have beenidentified at this wetland. The identified species include 14families. From among these, Scolopacidae are a highlydiverse family of birds related to Ag-gol Wetland and thisFamily is equals 27% of bird species of wetland. Also themost variety of species in this wetland is related to OrderCharadriiformes. The diversity of Birds in Ag-gol Wetlandis presented in Table 1.

Water qualityField studies showed that the industrial plants are not

located around the wetland. Hence Ag-gol Wetland is notexposed to urban and industrial wastewater pollution.According to the results of experiments, in spring (whichthe amount of wetland water is in its highest amount) thevolume of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was between 6 to 8.5mg/L, the average of 5- day Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD5) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) isrespectively equal to 8 and 19 mg/L and the amount ofTotal Dissolved Solid (TDS) was between 164 to 576mg/L. Also the amount of Total Suspended Solid (TSS)was between 80 to 624 mg/L.

DiscussionThe results of this research showed that Ag-gol

Wetland has a high potential regarding the variety ofwaterfowl and wader birds. The ecological status ofwetland has made it welcome numerous species ofwaterfowl and wader birds. These species include wintermigrating species and reproductive species, which are seenin this wetland in winter and spring. Regarding thischaracteristic, it seems that this wetland has a highpotential of ecotourism attractions such as bird watchingand similar recreations. It is obvious that investments bypublic and private sectors will promote the potentials of thewetland and the native peoples will benefit from it, andhence they will show more interest in protecting and


Table 1: Diversity of birds in Ag-gol Wetland, Iran

Family Scientific name

Accipitridae Aquila clangaAnatidae Anas acuta

Anas creccaAnas platyrhynchosAnser anserAythya ferinaTadorna ferrugineaTadorna tadorna

Ardeidae Ardea cinereaBubulcus ibisCasmerodius albusEgretta garzetta

Charadriidae Charadrius alexandrinusCharadrius dubiusCharadrius hiaticulaCharadrius mongolusVanellus vanellus

Ciconiidae Ciconia ciconiaCiconia nigra

Glareolidae Glareola pratincolaLaridae Arenaria interpres

Larus geneiLarus ridibundusPhalaropus fulicariusPhalaropus lobatus

Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocorax carboPhoenicopteridae Phoenicopterus ruberRallidae Fulica atraRecurvirostridae Himantopus himantopus

Recurvirostra avosettaScolopacidae Actitis hypoleucos

Calidris alpineCalidris minutaGallinago gallinagoLymnocryptes minimusNumenius arquataTringa nebulariaTringa ochropusTringa tetanus

Sternidae Chlidonias leucopterusSterna albifronsSterna hirundoSterna niloticaSterna repressa

Threskiornithidae Plegadis falcinellusPlatalea leucorodia

maintaining the wetland. The results of this researchshowed that industrial pollutions are not a threat to the Ag-gol Wetland. Regarding shortage of surface andunderground water resources, the owners of industriesshow no interest in construction of industrial plant adjacentto the wetland. The results obtained from the experimentsmade on the wetland water also indicate that the amount ofDO in the wetland water is favorable and the amount ofBOD and COD is acceptable. It seems that the negligiblepollution related to BOD and COD is due to the migrationof birds and presence of aquatics in this wetland, andmentioned parameters are not as threat for the wetland. The

measurements related to the amount of TDS and also TSSin water show that these amounts are available in anextensive range and this could be attributed to differentclimatic conditions such as wind blow, storm, precipitationand flood.

Based on the results of this research, the issue of waterand lack of its management is the most basic challenge andthreat to the Ag-gol Wetland; such that the farmers of theregion use pumping systems to take water from the wetlandin aridity conditions, which is contrary to environmentalrules, regulations and standards. Regarding that Ag-golWetland has been introduced as a prohibited hunting areaby DoE of Iran, it is necessary that the Hamadan ProvincialDirectorate of Environmental Protection and also Hamadanwater resources management company enforce laws andprevent from wetland water taking and protect the wetland.

As mentioned above, in the 180th session of ministry ofEnergy's water allocation commission, 2 million cubicmeters water right per year has been confirmed as right ofenvironmental water need of Ag-gol Wetland per year,although this amount does not conform to the amount ofevaporation (only during non-dry seasons) from the surfaceof wetland in December, January, February, March, April,May and June; namely, the amount of water evaporationduring the said months reaches to 500 millimeters and thevolume of evaporated water equals over 2 million cubicmeters.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Seasonal wetlands are flooded in the winter and beginto dry out in the summer. With due regard to the limitedwater resources in the studied area and according to theresults of this research, it can be concluded that, the waterquantity management of the study area is very importantand is the key strategy in the management of Ag-golWetland. In similar survey done in United State, it is foundthat regional stresses to the shallow groundwater systemsuch as pumping or low Great Lake levels can be expectedto affect even drier wetland types (Skalbeck et al. 2008).Quinn and Hanna (2003) suggested the development of acomprehensive flow and salinity monitoring system andapplication of a decision support system (DSS) to improvemanagement of seasonal wetlands in the San JoaquinValley of California. In another study, it also suggested theuse of a number of sensor technologies that have beendeployed to obtain water and salinity mass balances for a60,000 ha tract of seasonally managed wetlands in the SanJoaquin River Basin of California (Quinn et al. 2010). Inanother study, the importance of two hummocks islands inthe middle of Ag-gol Wetland was emphasized andpromoting the level of protection of the region wasrecommended (Reyahi-Khoram et al. 2010a,b).

The authors sure that water quantity management ofthe study area can improve the environmental conservationand biodiversity of two hummocks islands andenhancement of stockholders. Continuous study in order todetermine the depth of wetland water in different timeintervals to estimate the volume of wetland water during

REYAHI-KHORAM et al. – Biodiversity of Ag-gol Wetland, Iran 139

different seasons of the year is recommended. Also, it issuggested that future studies should focus on determine andidentify the borders of wetland, topographic surveying ofwetland in order to draw level curves with 10 cm distances,the status of actual evaporation and potential evaporation ofthe wetland water.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research was supported by Department ofEnvironment, Islamic Republic of Iran, to which the authors’thanks are due. The authors also thank Mohammad Pour,the head of Hamadan Provincial Directorate ofEnvironmental Protection, for their collaboration in thisstudy.

REFERENCES

Brati A. 2009. Physical and biological study of the Ag-gol Wetland,Hamadan Province. Hamadan Provincial Directorate ofEnvironmental Protection, Hamadan.

Conly FM, Van Der Kamp GG. 2001. Monitoring the hydrology ofCanadian Prairie Wetlands to detect the effects of climate change andland use changes. Environ Monit Assess 67 (1-2): 195-215.

Demers M. 2009. Fundamental of Geographic Information System. JohnWiley & Sons, New York.

Mansoori J. 2008. A guide to the birds of Iran. Farzan Book, Tehran.Peter WCP. 2005. A review of vertebrate community composition in

seasonal forest pools of the northeastern United States. Wetlands EcolManag 13: 235-246

Quinn NWT, Hanna WM. 2003. A decision support system for adaptivereal-time management of seasonal wetlands in California. EnvironModel Software 18 (6): 503-11.

Quinn NWT, Ortega R, Rahilly PJA, Royer CW. 2010. Use ofenvironmental sensors and sensor networks to develop water andsalinity budgets for seasonal wetland real-time water qualitymanagement. Environ Model Software e 25 (9): 1045-58.

Ramsar Convention of Wetlands. 2010. The Ramsar list of wetlands ofinternational importance, the Ramsar convention of wetlands,http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/sitelist.pdf

Reyahi-Khoram M, Hoshmand K. 2012. Assessment of biodiversities andspatial structure of Zarivar Wetland in Kurdistan Province, Iran.Biodiversitas 13 (3): 130-134.

Reyahi-Khoram M, Norisharikabad V, Abdollahi R. 2010a. Survey onKhan Gormaz Protected Area (KGPA) and its ecotourism attractions;Proceeding of the 4th International Colloquium on Tourism & Leisure.Bangkok, 6-9 July 2010.

Reyahi-Khoram M, Riazi B, Norisharikabad V. 2010b. Study of the nestsof Sterna nilotica in Ag-gol Wetland of Hamadan Province. WetlandJ 5: 37-42.

Skalbeck JD, Reed DM, Hunt RG, Lambert JD. 2008. Relatinggroundwater to seasonal wetlands in southeastern Wisconsin, USA.Hydrogeol J 17 (1): 215-28.


Diversity of soil macrofauna on different pattern of sloping landagroforestry in Wonogiri, Central Java

MARKANTIA ZARRA PERITIKA, SUGIYARTO♥, SUNARTODepartment of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta. JI. Ir. Sutami 36a Surakarta 57126, Central

Java, Indonesia. Tel./fax: +62-271-663375. ♥email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 27 December 2010. Revision accepted: 1 April 2011.

ABSTRACT

Peritika MZ, Sugiyarto, Sunarto. 2012. Diversity of soil macrofauna on different pattern of sloping land agroforestry in Wonogiri,Central Java. Biodiversitas 13: 140-144. The purposes of this study were to determine the diversity level of soil macrofauna on differentpatterns of sloping land agroforestry, in Wonogiri District, Central Java, and to find out the relationship between environmental factorsand the level of soil macrofauna diversity. The study was conducted by sampling at three different patterns of agroforestry, namely:pattern of mixed agroforestry (PAC), pattern of teak agroforestry (PAJ), and the pattern of sengon agroforestry (PAS). The fieldsampling used two methods, namely pit fall traps to obtain above ground macrofauna, and hand sorting methods to obtain undergroundmacrofauna, on land slope of 39%, 35%, and 27%. The data were collected to determine the diversity index of soil macrofauna; and theenvironmental factors were also measured. The relationship between environmental factors and the diversity index of soil macrofaunawas presented in Pearson's correlation analysis. The results showed that the pattern of sloping land agroforestry in Wonogiri District,Central Java had different diversity index of soil macrofauna. The average diversity index of surface macrofauna was the PAC (0.710),PAS (0661), and PAJ (0.417). The average diversity index of underground macrofauna was the PAC (0.887), PAS (0.860), and PAJ(0.843). The diversity index of soil macrofauna in various patterns of sloping land agroforestry showed that there was a correlation withenvironmental factors.

Key words: soil macrofauna, diversity, agroforestry, sloping land

INTRODUCTION

Most areas in Indonesia are hilly or mountainous areasthat create the sloping lands (Setyawan et al. 2006).Sloping lands are scattered in the tropics. Around 500million people use them for farming (Craswell et al. 1997).Wonogiri is one of the regions having many mountains andhills with an area of 182,236.02 ha consisting of differenttypes of land, among others: alluvial, litosol, regosol,andosol, grumusol, mediterranian and latosol. Wonogirihas a harsh topography. Most of the land is rocky and dryand is not good for agricultural purposes (BPS 2010).

One technology being assessed as appropriate with theconditions of sloping lands is the application ofagroforestry, a land management system with the basis ofsustainability, which increases the overall land production,simultaneously or sequentially combines the production ofagricultural crops (including tree plants) and forest plantsand/or animals on the same land unit, and implements newways of managing appropriate to the local populationculture (Kartasubrata 1991; Damanik 2003).

Agroforestry is appropriate for the management ofwatershed area (flood and landslide control) with a varietyof considerations, namely the land rehabilitation which canimprove the physical fertility (improving land structure andwater content), chemical fertility (increasing levels oforganic matter and nutrient availability) and land biology(increasing activity and diversity), land morphology (the

formation of solum); and it has an important role inrehabilitating degraded land (Wongso 2008).

The largest land reforestation program in the developingcountries has been done in China under China's SlopingLand Conversion Program (SLCP), having the goal ofconverting 14.67 million hectares of cropland to forests by2010 (4.4 million of which is on land with slopes greaterthan 25°) and an additional goal of afforesting a roughlyequal area of wasteland by 2010 (Bennett 2008). Thisprogram is proven to improve soil quality and increaserural household incomes (Grosjean and Kontoleon 2009;Xu et al. 2010).

Agroforestry as a system of land use is more acceptableby the society because it is profitable for the socio-economicdevelopment, and as a venue for farmers’ communityempowerment and conservation of natural resources andrural areas environment management. This pattern isconsidered very suitable to be developed in Solo’supstream of watershed area that has many aslant areas(Soedjoko 2002). One of Solo’s upstream of watershedarea is located in Wonogiri, Central Java.

Soil macrofauna with size of more than 2 mm consistsof miliapoda, isopods, insects, mollusks and earthworms(Maftu'ah et al. 2005). Soil macrofauna has an important rolein the decomposition of land organic matter in the supplyof nutrients. They will eat dead vegetable substances, thenthe material will be extracted in the form of dirt(Rahmawaty 2004).

PERTIKA et al. – Diversity of macrofauna on sloping land agroforestry 141

The relation between soil macrofauna diversity andecosystem function is very complex and mostly unknown.The concern to conserve of soil macrofauna biodiversity isvery limited (Lavelle et al. 1994; Sugiyarto 2008).Currently, there is no research about the diversity of soilmacrofauna found in various patterns of sloping landagroforestry, in Wonogiri District, Central Java, Indonesia.Given the importance of soil macrofauna role in theecosystem and relatively limited information about theexistence of soil macrofauna in various patterns of slopingland agroforestry, it is necessary to make inventory aboutthe diversity of soil macrofauna on the area.

This research in soil macrofauna diversity on Slopingland agroforestry in Wonogiri District, Central Java wasdone by identifying and quantifying soil macrofaunadiversity in various patterns of Sloping land agroforestryand explained the relationship between environmentalfactors and levels of soil macrofauna diversity.


Study areaThe research was conducted in

sloping land area of Semagar DuwurVillage, Girimarto Subdistrict,Wonogiri District, Central Java,Indonesia.

ProcedureSampling point determination

There were three observationstations with the slope of 39%, 35%,and 27%, respectively. Three patternsof agroforestry were determined ineach station namely: mixedagroforestry pattern (PAC), teakagroforestry pattern (PAJ) andsengon agroforestry pattern (PAS).Then, with simple random samplingmethod, sampling points wererandomly determined in each pattern.

Soil macrofauna samplingThe method of pit fall traps was

used to get surface macrofauna andthe method of hand sorting was usedto get underground macrofauna (Suin1997; Maftu’ah et al. 2005).

Identification of soil macrofaunaIdentification of soil macrofauna

was done with reference to somebooks, including Borror et al. (1989),and Suin (1997).

Measurement of environmentalfactors

At each station, the bioticenvironmental factors were recorded,

namely the amount of vegetation types. Then, at eachsampling point, several abiotic environmental factors weremeasured, both the characters of physics and chemistry,namely: (i) physical characteristics (intensity of sunlight,air relative humidity, air temperature, soil temperature); (ii)chemical characteristics (soil pH, soil organic matter).

Data collection techniquesThe species of soil macrofauna were identified and

counted normally. Environmental factors variables weretaken using its own measuring instruments on sites directlyor in the laboratory indirectly.

Data analysisThe data were used for calculating the Diversity Index.

Then, Pearson correlation analysis is performed todetermine the relationship of diversity indices withenvironmental factors.

Table 1. Environmental factors in a variety of agroforestry patterns on sloping land areaof Semagar Duwur Village, Girimarto Subdistrict, Wonogiri District, Central Java.

Biotic AbioticPhysical properties Chemical properties

Site No. ofvegetation

types

Sunlightintensity

(Lux)

Relativeair

humidity(%)

Airtempe-rature

(C)

Soiltempe-rature

(C)

SoilpH

Soilorganicmatter

(%)PAC I 10 4,040 48.3 28.0 25.7 5.75 3.10PAC II 12 8,783 62.3 27.3 27.3 5.19 4.24PAC III 9 9,303 55.7 30.7 26.3 5.62 3.85

Average 10 7,375 55.4 28.7 26.4 5.52 3.73PAJ I 7 33,310 51.0 33.3 29.0 5.24 3.49PAJ II 2 16,490 58.3 29.0 29.3 5.36 5.39PAJ III 9 20,053 54.0 31.7 27.7 5.81 3.07

Average 6 23,284 54.4 31.3 28.7 5.47 3.98PAS I 7 27,136 46.0 33.0 29.3 5.55 3.46PAS II 5 9,430 51.3 30.7 28.0 5.29 4.62PAS III 3 7,752 59.3 28.7 28.0 6.12 2.70

Average 5 14,773 52.2 30.8 28.4 5.65 3.59Note for Table 1, 2 and 3: I, II, III: The name of the station (Station I, II, III); PAC:Patterns of Mixed Agroforestry, PAJ: Patterns of Teak Agroforestry, PAS: Patterns ofsengon agroforestry

Table 2. The number of individuals, the number of species and diversity index of soilmacrofauna at each research station

Surface macrofauna Underground macrofauna

Site No. ofindividuals

Numberof

species

Diversityindex

Number ofindividuals

Numberof

species

Diversityindex

PAC I 19 7 0.787 17 11 0.858PAC II 65 8 0.684 44 22 0.903PAC III 41 8 0.660 31 14 0.899Average 42 8 0710 31 16 0887

PAJ I 13 5 0.710 29 9 0.792PAJ II 24 5 0.524 15 8 0.818PAJ III 1610 12 0.017 23 15 0.919Average 549 7 0.417 22 11 0.843

PAS I 40 7 0.614 18 9 0.827PAS II 11 5 0.711 24 13 0.892PAS III 37 8 0.659 26 13 0.861Average 29 7 0.661 23 12 0.860



Environmental factors intensely determined thestructure of soil animal communities. Since, one of soilanimals was soil macrofauna being part of the soilecosystem, therefore, in studying soil animal ecology,physico-chemical soil factors were always measured (Suin1997) (Table 1).

The intensity of sunlight received by the ecosystem wasan important determinant of primary productivity, whichhenceforth would affect species diversity and nutrientcycling (Mokany et al. 2008). Air humidity could beaffected by light intensity. Air humidity was higher whenlight intensity was lower (Sulandjari et al. 2005).Temperature was influenced by the radiation of sunlightreceived by earth (Lakitan 2002). Sulandjari et al. (2005)stated that the lower the light intensity the lower thetemperature. Fluctuation was also influenced by weatherconditions, topography and soil conditions (Suin 1997).Soil pH value could be related with soil organic mattercontent. Decomposition of organic matter tended toincrease the acidity of the soil due to the production oforganic acids (Killham 1994; Makalew 2001).

From Table 2, it can be concluded that the PAC had apositive influence on the diversity index of soilmacrofauna, but the PAS and PAJ gave a different effect.Different influences of PAS and PAJ to soil macrofaunadiversity index could be due to differences in affectingenvironmental factors.

Supporting capacity of agroforestry patterns to the lifeof surface macrofauna could directly be associated with anumber of vegetation types (Table 1).PAC had highest number ofvegetation types, so it could beconcluded that the supportingcapacity of PAC to the life of surfacemacrofauna was high. More diversespecies of plant provided more foodsupply to the soil surfacemacrofauna. On the other hand, PAJhad the lowest number of vegetationtypes, so the supporting capacity forsoil surface macrofauna life was alsolow. From the observation can beseen that the diversity indexmacrofauna in the soil and thenumber of species found greatervalue when compared with the soilsurface macrofauna.

The study found surfacemacrofauna with the amount of 27species from a single phylum namelyArthropods. This arthropod phylumwas consisting of two classes namelyInsecta and Arachnids. Insecta classwas found consisting of six order ofHymenoptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera,Hemiptera, Blatodea, and Orthoptera.Arachnids class was found consistingof only one order namely Araneae.

Underground macrofauna were found of 46 species whichwere divided into two phyla, namely annelids andarthropods. The phylum Annelida was only found in oneclass namely Chaetopoda. The phylum Arthropods wasfound consisting of five classes, namely, Insecta,Diplopoda, arachnids, Chilopoda and Malacostraca.Wallwork (1970) explained that the Phylum Arthropodawas a group of soil animals, which generally showed thehighest dominance among the organisms making up thecommunity of soil animals. The species was 29 species of46 species and were originated from the Insecta class. Thiswas in accordance with the revelation of Borror et al.(1989) that the Insecta class was the dominant animal onearth. Borror et al. (1989) stated that the ants were the mostcommon group and were widespread in terrestrial habitats.Ants were groups of animal which species and populationswere abundant.

Dominant surface macrofauna which was found mostlycome from the family Formicidae (ants). Leptomyrmexrufipes of the subfamily Dolichoderinae macrofauna wasthe dominant surface macrofauna, and was the mostcommonly found species. Dolichoderinae were predators ofsoft beetles, such as aphids (Shattuck 1999). Solenopsisinvicta was a species of fire ants which were commonlyfound as pests of plants. This species was easily spread insuitable habitats (NPS 2010). Genus Ponera weredistributed along Indo-Australia (Taylor 1967; Csosz andSeifert 2003).

The life activity of soil macrofauna could not beseparated from the influence of environmental factors. Theactivity of soil organisms is generally influenced by various

Table 3. Dominant soil macrofauna in agroforestry of Wonogiri District, Central Java

Site Surface macrofauna Underground macrofauna

PAC I Ant A (Subfamily Dolichoderinae) Phyllophaga sp.PAC II Leptomyrmex rufipes Camponotus nigricepsPAC III Leptomyrmex rufipes Byturus sp.PAJ I Solenopsis invicta Microtermes sp.PAJ II Leptomyrmex rufipes Ponera sp.PAJ III Leptomyrmex rufipes Oniscus sp.PAS I Solenopsis Invicta Phyllophaga sp.PAS II Ponera sp. and Allonemobius fasciatus Blatella sp.PAS III Leptomyrmex rufipes Blatella sp.

Table 4. Correlation analysis between the level diversity of soil macrofauna andenvironmental factors.

Pearson correlation valueSurface

macrofauna IDUnderground

macrofauna IDEnvironmental factors

PAC PAJ PAS PAC PAJ PASThe intensity of sunlight -0.996 0.551 -0.801 0.986 -0.493 -0.836Air relative humidity -0.787 -0.159 0.359 0.916 0.092 0.415Temperatures -0.480 0.115 -0.500 0.248 -0.048 -0.552Soil temperature -0.667 0.905 -0.845 0.831 -0.932 -0.876Soil pH 0.587 -0.588 -0.421 -0.770 0.641 -0.362Soil organic matter -0.762 0.419 0.541 0.899 -0.479 0.488No. of vegetation types -0.017 -0.516 -0.465 0.264 0.573 -0.518

PERTIKA et al. – Diversity of macrofauna on sloping land agroforestry 143

factors, including climate (rainfall, temperature etc.), soil(acidity, moisture, temperature, nutrients etc.) andvegetation (forests, grasslands, shrubs and other) (Hakim etal. 1986).

The analysis showed that the Pearson correlation valuebetween soil macrofauna diversity indices with abioticenvironmental factors ranging from 0.017 to 0.996. Pearsoncorrelation values were positive and some were negative.Correlation coefficient (r) could be translated in severallevels, namely: a) r = 0, no correlation; b) 0 <r ≤ 0.200, thecorrelation is very low / very weak; c) 0.200 <r ≤ 0.400, thecorrelation is low / weak but certain; d) 0.400 <r ≤ 0.700,significant correlation; e) 0.700 <r ≤ 0.900, the correlationis very high, robust; f) 0.900 <r ≤ 1, the correlation is veryhigh, very robust, reliable (Hasan 2001 ).

The increase of light intensity could decrease the soilmacrofauna diversity index and vice versa. The upswing oflight intensity might result in some undergroundmacrofauna to be dead due to the undergroundenvironmental conditions that was too hot. The intensity ofsunlight was also affected by canopy closure. The thickcanopy allowing sunlight to reach the ground floorreduced, and vice versa (Sanjaya 2009; Sitompul 2002).Mokany et al. (2008) stated that the intensity of sunlightaffect species diversity. Suhardjono (1998) stated thatresearch in the Bogor Botanical Gardens show there ismore animal on the forest floor with less sunlight than theone with much sunlight.

Air relative humidity will decrease the diversity ofsurface macrofauna index. It agrees with the statement ofPurwanti (2003) that the increase in air humidity caninterfere the oxygen uptake (respiration) of surfacemacrofauna. The disruption of the process led to thedecrease of soil macrofauna diversity. It might be becauseof the unability of soil macrofauna to survive or to migrateto another location.

The increase of relative air humidity will increasediversity index of soil macrofauna and vice versa. It is inaccordance with the results of research conducted bySugiyarto (2000) regarding the diversity of soil macrofaunaat various age of sengon stands at Forest Police Resort(RPH) Jatirejo, Kediri. It shows the same thing that there isa positive correlation between the relative air humidity withsoil macrofauna. The correlation between two variables is0.04 for surface macrofauna and 0.05 for undergroundmacrofauna.

An increase of air temperatures will reduce soilmacrofauna diversity index. Lakitan (2002) stated that airtemperature was affected by radiation of sunlight receivedby the earth. The higher the light intensity is, the higher theair temperature (Sulandjari et al. 2005). Temperature whichis too high would cause some physiological processes, suchas reproductive activity, metabolism, and respiration, to bedisrupted (Kevan 1962; Sugiyarto 2007). The disruption ofphysiological processes of soil macrofauna will then affectthe diversity.

An increase in soil temperatures will lower soilmacrofauna diversity index and vice versa. Soiltemperatures which are too high would cause somephysiological processes such as reproductive activity,

metabolism, and respiration, to be disrupted (Kevan 1962;Sugiyarto 2007). Disruption of physiological processes ofsoil macrofauna would then affect diversity. It is inaccordance with the research of Handayani (2008)regarding the inventory diversity of soil macrofauna incarrot crop (Daucus carota L.) which was fertilized withvarious organic and inorganic fertilizers. It showed soiltemperature having negative correlation with the diversityof soil macrofauna particularly on Coleoptera order.

An increase in acidity would increase the diversityindex of soil macrofauna and vice versa. High number ofsoil acidity means having a low pH (pH below 7). Intropical environments where some soil has been sour for along period of time, soil fauna have evolved its tolerance tolow pH. Most of the macrofauna including diggers speciessuch as worms and termites tend to decline its abundance inlarge amounts in acidic soil conditions, with most activitiesare limited to layers of waste where the pH is significantlyhigher and usually alkaline (DPI 2010).

An increase of soil organic matter would increase thediversity index of soil macrofauna and vice versa. Soilmacrofauna improves decomposition of organic residues,although its role depends on the nature of the material in it(Karanja et al. 2006). The more the organic materialavailable the bigger the number of individuals of soilmacrofauna, because it is able to protect againstenvironmental stresses both the high temperatureenvironment and the possible presence of predators(Sugiyarto 2007). TSK (2008) states that soil macrofaunatake nutrients from the soil organic matter, so theavailability of adequate soil organic matter will affect thesurvival of soil macrofauna.

CONCLUSION

Based on research results, it can be concluded thatvarious patterns of sloping land agroforestry had a differentindex of soil macrofauna diversity. There was a correlationbetween index diversity of soil macrofauna withenvironmental factors in various patterns of sloping landagroforestry.

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Fish biodiversity in coral reefs and lagoon at the Maratua Island,East Kalimantan

HAWIS H. MADDUPPA1,♥, SYAMSUL B. AGUS1, AULIA R. FARHAN2, DEDE SUHENDRA3,BEGINER SUBHAN1

1Department of Marine Science and Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University. Jl. Agatis No.1, Bogor 16680,West Java, Indonesia. Tel./Fax +62 251 8623644, email: [email protected]

2Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research and Development, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia. Kompleks BinaSamudera, Jl. Pasir Putih I, East Ancol, North Jakarta 14430, Indonesia

3Fish Quarantine Centre Class II, Tanjung Priok. Jl. Enggano Raya No. 16 Tanjung Priok, Jakarta 14320, Indonesia


ABSTRACT

Madduppa HH, Agus SB, Farhan AR, Suhendra D, Subhan B. 2012. Fish biodiversity in coral reefs and lagoon at the Maratua Island,East Kalimantan. Biodiversitas 13: 145-150. Fishes are one of the most important biotic components in the aquatic environment. Theyare filling different habitats, including coral reef and lagoon. This study aims to (i) assess biodiversity in coral reef and lagoon inMaratua Island, East Kalimantan, and (ii) compare the fish community indices (Shannon-Wiener diversity, Evenness, and Dominance)between the coral reef and lagoon. A total of 159 fish species of belonging to 30 families were observed during five visual census of thestudy period. The number of species on coral reefs is higher (121 species) than in the lagoons (47 species). Relative abundance (%) ofeach species also varied and did not form a specific pattern. However, a clear cluster between the coral reef and lagoon habitats fromfish relative abundance based on multivariate analysis and dendogram Bray-Curtis Similarity was revealed. The Evenness index value(E) ranged from 0.814 to 0.874, the dominance index (C) ranged from 0.023 to 0.184, and the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (ln base,H') ranged from 1.890 to 4.133. Fish biodiversity in coral reefs was higher (H'= 3.290±0.301) than in the lagoon (H' = 2.495±0.578).

Key words: diversity index, Maratua Island, lagoon, fish visual census, reef fishes

INTRODUCTION

Fishes are one of the most important biotic componentsin the aquatic environment. They fill a very specific habitatby meeting a variety of waters substratum. Several studieshave mentioned the importance of glittering fishcommunities in ecosystem processes through trophicrelationships with other biotic components (e.g. Carrassonand Cartes 2002). Coral reefs are used by fishes as aterritorial (Robertson et al. 1976), a feeding ground (Reese1981), as a place to hide (Hixon 1991), and as a reproductionand spawning ground (Wootton 1992). Fish reach their highbiodiversity in coral reef ecosystem (Allen and Werner 2002),especially in Indonesia (Allen and Adrim 2003). Indonesiancoral reefs harbour more than 2000 fish species (Allen andAdrim 2003). Consequently, Indonesia has been declaredas the centre of marine biodiversity (Allen 2008; Allen andWerner 2002).

Lagoon ecosystem is one of shallow water ecosystemsthat are separated by barrier islands or coral from largerwater systems, which is characterized by predominant sandsubstratum (Hutomo and Moosa 2005). Sedberry andCarter (1993) states that due to differences incharacteristics of the substrate between coral reef andlagoon area, the fish community will be different in termsof composition, relative abundance and biomass. Inaddition, lagoon surrounded by a coral reef may have

similar to the biota of coral reef ecosystem, because coralsmay grow on hard substrate at its leeside with a variety ofcoral lifeforms (Hutomo and Moosa 2005).

Maratua Island, one of the islands in Derawan Islands,has a land area of 384.36 km2 and sea area of 3735.18 km2,which is fringed with coral reefs, lagoon and uplifted atoll(Tomascik et al. 1997). Geographically the island issituated on a peninsula north of Berau seas (02°15'12" Nand 118°38'41" E). Maratua’s climatic conditions in theregion are affected by the rainy season (October-May) anddry season (July to September). Oceanographic factorsinfluenced the seasonal movement of currents andIndonesian Trough Flow (Arlindo) from the Pacific to theIndian Ocean through the Straits of Makassar (Wyrtki1961). These conditions create an environment thatsupports a high biodiversity of marine organisms,especially in fish.

However, documentations of the biodiversity of marineorganisms such as fish in Maratua Island are poorly known.The island’s coral reefs are threatened by manyanthropogenic pressures like other Indonesian reef systemthat potentially lead many organisms to extinction.Therefore, this study aims to (i) assess fish biodiversity atthe coral reefs and lagoons in Maratua Island, EastKalimantan, and (ii) compare the fish community indicesbetween the reef and lagoon.


MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study sites and periodsThe reef fish communities on the island of Maratua

were observed at the two stations on the reef slope(Maratua 1, and Maratua 2) and three stations for thelagoon (Tanjung Duwata, Karang Bentukan, and Buar)(Figure 1). The study was conducted on 27-28 November2005 and November 13 to 14, 2006 (Table 1).

Table 1. Information on data collection for each site

Geographical positionSitesN E

Study period

Coral reefs:Maratua 1 2° 16' 51.806" 118° 33' 45.003" 13-11-2006Maratua 2 2° 15' 42.705" 118° 33' 26.999" 14-11-2006Lagoons:Tanjung Duwata 2° 9' 50.809" 118° 38' 45.014" 27-11-2005Karang Bentukan 2° 7' 8.309" 118° 42' 23.888" 27-11-2005Buar 2° 12' 14.387" 118° 37' 12.515" 28-11-2005

Data collectionThe location of the study sites were determined initially

by snorkeling and observing the coral reef conditions andrepresentative areas (3-7 meters depth). Data obtained bythe method of fish visual census along 50 m transect line(English et al. 1997). A total of two transects were laid oncoral reefs, and three transects on lagoon. The fish transectlines are straight and follow the depth contour. The basicunit of data collection for the fish visual census was 50 m x5 m (250 m2). The procedure was to wait for at least 10minutes before surveying reef fish species (Halford andThompson 1994), and the approximate time of fish censuswas up to 60 minutes for each transect. The SCUBAobserver swims slowly along transect and recording fishencountered within 2.5 m on both side and 5 m abovetransect. After data collection, reef fish identification wasconfirmed by using several fish identification books, i.e.Allen (2000) and Lieske and Myers (2001).

Figure 1. Map of study sites: the reef slope (station 1 and 2) and the lagoon (stations 3, 4 and 5) on the island Maratua within DerawanIslands, East Kalimantan. Insert: Maratua Island in relation to Indonesia indicated by a red box.

MADDUPPA et al. – Fish biodiversity of Maratua Island, East Kalimantan 147

Data analysisShannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H’; ln basis),

Evenness Index (E), and Simpson Dominance Index (C)(Odum 1971; Magurran 1988; Ludwig and Reynolds 1988;Smith 2002), as well as species richness and their relativeabundance were compared among sites. In addition,functional categories (target, major and indicator) wereanalyzed. The target fish is individual fish that haseconomic value and food resources for fishermen. Thisgroup is also known as the economically important fish orfish consumption. The indicator fish is group of fish thatdetermines the health of coral reefs. This is caused by thestrong relationship between the fish and coral, such asFamily Chaetodontidae. Member of chaetodonthids usedcoral reefs as a source of food. The major fish is fishgroups that are not included in the targets and indicators.This group is generally found in large quantities and manyof them are traded as marine ornamental fish. Non-metricMultidimensional Scaling (MDS) and similaritydendogram were used to visualize the differences in fishcommunities of the two different habitats (coral reefs andlagoons) (Shepard 1962; Kruskal 1964) by using PRIMER-5 software (Clarke and Gorley 2001). MDS was based onBray-Curtis similarities. The quality of the MDS plot isindicated by the stress value. Values <0.2 give a potentiallyuseful 2-dimensional picture, stress <0.1 corresponds to agood ordination and stress <0.05 gives an excellentrepresentation (Kruskal 1964; Field et al. 1982; Clarke1993). This approach has been widely applied tomultivariate analysis of the various communities (Field etal. 1982; Clarke and Green 1988).


Fish community structureA total of 2145 individuals from 160 species of fish

belonging into 30 families were observed in this study(Table 2). The number of species on coral reefs was higher(121 species) than in the lagoons (47 species). List offamilies that have three top species composition in coralreef areas were Pomacentridae, Labridae and Acanthuridae,while in the lagoon were Pomacentridae, Chaetodontidae,and Nemipteridae (Figure 2). These families are alsomainly observed on the other coral reefs around Indonesia(Estradivari et al. 2007; Ferse 2008).

Fish abundance in the coral reef was higher (690±163individual/250 m2) than in the lagoon (255±92individual/250 m2), and relative abundance (%) of eachspecies also varied over study sites (Table 2). A cleardifference between the reef and lagoon habitats based onMDS and dendogram was revealed (Figure 3). This issimilar with other study that showed differences in fishcommunity based on the abundance of species from theresults of the multivariate analysis (Madduppa et al. 2012).The presence of reef fish in the waters depends on coralhealth indicated by the percentage of live coral cover. It isvery possible because of the live reef fish associated withthe shape and type of coral as a shelter, protection and

places to look for food (Madduppa 2006). Besides thehealth of coral, reef structure complexities have enrichedreef fishes (Nybakken 1992).

Reef fish communities observed in this study weregrouped into three functional categories (Table 2). Thetarget fish families were observed in the study sites asfollows: Haemulidae, Nemipteridae, Serranidae andPomacanthidae. The target fish in the coral reef stations(40±8 species/250 m2) were greater than in the lagoons(7±2 species/250 m2). The presence of the target fish in thecoral reef ecosystem are due to searching for food (feedingground) or spawning and nursery. In the Philippines, manycoral reef fishes are caught for the small-scale fisheriesincluding surgeonfish, groupers, and snappers (Amar et al.1996).

A total of 16 species of fish were found in all indicatorsof the study sites. Groups of fish indicators also showed asimilar pattern in the area where the coral reef was higher(7±1 species/250 m2) than in the lagoon (3±2 species/250m2). Due to their greatest biodiversity in coral reefecosystems (Allen and Werner 2002) and theirinterdependence to the health of coral reef ecosystem(Hourigan et al. 1988), chaetodontid has been considered asa reliable way to indirectly assess the changes of a coralreef and monitor it through time (Tanner et al. 1994;Markert et al. 2003). Many members of Chaetodontidae arehighly dependent on live coral polyps, and multiple studieshave proven that they are corallivorous (e.g. Harmelin-Vivien and Bouchon-Navaro 1983; Pratchett 2005; Reese1981; Birkeland and Neudecker 1981; Alwany et al. 2003;Madduppa 2006).

The major groups of fish on the coral reefs stationswere higher (39±7 species/250 m2) than in the lagoon(13±4 species/250 m2). Function and role of the fish werenot yet clear but could be as one link in the ecologicalsystem and food webs in coral reef ecosystems. Major fishspecies are found mainly from the family Pomacentridae.

Fish biodiversityThe Evenness index (E) value ranging from 0814 to

0874, the dominance index (C) 0023-0184 range, and thevalue of diversity index (H ') ranged from 1.890-4.133.Fish communities in reef areas were more diverse (H '=3290±0301) than in the lagoon (H' = 2495±0578) (Figure4). The value of diversity can indicate the level of stress orpressure received by the species from the environment(Lardicci et al. 1997). In the lagoon, reef fish communitiesin the lagoon which is located outside near reef edge(Station 3, see Figure 1) was higher in comparison withtwo other lagoon stations which are located in the inside(Station 4 and 5). This is similar to Hutomo and Moosa(2005) that fish communities in the lagoon near coral reefsis highly influenced by the benthic community (includingcorals).

Diversity of species of reef fish have a closerelationship with the characteristics of the substrate in thearea, such as the existence of the herbivorous fishes of thefamily Scaridae, because of dead coral covered withmacroalgae (Madduppa et al. 2012). The fish will tend to


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Figure 3. Multivariate analysis: (left) Bray-Curtis Similarity and(right) non-metric MDS (multidimensional scaling) of the fishcommunity based on the relative abundance of each species perstation on coral reefs (1 and 2) and in the lagoon (3, 4 and 5)

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cluster in certain forms of corals and generally have limitedmovement compared to other invertebrates that have thesame size cite. Because the reef fish communities have aclose relationship with the coral reefs as a habitat, so that ifa high percentage of dead coral will cause a significantdecrease in the number of fish species and individualsassociated with coral reefs cite. The current study observedthat some fishes found in a specific habitat, but manyspecies were found in more than one habitat. Generallyeach species has specific habitat preferences (Hutomo1986), and they have two different interaction mode incoral reefs: direct interaction (e.g. as a refuge from predatorsor prey, interactions in search of food the relationship betweencorals and fish that live on the reef biota, including algae)and indirect interaction due to reef structure and hydrologyand sediment (Choat and Bellwood 1991).

Table 2. List of taxa, number of individual (±SE individual/250m2), species richness (±SE species/250 m2), fish categoricalfunction (±SE species/250 m2, T=Target, M=Major, I=Indicator),and relative abundance (%) for each species at each site (1 and 2= reef slope, 3-5 = lagoon).

Relative abundance (%)Taxa(family/species)

Cate-gory 1 2 3 4 5

AcanthuridaeAcanthurus auranticavus T 1.3 - - - -Acanthurus gahhm T 0.8 2.3 - - -Acanthurus leucocheilus T 0.8 - - - -Acanthurus leucosternon T 0.1 1.1 - - -Acanthurus lineatus T - 0.4 - - -Acanthurus thompsoni T 0.8 2.1 - - -Naso annulatus T 0.2 0.2 - - -Naso brevirostris T - 0.2 - - -Naso lituratus T 0.4 - - - -Naso sp. T - - 1.9 6.4 -Paracanthurus hepatus T - - 11.3 - -Zebrasoma scopas T 2.2 2.1 - - -

ApogonidaeApogon cavitienis M - - - 21.3 -Apogon cookie M - - 5.8 - -Apogon doederleini M 2.7 4.0 - - -Apogon kauderni M - 1.3 - - -Sphaeramia nematoptera M 0.5 0.8 - - -

BalistidaeBalistapus undulatus M - 0.2 - - -Balistoides viridescens M 0.1 - - - -Odonus niger M - - 3.0 - -Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus M - 5.1 - - -Pseudobalistes fuscus M 1.6 0.2 - - -

BelonidaeStrongylura incisa M 1.1 - - - -Meiacanthus vittatus M 0.1 - 0.3 - -

CaesionidaeCaesio cuning T 0.1 0.2 - - -Caesio lunaris T 0.1 0.2 - - -Caesio teres T 0.1 - - - -Caesio xanthonota T - - 0.3 - -

CarangidaeGnathanodon speciosus T - 0.2 - - -

ChaetodontidaeChaetodon auriga I - - 0.6 - -Chaetodon collare I - - 0.8 - -Chaetodon collare I - - 0.3 0.9 -Chaetodon decussatus I - - - 0.6 -Chaetodon decussatus I - - 0.8 - -Chaetodon ephippium I - - 2.2 - -Chaetodon guttatissimus I 0.4 0.2 0.6 - -Chaetodon melapterus I 0.2 0.2 - - -Chaetodon meyeri I 0.6 0.6 - - -Chaetodon rafflesi I - 0.2 - - -Chaetodon trifascialis I 0.1 - - - -Chaetodon trifasciatus I 0.2 2.3 - - -Chaetodon vagabundus I 0.1 - - - -Chelmon rostratus I - - 0.3 - -Hemitaurichthys polylepis I 1.3 0.4 - - -Parachaetodon ocellatus I - - 12.9 - -

CirrhitidaeParacirrhites arcatus M - - - 9.7 -Paracirrhites forsteri M - - 6.3 2.7 31.5Paracirrhites nisus M - - - 2.4 -

DiploprionidaeDiploprion bifasciatum M - 0.6 - - -Platax orbicularis M 4.1 - - - -

MADDUPPA et al. – Fish biodiversity of Maratua Island, East Kalimantan 149

Platax pinnatus M 0.4 - - - -Platax teira M 0.1 - - - -

GobiidaeGobi sp. M 1.1 - - - -Istigobius nigroocellatus M - - 1.4 - 2.7

HaemulidaePlectorhinchus sordidus T 0.2 - - - -Plectorhinchus flavomaculatus T 0.7 - - - -Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides T 0.2 7.8 - - -

HolocentridaeMyripristis amaena T - - - 3.3 -Sargocentron caudimaculatus T 1.5 0.4 - - -

LabridaeBodianus mesothorax T 0.1 0.4 - - -Cheilinus fasciatus T - 0.6 - - -Cheilinus oxycephalus T 0.2 - - - -Cheilinus trilobatus T 0.1 - - - -Choerodon zamboanga T 0.1 - - - -Choerodon anchorago T 0.1 - - - -Gomphosus caeruleus T 0.1 0.9 - - -Gomphosus varius T 0.8 - - - -Halichoeres hortulanus T 1.6 0.2 - - -Halichoeres melanurus T 0.8 - - - -Halichoeres ornatissimus T 0.5 0.2 - - -Halichoeres purpurascens T - - 1.9 0.9 -Labroides dimidiatus M 1.4 - 0.8 - -Thalassoma grammaticum M 0.8 4.2 - - -Thalassoma lunare M 2.9 - - - -

LethrinidaeGymnocranius griseus T 0.1 0.2 - - -Monotaxis grandoculis T 0.1 - 0.3 - -

LutjanidaeLutjanus decussatus T 2.6 - - - -Lutjanus ehrenbergii T - 0.2 - - -Lutjanus fulviflamma T - 0.4 - - -Lutjanus kasmira T - 0.9 - - -Lutjanus quinquelineatus T 1.9 0.2 - - -Lutjanus semicinctus T 0.1 - - - -Lutjanus vitta T - 0.2 - - -

MicrodesmidaePtereleotris evides M 0.1 0.4 - - -

MullidaeParupeneus bifasciatus M - - 4.4 4.0 -Upeneus sp. M 0.6 0.4 - - -Upeneus vittatus M 0.5 0.4 - - -

NemipteridaeParascolopsis eriomma T - - 1.1 1.5 9.6Pentapodus caninus T - - 7.2 0.6 -Pentapodus trivittatus T 1.5 4.7 - - -Scolopsis bilineatus T - - - 3.3 16.4Scolopsis ghanam T - - - 0.6 -Scolopsis lineatus T 0.1 - - - -Scolopsis margaritifer T 2.1 2.5 - - -Scolopsis trilineatus T 1.6 - - - -

PlatycephalidaeThysanophrys arenicola M 5.6 - - - -

PlesiopidaeCalloplesiops altivelis M - 0.2 - - -

PomacanthidaeCentropyge eibli M 5.5 4.0 - - -Centropyge multispinis M 6.3 8.2 - - -Centropyge nox M 3.4 - - - -Pygoplites diacanthus T 3.6 3.0 - - -

PomacentridaeAbudefduf sexfasciatus M - - 2.5 21.3 -Abudefduf vaigiensis M 0.9 - 2.5 4.6 6.8Amblyglyphidodon curacao M 0.5 2.1 - - -

Amphiprion ocellaris M - - - - 9.6Amphiprion sandaracinos M - - 10.2 - -Chrysiptera unimaculata M - 0.2 - - -Chromis analis M - 1.3 - - -Chromis atripectoralis M 0.4 0.2 - - -Chromis delta M 0.1 0.2 - - 1.4Chromis dimidiate M 0.4 0.2 - 1.2 -Chromis nitida M 0.2 - - - -Chromis verater M 0.6 1.7 - - -Chromis viridis M - - 0.6 1.5 4.1Chrysiptera cyanea M - - - 1.2 -Chrysiptera hemicyanea M - - 1.4 2.1 -Chrysiptera rollandi M - - 1.9 0.3 -Chrysiptera springeri M 0.2 - - - -Dascyllus aruanus M 0.2 - - - -Dascyllus carneus M 0.4 - - - -Dascyllus melanurus M 0.9 - - - -Dascyllus trimaculatus M 0.1 - - - -Dischistodus melanotus M 0.1 - - - -Dischistodus perspicillatus M 0.1 - - - -Dischistodus prosopotaenia M 2.2 4.7 - - -Hemiglyphidodon plagiometopon M 0.4 - 1.7 - -Neopomacentrus azysron M - - 2.8 7.0 -Neopomacentrus cyanomos M - - 8.5 - -Neopomacentrus xanthurus M - - 0.6 - -Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus M 0.1 1.7 - - -Pomacentrus alexandrae M - 1.3 - - -Pomacentrus amboinensis M 0.2 0.4 - - -Pomacentrus brachialis M 0.5 - - - -Pomacentrus lepidogenys M 0.4 2.1 - - -Pomacentrus milleri (juv.) M - 0.6 - - -Pomacentrus nigromarginatus M 0.7 - - - -Pomacentrus tripunctatus M 1.3 0.4 - - -Stegastes aureus M 1.4 5.5 - - -

ScaridaeChlorurus microrhinos T 0.1 - - - -Scarus globiceps T 1.2 2.7 - - -Scarus melanurus T - 1.7 - - -Scarus niger T 0.5 - - - -Scarus rivulatus T 3.4 - - - -Scarus rubroviolaceus T 0.1 0.2 - - -Scarus sp. T - - - 0.3 -

SerranidaeCephalopholis cyanostigma T - 4.6 - - -Epinephelus fasciatus T 1.1 - - - -Epinephelus spilotoceps T - - 0.3 - 17.8Plectropomus leopardus T 0.4 - - - -Pseudanthias bimaculatus T 1.9 - - - -Pseudanthias pleurotaenia T 2.6 - - - -Pseudanthias randalli T 0.2 - - - -Pseudanthias squamipinnis T 1.6 - - - -Pseudanthias tuka T 1.1 0.4 - - -

SiganidaeSiganus puellus T - - 0.3 - -Siganus virgatus T 0.1 1.9 - - -

TetraodontidaeCanthigaster compressa T 0.2 0.2 - - -

TheraponidaeTerapon jarbua T 0.8 0.4 - - -

ZanclidaeZanclus cornutus M 2.5 0.2 2.5 2.1 -

Number of individual 690 ±163 255 ±92Species richness 86 ±16 22 ±7Target (T) 40 ±8 7 ±2Major (M) 39 ±7 13 ±4Indicator (I) 7 ±1 3 ±2


CONCLUSION

The study observed that the diversity of fish species inthe reef slope was higher than in the lagoon. This showsthat the characteristics of the habitat were instrumental inshaping the fish community. Habitats in a tropical lagoonare an important area for various fish species of coral reefecosystems cite. Despite the complexity of the lagoonhabitat characteristics are not as high in coral reefecosystems, but also provides a location for a few juvenilefish to grow and evolve, which is also vital for theconservation of species. Therefore, management strategiesand conservation of coral reef ecosystems should include alagoon habitat as an important and integrated part.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research is part of the project ‘Action plan for theouter islands of East Kalimantan’ by BAPPEDA EastKalimantan Province year 2006 and ‘Inventory of Lagoonecosystem’ by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheriesyear 2005.

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Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) management by Anak DalamTribe in Jebak Village, Batanghari, Jambi Province

IIK SRI SULASMI1,♥, NISYAWATI2, YOHANES PURWANTO3, SITI FATIMAH1Conservation Biology, Post Graduate School, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, University of Indonesia, Depok, West Java, Indonesia,

Tel. +62-21-7270013, email: [email protected] of Biology, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, University of Indonesia. UI Campus, Depok 16424, West Java, Indonesia

3Division of Botany, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong-Bogor, West Java, Indonesia


ABSTRACT

Sulasmi IS, Fatimah S, Nisyawati. 2012. Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) management by Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Batanghari,Jambi Province. Biodiversitas 13: 151-160. Management of Jernang Rattan (Daemonorops draco Willd.) in Jebak Forest, Batanghari,Jambi is not well documented. It is noted that fruit of D. draco is the best income source for Anak Dalam Jambi people since 1624. Theyharvest fruit of D. draco as much as they need. The Jebak forest is an open access, so all the people of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe havethe same right and responsibility on the forest. However, almost 60% of Jebak Forest area has been degraded because of illegalconversion into oil palm plantation. This is the reason why people of Suku Anak Dalam, try to cultivate D. draco by growing 40 clumpsof this species in their rubber plantation. The aim of their activity is to conserve D. draco at their forest. Based on the recent situation,research study of jernang rattan management in Jebak Forest was conducted. The research method was semi structural interview. Alldata were analyzed descriptively. The results showed that the management and cultivation of D. draco in Jebak Forest was very difficultbecause the availability of seeds was not sufficient for root stocks.

Key words: cultivation, income source, Jebak Forest, management, jernang rattan.

INTRODUCTION

The people belonging to Anak Dalam Tribe in JebakVillage, Batanghari District, Jambi Province are therefugees who came from South Sumatra. They came to theforest in Jambi province in 1624 because of the warbetween the Sultanate of Palembang and Jambi Kingdom.The majority of the populations are moslems. Their dailylanguage is Malay. The people of Anak Dalam Tribe inJebak forest have yellow skin, ranging in height between140-160 cm. Their houses are usually made of wood andthatch-roofed (Ministry of Social Affairs 1998).

The people of Anak Dalam Tribe who settle in Jebakforest make use of all forest products as a source of theirlivelihood. All members of the population have equalopportunity to use forest products. One of uses of jernangrattan is as a producer of red resin called dragon’s blood.The people of Anak Dalam Tribe who work as seekers ofdragon blood are between 40-75 years old. Those under theage of 40 years collect other forest products such as honey,rattan sticks, raman fruit, petai, and kabau and hunt wildbear, snakes, turtles, and birds. According to Muchlas(1975), extraction activities of dragon’s blood are doneindividually. Extraction of jernang rattan has been doneintensively by the people since the 1600s (BKSDA Jambi2010).

The extraction of jernang rattan in the past was themain income for most people living in forest areas in

Sumatra, especially for people in Jambi, such as the Malaypeople and Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe. Traditionally, thepeople of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe extract dragon’s bloodin the surrounding forest, and so do the people of AnakDalam Tribe who live in Jebak village.

Demand for dragon’s blood continues to increase,causing over-exploitation of jernang rattan. This causes theincrease of harvest of jernang rattan without considering itssustainability that is harvesting by cutting the stems. Besideover-exploitation, which threatens the sustainability of thejernang rattan in Batanghari, there is also encroachmentand illegal logging. Therefore, the people of Anak DalamTribe in the village of Batanghari try hard to find strategiesto manage jernang rattan for sustainability and benefit topeople's lives and seek to develop and cultivate rattan inthe forest of Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak village.

One of Anak Dalam Tribe’s efforts to conserve jernangrattan is harvesting the fruits by climbing up a tree wherethe jernang rattan creeps its stems. The people of AnakDalam Tribe take only the fruits and never cut the stemsduring harvesting the fruits. Therefore, the harvestingtechnique done by the Anak Dalam Tribe does not reducethe population of jernang rattan. Although harvesting rulesare not institutionalized, but the local people respect andobey the unwritten regulation that has been in effect fromthe past until now (Winarni et al. 2004; Purwanto et al.2009b; Soemarna 2009). Based on direct observations andspecimen observation in the Herbarium Bogoriense


observations, there are two rattans that produce dragon’sblood in the village of Batanghari. They are jernang rattan(Daemonorops draco) and kelemunting rattan(Daemonorops didymophylla). The jernang rattan can beprocessed to make modern medicine and high-quality dye(Soemarna and Anwar 1994; Purwanto et al. 2009b).Development of jernang rattan is very important as one ofalternatives to increase the income of Malay people inTanjung Jabung Barat (Purwanto et al. 2009b; BKSDAJambi 2010), Anak Dalam Tribe in Sarolangun district, andAnak Dalam Jambi Tribe in Batanghari forest area Jambi(BKSDA Jambi 2010).

The development of jernang rattan can be done bycultivating Daemonorops draco in its natural habitat,especially in the area near the river (Purwanto et al. 2009a).This species should be chosen as one of the leading cropsin agroforestry systems in forest areas of Anak DalamJambi Tribe in Jebak village and trade system of dragon’sblood should be regulated by shortening the jernang rattanmarketing chain, so there is no monopoly by a producer(Purwanto et al. 2009b; BKSDA Jambi 2010). Jernangrattan cultivation in its natural habitat in the forests area ofAnak Dalam Jambi Tribe has some benefits includingconservation of biodiversity and reducing the excessiveexploitation of nature. The presence of jernang rattanspecies in the forest will prevent conversion of forest intoagricultural land (Soemarna and Anwar 1994; Purwanto etal. 2009b).

The development and the cultivation of jernang rattancan also be done in the area of rubber plantations asintercropping plants which may provide more benefits thanconverting rubber plantations to oil palm plantations(Purwanto et al. 2009b). This intercropping practice hasbeen done by the people of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe, inLumban Sigatal, Sipintun and Sarolangun districts since2005 (Soemarna 2009), but those in Jebak village ofBatanghari have not done this.

The objectives of this study were to examine how theAnak Dalam Tribe manages Daemonorops draco to remainsustainable and beneficial, and to analyze the possibility ofthe development and cultivation of Daemonorops draco inthe forest areas of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe in order toprovide both economic and ecological benefits.


Time and placeThe research was carried out in forest areas of Anak

Dalam Jambi Tribe in Jebak village, Muara Tembesi,Batanghari, Jambi Province. This selection of site wasbased upon information that the forest is a habitat ofjernang rattan populations (Daemonorops draco).

Jebak Village of Jambi is an old village of Anak DalamJambi Tribe. The Jebak village is 60 km from Jambi city,which can be reached within 1 hour road trip. It is locatedbetween West Tanjung Jabung, South Sumatra, MuaroJambi, Sarolangun and Tebo. Geographically, Jebak villageis located at 103o 05'-103o 15 E and 01o 40'-01o 50' S, withan altitude of 20 m above sea level, rainfall of 2296

mm/year. The population is 250, consisting of 40households (BPS Jambi 2010; BKSDA Jambi 2010)(Figure 1).

Procedures The methods used in this study were interviews, direct

observation, and literature review. Interview method wasdone to obtain information about the history of jernangrattan in the forest area of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe, theuse, the habitat, the non-destructive harvesting techniques,the characteristics of fruits that can be harvested, themanagement, the conservation and the cultivation ofjernang rattan by Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe, and the socio-economic value of dragon’s blood Interview techniqueused was semi-structural interview that had guidelines inthe form of questions, but could be developed, according tothe needs in the field. The interviewees were men aged 20-75 years. The approach was based on information from keyinformants from traditional elders, and of ordinary peopleof Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe as dragon’s blood seekers inthe village of Jebak (Rugayah et al. 2004).

Data analysisData were analyzed descriptively and in conjunction

with the data retrieval process. The data analyses consistedof organizing data, sorting data, and drawing conclusions.


Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe and jernang rattanJebak Village has been inhabited by Anak Dalam Jambi

Tribe since 1624. But their existence has been definitivesince 1970. Prior to 1970, they lived in nomadic thatchedhouse on stilts. Since 1970, they have been localized andgiven shingle-roofed houses, each measuring 36 m2, and 2hectares of rubber land near their homes (Figure 2). Jebakvillage is inhabited by 40 families comprising 250 people:104 men and 146 women (BPS Jambi 2010).

Figure 2. Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe's home in Jebak VillageBatanghari, Jambi.

SULASMI et al. – Management of Daemonorops draco by Anak Dalam of Jambi 153

Figure 1. Map of study site (circle) in the village of Jebak, Batanghari (bordered area), Jambi (BKSDA Jambi 2010).

The people of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe are thedescendants of South Sumatran people. Therefore, they arefamiliar with the Islamic religion, clothing, and food fromtheir ancestors. Most of the people of Anak Dalam JambiTribe just graduated from elementary school. Theirlivelihood is to extract the Non Timber Forest Products(NTFPs), such as balam, jelutung, damar, damar matokucing, rattan, honey, and dragon’s blood. Because NTFPsare sources of their livelihood, Anak Dalam Tribe in Jambiforest treat them in such a way that prevent damage.

In the 1990s, transmigrants from Java, West Sumatra,South Sumatra and North Sumatra, were located in forestareas of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe. The first villages fortransmigration were Sridadi and Jangga Baru. In 1993transmigration area was opened in the village of NewBulian, and the last was Mekar Jaya village, which wasopened in 1995. Since 1990, the encroachment of forest hasgrown out of control because of lack of supervision fromthe government and because of unclearness of the boundarybetween the forest area and the villages around the area.(BKSDA Jambi 2010).

Jernang rattan is a plant which is used as a source offamily income, because it produces dragon’s blood whichis relatively expensive. Jernang rattan has been used byAnak Dalam Jambi Tribe in Jebak village since 1624.There are two species of rattan producing dragon’s blood inJebak village, namely jernang rattan g (Daemonoropsdraco) and kelemunting rattan (Daemonoropsdidymophylla). According to Rustiami et al. (2004), thereare 12 species of rattans producing dragon’s blood, namelyDaemonorops acehensis, D. brachystachys, D.didymophylla, Daemonorops draco, D. dracuncula, D.dransfieldii, D. maculata, D. micracantha, D rubra,

D. sekundurensis, D. siberutensis, and D. uschdraweitiana.

The use of dragon bloodDragon’s blood is resin that covers the fruit skin of the

jernang rattan. It is red, amorphous, solid, shiny, clear ordull, and having a specific odor (Coppen 1995)(Figure 3).Dragon’s blood is used for dyes, pharmaceuticalsingredients, perfume ingredient, substitute for incense inreligious ritual (Purwanto et al. 2009b), as raw material forvarnish, and as medicine to heal a wound (Soemarna 2009).Since 1624 dragon blood has been used by Anak DalamJambi Tribe as a source of income, medicines for injury,diarrhea, headache,, accelerator of parturition and asexplosive. Puerperal blood will dry within 3-7 days afterusing dragon blood pilis.

The main component of dragon blood is alcoholic resinof dragon’s blood, resinolanol draco (56%); when heated itwill produce a smell like incense. Because it is red, then itis known as the red incense. Anak Dalam Jambi Tribecommunities use the one as a substitute for incense in ritualceremonies (Table 3). Dragon blood is also used as a powerbooster in a magical ritual. The burning of incenseincreases the level of magical spells recited. It is also usedto strengthen passion, so it is added to the "love sachets",oil and soap (Purwanto et al. 2009c; Soemarna 2009).

Dragon’s blood contains Draco Resin (11%), DracoAlban (2.5%), amino acid and benzoate (Winarni et al.2004; Waluyo 2008). Benzopyran serves to stop thebleeding when injury occurs. Benzopyran can be processedas a biopesticide; trierene can cure impotence in men;flavonoids acts as antioxidants; saponins plays a role inneutralizing and clearing toxins (Soemarna and Waluyo2009), and tannins stops diarrhea (Waluyo 2008).

Jambi Province Batanghari District

Indonesia


Figure 3. A. Jernang rattan fruits that contain lots of dragon blood: Rattan fruit before extraction (left), Rattan fruit after extraction(right). (Waluyo 2008); B. Jernang rattan fruits before extraction. C. Dragon blood

Figure 4. Jernang fruit and the separation process of dragon’s blood (Purwanto 2009)

Extraction activity and production systemsExtraction of dragon blood is done every year, but in

August and December jernang rattan bears the greatestnumber of fruits, so Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe call it greatharvest. Jernang fruit is harvested when it is not too ripeand not too young. If harvested too ripe or too young, theproduction of dragon’s blood is not optimal. According toAnak Dalam Jambi Tribe, the thickest dragon blood isobtained from the fruit at the age of 9 months fromflowering. In each extraction season (from August toDecember) every person can obtain 30-50 kg of dragonblood. It also depends on the luck factor. In general, eachtree can produce 10-60 kg of fruit, depending on theconditions of growth and soil fertility.

Jernang rattan plants in the forest are an "open access",meaning that every member of the society in the region hasthe same rights and opportunities to extract jernang fruits.There is no specific ownership for the jernang fruit in theforest in this region. The harvest principle is: the personwho knows first that the jernang rattan is bearing fruit isthe one who can harvest it. When he does not harvest it atonce, then the next day other community members mayharvest the fruit, and the first man cannot claim that the

fruit is his. The harvest system is: who is faster then he getsthe fruit (Figure 4).

This situation causes problems, because in the nextharvest period, the fruits will be harvested at younger agefor fear that other community members will get them.Some respondents said that if someone finds jernang rattanbearing fruit and then gives a sign, the fruit is generally notharvested by other people. But if someone harvests it, theperson who has given the sign can not state his objection.

In the 1990s before the transmigration and oil palmplantation companies entered the region or in the periodbefore the logging of primary forest, more than 15 clumpsof jernang rattan could be found in one hectare of forest, itcould produce up to 60 kg of fruit at a price of Rp250,000/kg. In general, these jernang plants grow in theforest area around the river or a forest area that often getsoverflow of river water.

In 2009 and 2010, the production of dragon’s bloodfrom logged over forest ranged from 0.1 to 1.5 kg perhectare. The area of forest was 25,000 ha, and the numberof community members who extracted dragon’s bloodranged from 3-4 persons from about 40 families.


The separation of dragon blood is as follows: the fruitof jernang rattan is aerated for 3 days in order that dragonblood attached to the shell of the jernang rattan fruit can beseparated easily from the shell. Having been aired for threedays, the rattan fruit is then pounded in the filter basket. Itproduces red powder (dragon’s blood). The dragon’s bloodis then sieved to separate the dragon’s blood from its shell.Then, dragon blood is put in a plastic bag, let stand for 1-2hours. The dragon’s blood in the form of powder hardensto form lumps. Dragon blood lumps are ready for sale.Twenty kg of jernang fruit is needed to produce 1 kg ofdragon’s blood.

Socio-economic aspectsEach jernang rattan plant produced 0.1 kg-1.5 kg of

dragon blood each month in 2011. For one month Jebakvillage was only able to produce 0.4 kg-6 kg of dragonblood. Batanghari district was only able to produce 1.8 kg-20 kg dragon blood per month: Bukit 12 produced 0.5 kg-6kg, Jebak Village 0.4 kg-6 kg, and Batin XXIV 0.9 kg-8kg. Every month dragon blood collectors were only able tocollect 12.3 kg-88 kg of dragon blood from extractors: inBatanghari 1.8 kg-20 kg, in Tebo 3 kg-30 kg, inSarolangun 5 kg-20 kg, and in Tanjung Jabung 2.5 kg-18kg (Table 1).

Table 1. The production of dragon blood in each district

District The production of dragon bloodproduction / month

BatanghariTeboSarolangunTanjung Jabung

1.8 kg-20 kg3 kg-30 kg5 kg-20 kg

2.5 kg-18 kg

According to Soemarna (2009) and the observations,the quality of dragon blood based on the composition of the

mixture can be seen in Table 2. The best dragon blood isthe one from Batanghari District, because the result ofextraction is pure. Some people mixed dragon’s blood withdammar mato kucing, seeds and rind of jernang rattan fruit,or even brick powder to increase the weight. They cheatedbecause it is hard to find jernang rattan in the forest and themixture physically looks the same as the pure dragon’sblood.

Dragon’s blood is the main source of Anak DalamJambi Tribe’s income, (Figure 5). It gives the largestcontribution to the total income of Anak Dalam JambiTribe. The condition has decreased since the influx oftransmigrants in 1990, because since then the forest ofAnak Dalam Jambi Tribe in Jebak village Batanghari hasbeen damaged significantly.

Dragon Blood plays a very important role in theeconomy of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe. Eighty percent ofthe economy of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe derives fromdragon blood extraction (Figure 6). From the extraction ofthese dragon blood, Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe can meet alltheir basic needs, such as sending their children to school,supplementing their household needs in order not to be leftbehind by the outsider community. However, theseconditions are hard to come by this time, because thepopulation of jernang rattan in nature has been decreasing.

Post-harvest handling and tradingAfter the separation process of dragon’s blood is

completed, and then the extraction product in the form ofpowder is put in a plastic bag weighing 0.5 to 1 kg. Thirtyminutes-one hour later, the dragon’s blood powder willharden to form lumps. The lump of dragon’s blood is soldin the market or to traders. There is no special treatmentwhile waiting for dragon’s blood to be sold to traders. Ingeneral, dragon blood is stored in a safe place, to preventtheft, because it has a high economic value.

Figure 5. Income source of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe in Jebakvillage

Figure 6. Income sources of Anak Dalam Jambi from NTFPs

Jelutung3%

Mato kucingresin3%

Rattan3%

Balam2%

Honey1%

Resin1%

Rubber15%

Hunting10%

Trade3%

Service2%

Ricecultivation

5%

Jernang52%

Jelutung5%

Mato kucingresin4%

Rattan4%

Balam3%

Honey2%

Resin2%

Jernang80%


Table 2. Quality of dragon blood based on its composition

Quality Price/ kg Local Name Market name Composition

A Rp 1.000.000-2.000.000 Jernang (Batanghari) Dragon’s blood Pure dragon bloodB Rp 600.000-Rp 1.200.000 Lulun meson (Sarolangun) Dragon’s blood Mixed with damar mato kucing resin or brick

powder (50%-60%)C Rp 500.000-Rp 900.000 Lum jernang (Tebo) Dragon’s blood Mixed with jernang rattan fruit and damar mato

kucing resin (70%-80%)D Rp 350.000-Rp 700.000 Dragon blood (Tanjung

Jabung)Dragon’s blood Mixed with seed, jernang rattan fruit shell and

damar mato kucing resin (80%-90%)

Table 3. Results of interviews with eight persons of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe in Jambi on their knowledge of dragon blood, the use, andthe feature of rattan-producing dragon blood.

No Questions Answers Description

1 Have you known the term of dragon’s blood? Yes, I have 8 Two people notseekers ofdragon’s blood

2 What is meant by dragon’s blood? Resin that covers the skin of jernang rattan fruit 83 What is the characteristic of dragon’s Reddish black 4

blood? Black 2Shiny 6If it is burnt, its smell is like the smell of incense 6

4 How to extract dragon’s blood? There are 2 ways, wet and dry 65 What are the uses of dragon’s blood Income source 4

Cure wounds 8For diarrhea 6Accelerate the completion of parturition 6Explosive 3Headache medicine 1

6 When has Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe started tomake use the dragon’s blood?

Since 1624 8

7 Can you distinguish rattan producing dragonblood from the non-producing rattan?

Yes, I can 6

8 How do you distinguish jernang rattan It can be seen from: stem 6jernang from other rattans? Leaves 6

Fruits 6 Thorn 6

9 What are the differences? ( no 8) Small stem, diameter: 1 cm-3 cm 3 1 cm-2 cm 1 1,5 cm-3 cm 2the young leaves colored reddish green. 6lots of fruits colored black 6lots of thorn colored black 6

10 What species of rattan that produce dragonblood?

jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) and mengkarung/kelemunting rattan (Daemonorops didymophylla)

6

11 Which rattan produce the best dragon blood ? jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) 612 Why? It produces lots of dragon blood 613 What are the characteristics of jernang rattan Lots of fruits 6

that produces high quality Long strands of fruits 6of dragon blood? Color of fruits: shiny black 6

Lots of thorn covering stems 6Stem high: 8 m-15 m 6Rod segment: 15 cm-20 cm 2 15 cm-25 cm 1 20 cm-30 cm 3Number of individuals in a clump :5-20 stems

6

14 When does jernang rattan begin to 3-4 years 1bear fruits ? 4-5 years 5

15 What are the characteristics of rattan Light green leaves 6jernang producing fruits? Rod segment: 15 cm-20 cm 2

15 cm-25 cm 1 20 cm-30 cm 3Long flower strand 6

16 Why? There are male and female trees. 6Male jernang rattan: flowering no fruit 6Short flower strand 6Rod segment: 35 cm-40 cm 1Number of individuals in a clump: 3-5 stems 1


3 kg-20 kg 217 How many jernang rattan fruits can beproduced in a clump? 5 kg-20 kg 4

18 How many times a year is the harvest done? 2 times, August and December 619 How to identify the time harvest jernang

rattan?Fruit color bright black 6

20 When does the fruits produce lots of resin? When it is half ripe 6 One of them addedthat when fruitsare half ripe, it isabout 9 monthsfrom flowering.

21 Can all fruits be used as seed? No, they can’t 622 Why ? Because only the half ripe fruits is taken as seeds. 623 What is the characteristic of jernang rattan that

is good for seeds?Reddish black fruits 6 2 persons added

that ripe fruitstaste sweet andbitter.

Note: Symbol = Number of individuals who answered the question

Table 4. Utilization, management and conservation of jernang rattan by Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe in Jebak village Batanghari, Jambi.

No Questions Answers Description1 What are the uses of jernang rattan for Anak

Dalam Jambi Tribe?For income source. To take dragon blood

58

2 persons are notdragon bloodseekers

2 When did Anak Dalam Jambi start taking useof jernang rattan?

Since 1624 8

3 What is the role of jernang rattan in AnakDalam

Very large role 8

Jambi Tribe’s economy? 80% 14 Why? Because it produces expensive dragon’s blood , so it can

meet the living needs of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe.8

5 What is the price of dragon Rp 1.5 million 1blood/kg? Rp 1 million-Rp 2 million 4

Rp 1.5 million-Rp 2 million 3In 2009-2010 Rp 3 million 6

6 What is the percentage of the income of AnakDalam Jambi Tribe in earning from extractingdragon blood?

80% 8

7 Do Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe use jernangrattan arbitrarily or purposely?

It is done purposely 8

8 How do you harvest jernang rattan? Climbing trees used to creep rattan plant, then jernangfruits are hooked with poles.

6

9 why? In order that jernang rattan doesn’t die and can producefruits again.

6

10 Where is the habitat of jernang rattan? In river bank, low land, and dry brackish. 611 How does jernang rattan live? Creeping on the propagation tree 612 What species of trees can be used as the host

tree?All of trees can be used as jernang rattan’s vine. 6

13 How many clumps of jernang rattan are therein 2011?

10 clumps< 15 clumps

14

15 clumps 114 Does the population decline every year? Yes, it does. 615 How many clumps of jernang rattan were

there before 2011?25 clumps15-25 clumps

11

20-25 clumps 125-30 clumps 230-35 clumps 1

16 Why? 60 % forest has been encroached to convert as palm oilfield.

5

The forest has damaged, the woods have been logged bytransmigants

1

17 What is the effect of the decline of jernangrattan population for Anak Dalam JambiTribe?

It’s difficult to look for dragon blood, decrease income. 6

18 How is the management of jernang rattan inthe forest area of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe?

Maintain together. There are no special rules that bindAnak Dalam Jambi Tribe. Whatever found in the forestsbelongs to together and must be maintained together.Since 1990, when transmigrants began to come in, lifeAnak Dalam Jambi Tribe communities in Jambi havebeen more difficult because the forest has been occupiedby migrants.

6


19 Is there any special ownership to jernangrattan in the forest area of Anak Dalam JambiTribe?

There is no specific ownership of jernang rattan g in theforest of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe. Anak Dalam JambiTribe’s forest area in Jambi is a common property andshould be kept together.

6

20 What efforts have been done by Anak DalamJambi Tribe to keep jernang rattan fromextinction in nature?

Harvesting jernang rattan fruit without cutting the trunk.Thus the jernang rattan tree can bear fruit again.

6

21 Are there any persons who are Yes. There are 2 persons, Mr. Suin and Mr. Sudirman. 6willing to cultivate jernang rattan ? They grew 40 clumps but there are only 25 clumps left.

22 How to cultivate jernang rattan ? It is planted by intercropping with rubber trees. 623 How to get the seed of jernang rattan ? By collecting mature jernang rattan fruit. 6Note: Symbol = Number of individuals who answered the question

The chain of dragon’s blood trade in Jambi is stillclosed, ie, there are no rules that govern trade andassociation. Prices are set by the collectors; there is nostandardization, depending on them. The flow of dragonblood trade in Jambi is as follows:

Figure 7. Flowchart of dragon’s blood trade in Jambi Province.

The dragon’s blood trade in Jambi province is ruled bya major collector who lives in the town of Jambi (Figure 7).The major collector has an agent in each district. Thedistrict agent usually controls 2-3 collectors in villagelevel. The collectors at the village level are directly relatedto dragon’s blood seekers. However, it is possible thatseekers make direct contact to the major collectors inJambi, because dragon’s blood is purchased at higherprices than the prices at the village level. If the price is Rp1 million-2 million/kg at the village level, then it can be Rp1.2 million-2.2 million/kg at the major collector. The priceis lower than the one in 2009-2010 which reached USD 3million/kg. This is in accordance with the opinion ofSoemarna (2009), which stated that the price of dragon’sblood ranged between Rp 2.3-Rp 3 million/kg.

Development and conservation of jernang rattan

The decline of population and number of speciesThe forest has been diminishing and even replaced by

oil palm plantations, rubber plantations. It is now more andmore difficult to find rattan in the forest of Jebak village.

Damage to the natural habitat of jernang rattan causes adecrease in population size and number of species ofrattan-producing dragon blood in the region (Table 4). Infact there are only 8 clumps of jernang rattan in Jebakvillage. The damage was caused by logging andencroachment. According to Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe, thedestruction of forests has reached 60% of forest area(15,830 acres).

The method of harvesting jernang rattan fruit is verygood and not against the concept of conservation (Figure8). This is in accordance with the opinion of Soemarna(2009) which stated that Daemonorops draco harvesting isnot done by cutting down trees, but by plucking. Themethod of harvesting does not damage the crown cover, soit does not disrupt the forest ecosystem (Dali and Soemarna1985; Sudarmalik et al. 2006). The part used is the resin offruit shell. According Winarni et al. (2004), Daemonoropsdraco must be harvested little by little, so it does notdirectly lead to overexploitation.

Development and conservation effortsThe demand of dragon’s blood from China continues to

increase every year. The economic value and use value ofdragon’s blood are high enough. The development ofmodern medicine and high-quality staining is the futureprospect of dragon’s blood. Thus, the development ofjernang rattan is very important, as one alternative toimprove the income of Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe, who livein forested areas in Jebak village. What can be done are tocultivate jernang rattan in its natural habitat, develop it asone of the leading crops in the region of agroforestrysystem and set the trade system of dragon’s blood byshortening the marketing chain of dragon blood, so there isno monopoly which harm producers.

The development and the cultivation of jernang rattancan also be done in the area of rubber plantations asintercropping plants which may provide more benefits thanconverting rubber plantations into oil palm plantations.According to Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe, since 2008 they'vebeen doing the cultivation of jernang rattan. That year theytried to plant 40 clumps of jernang rattan under AnakDalam Jambi Tribe’s rubber trees in Jambi namedSudirman (15 clumps) and Suin (25 clumps). Of those 40clumps, only 25 clumps still lived in the garden in 2011.All jernang rattan which grew in Sudirman’s rubber treesdied because wild boars ate them. Nowadays people arevery difficult to obtain jernang rattan seed in nature


Figure 8. How to harvest jernang rattan fruit.

because of jernang rattan population decreases in natureand the fruits are not harvested before maturity so theextracted seed can not be germinated.

Planting jernang rattan in a natural habitat in the loggedover forests has several benefits, one of them is theconservation of biodiversity. The presence of jernang rattanin the forest will prevent conversion of forest toagricultural land.

Promotion and future role of dragon’s bloodDragon’s blood is produced from the extraction in the

forests and not the result cultivation. Excessive extractioncan cause damage and population decline of jernang rattan.In addition, the system of ownership of the "open access"becomes one of triggers for competition in extractingdragon’s blood. Consequently, the method to harvestbecomes uncontrolled that causes disruption to the naturalpopulation of jernang rattan. Therefore, the strengtheningof social institutions in the management of biologicalresources that involve community participation is veryimportant.

The role of dragon’s blood as a natural product in thefuture is still needed, although artificial products are beingdeveloped. This refers to other natural products such asresins, incense, aloes, which remain important andirreplaceable by their artificial products. The problem ishow to conserve the natural habitat of jernang rattan toensure the sustainability of dragon’s blood production andits benefits to the community.

Consequences of commercialization of dragon’s bloodThe consequences of commercialization of dragon’s

blood can be profitable but also damaging. The advantageis that commercialization will trigger the effort to keep thejernang rattan population and possibly develop it into oneof the crops that provides an important role in increasingincome of farmers around the forest areas in Jebak village.

The disadvantage is that commercialization will causeover-exploitation, and competition in jernang rattanextraction. Such conditions may accelerate the destructionof jernang rattan population in the region. To prevent this,it is necessary to discover jernang rattan cultivationtechnique and its application to the public, and to create thedragon’s blood community from forest cultivation.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Jernang rattan is a source of income for Anak DalamTribe because it produces dragon’s blood. The dragon’sblood prices in 2011 ranged from Rp 1 million-Rp 2million/kg. It is relatively expensive when compared withthe price of honey which is between Rp 20,000-Rp 25,000/kg. Besides, dragon’s blood is utilized by Anak DalamJambi Tribe as drug for injuries and migraine headachesand accelerator of parturition. It is also used as substitutefor incense in rituals and as explosives. The community hasused dragon’s blood since 1624.

Anak Dalam Jambi Tribe Jambi is expected to maintainpopulations of jernang rattan left in the wild, working insuch a way so that supplies of seeds for cultivation ismaintained, and They should also maintain the jernangrattan cultivated by Suin. Further research is needed tocultivate jernang rattan through vegetative propagation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank to Dr. Luthfiralda Sjafirdi, Dr.Kuswata Kartawinata, Dr. Himmah Rustiami, YanaSoemarna, Mega Atria, Wisnu Wardana, and AndrioAriwibowo, thank you for willing to give time fordiscussion.


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Valuation of non-timber forest product after forest logging (inconservation area of PT Wirakarya Sakti Jambi). Indonesian Instituteof Sciences (LIPI), Bogor. [Indonesia]

Rugayah, Widjaya EA, Praptiwi. 2004. Manual of plant diversitycollection data. Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute ofSciences (LIPI), Bogor. [Indonesia]

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Sudarmalik, Rochmayanto Y, Purnomo. 2006. The role of several non-timber forest products (NTFP) in Riau and West Sumatra. Proceedingof Research Seminar of the Center for Research and Development onForest Engineering and Forest Products Processing, Bogor: 199-219.[Indonesia]

Waluyo T. 2008. Traditional extraction technique and analyzes of jernangcharacteristic of Jambi. J Penel Hasil Hut 26 (1): 30-40. [Indonesia]

Winarni I, Waluyo TK, Hastoeti P. 2004. A review on jernang as avaluable commodity. Proceeding of the forest products, Bogor: 173-176. [Indonesia]

GUIDANCE FOR AUTHORS

Aims and Scope ”Biodiversitas, Journal of Biological Diversity” orBiodiversitas encourages submission of manuscripts dealing with allbiodiversity aspects of plants, animals and microbes at the level of gene,species, and ecosystem.

Article types The journal seeks original full-length research papers,reviews, and scientific feedback (short communication) about materialpreviously published.

Acceptance The only articles written in English (U.S. English) areaccepted for publication. Manuscripts will be reviewed by managing editor,communicating editor and invited peer review according to their disciplines.Authors will generally be notified of acceptance, rejection, or need forrevision within 2 to 3 months of receipt. Manuscript is rejected if the contentis not in line with the journal scope, dishonest, does not meet the requiredquality, written in inappropriate format, has incorrect grammar, or ignorescorrespondence in three months. The primary criteria for publication arescientific quality and biodiversity significance. The accepted papers will bepublished in a chronological order. This journal periodically publishes inJanuary, April, July, and October.

Uncorrection proofs will be sent to the corresponding author by e-mailas .doc or .docx files for checking and correcting of typographical errors. Toavoid delay in publication, proofs should be returned in 7 days.

A charge The cost of each manuscript is IDR 250,000,- plus postal costor IDR 150,000,- for SIB members. There is free of charge for nonIndonesian author(s), but need to pay postal cost for hardcopy.

Reprints Two copies of journal will be supplied to authors; reprint is onlyavailable with special request. Additional copies may be purchased by orderwhen sending back the uncorrection proofs by e-mail.

Submission The journal only accepts online submission, through e-mailto the managing editor at [email protected]; better to forward to oneof the communicating editor for accelerating evaluation.. The manuscriptmust be accompanied with a cover letter containing the article title, the firstname and last name of all the authors, a paragraph describing the claimednovelty of the findings versus current knowledge, and a list of five suggestedinternational reviewers (title, name, postal address, email address). Reviewersmust not be subject to a conflict of interest involving the author(s) ormanuscript(s). The editor is not obligated to use any reviewer suggested bythe author(s).

Copyright Submission of a manuscript implies that the submitted workhas not been published before (except as part of a thesis or report, or abstract);that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere; that its publicationhas been approved by all co-authors. If and when the manuscript is acceptedfor publication, the author(s) agree to transfer copyright of the acceptedmanuscript to Biodiversitas. Authors shall no longer be allowed to publishmanuscript without permission. For the new invention, authors suggested tomanage its patent before publishing in this journal.

Open access The journal is committed to free open access that does notcharge readers or their institutions for access. Users are entitled to read,download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of thearticles, as long as not for commercial purposes. For the new invention,authors are suggested to manage its patent before published.

Preparing the ManuscriptManuscript is typed at one side of white paper of A4 (210x297 mm2)

size, in a single column, double space, 12-point Times New Roman font, with2 cm distance step aside in all side. Smaller letter size and space can beapplied in presenting table. Word processing program or additional softwarecan be used, however, it must be PC compatible and Microsoft Word based.Names of sub-species until phylum should be written in italic, except for italicsentence. Scientific name (genera, species, author), and cultivar or strainshould be mentioned completely at the first time mentioning it, especially fortaxonomic manuscripts. Name of genera can be shortened after firstmentioning, except generating confusion. Name of author can be eliminatedafter first mentioning. For example, Rhizopus oryzae L. UICC 524,hereinafter can be written as R. oryzae UICC 524. Using trivial name shouldbe avoided, otherwise generating confusion. Mentioning of scientific namecompletely can be repeated at Materials and Methods. Biochemical andchemical nomenclature should follow the order of IUPAC-IUB, while itstranslation to Indonesian-English refers to Glossarium Istilah Asing-Indonesia (2006). For DNA sequence, it is better used Courier New font.

Symbols of standard chemical and abbreviation of chemistry name can beapplied for common and clear used, for example, completely written butilichydroxytoluene to be BHT hereinafter. Metric measurement use IS denomi-nation, usage other system should follow the value of equivalent with thedenomination of IS first mentioning. Abbreviation set of, like g, mg, mL, etc.do not follow by dot. Minus index (m-2, L-1, h-1) suggested to be used, exceptin things like “per-plant” or “per-plot”. Equation of mathematics does notalways can be written down in one column with text, for that case can bewritten separately. Number one to ten are expressed with words, except if itrelates to measurement, while values above them written in number, except inearly sentence. Fraction should be expressed in decimal. In text, it should beused “%” rather than “gratuity”. Avoid expressing idea with complicated

sentence and verbiage, and used efficient and effective sentence. Manuscriptof original research should be written in no more than 25 pages (includingtables and picture), each page contain 700-800 word, or proportional witharticle in this publication number. Invited review articles will beaccommodated.

Title of article should be written in compact, clear, and informativesentence preferably not more than 20 words. Name of author(s) should becompletely written. Running title is about five words. Name and institutionaddress should be also completely written with street name and number(location), zip code, telephone number, facsimile number, and e-mail address.Manuscript written by a group, author for correspondence along with addressis required. First page of the manuscript is used for writing above information.

Abstract should not be more than 200 words, written in English.Keywords is about five words, covering scientific and local name (if any),research theme, and special methods which used. Introduction is about 400-600 words, covering background and aims of the research. Materials andMethods should emphasize on the procedures and data analysis. Results andDiscussion should be written as a series of connecting sentences, however,for manuscript with long discussion should be divided into sub titles.Thorough discussion represents the causal effect mainly explains for why andhow the results of the research were taken place, and do not only re-expressthe mentioned results in the form of sentences. Concluding sentence shouldpreferably be given at the end of the discussion. Acknowledgments areexpressed in a brief.

Figures and Tables of maximum of three pages should be clearlypresented. Title of a picture is written down below the picture, while title of atable is written in the above the table. Colored picture and photo can beaccepted if information in manuscript can lose without those images. Photosand pictures are preferably presented in a digital file. JPEG format should besent in the final (accepted) article. Author could consign any picture or photofor front cover, although it does not print in the manuscript. There is noappendix, all data or data analysis are incorporated into Results andDiscussions. For broad data, it can be displayed in website as Supplement.

Citation in manuscript is written in “name and year” system; and isarranged from oldest to newest and from A to Z. The sentence sourced frommany authors, should be structured based on the year of recently. In citing anarticle written by two authors, both of them should be mentioned, however,for three and more authors only the family (last) name of the first author ismentioned followed by et al., for example: Saharjo and Nurhayati (2006) or(Boonkerd 2003a, b, c; Sugiyarto 2004; El-Bana and Nijs 2005; Balagadde etal. 2008; Webb et al. 2008). Extent citation as shown with word “cit” shouldbe avoided. Reference to unpublished data and personal communicationshould not appear in the list but should be cited in the text only (e.g., RifaiMA 2007, personal communication; Setyawan AD 2007, unpublished data).In the reference list, the references should be listed in an alphabetical order.Names of journals should be abbreviated according to the ISSN List of TitleWord Abbreviations (www.issn.org/2-22661-LTWA-online.php).

APA style in double space is used in the journal reference as follow:

Journal:Saharjo BH, Nurhayati AD (2006) Domination and composition structure

change at hemic peat natural regeneration following burning; a case studyin Pelalawan, Riau Province. Biodiversitas 7: 154-158.

Book:Rai MK, Carpinella C (2006) Naturally occurring bioactive compounds.

Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Chapter in book:Webb CO, Cannon CH, Davies SJ (2008) Ecological organization, biogeography and

the phylogenetic structure of rainforest tree communities. In: Carson W,Schnitzer S (eds) Tropical forest community ecology. Wiley-Blackwell,New York.

Abstract:Assaeed AM (2007) Seed production and dispersal of Rhazya stricta. 50th

annual symposium of the International Association for VegetationScience, Swansea, UK, 23-27 July 2007.

Proceeding:Alikodra HS (2000) Biodiversity for development of local autonomous

government. In: Setyawan AD, Sutarno (eds) Toward mount Lawunational park; proceeding of national seminary and workshop onbiodiversity conservation to protect and save germplasm in Java island.Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, 17-20 July 2000. [Indonesian]

Thesis, Dissertation:Sugiyarto (2004) Soil macro-invertebrates diversity and inter-cropping plants

productivity in agroforestry system based on sengon. [Dissertation].Brawijaya University, Malang. [Indonesian]

Information from internet:Balagadde FK, Song H, Ozaki J, Collins CH, Barnet M, Arnold FH, Quake

SR, You L (2008) A synthetic Escherichia coli predator-prey ecosystem.Mol Syst Biol 4: 187. www.molecularsystemsbiology.com

GENETIC DIVERSTYA comparative phylogenetic analysis of medicinal plant Tribulus terrestris in NorthwestIndia revealed by RAPD and ISSR markersASHWANI KUMAR, NEELAM VERMA

107-113 7

In Silico chloroplast SSRs mining of Olea speciesERTUGRUL FILIZ, IBRAHIM KOC

114-117 4

SPECIES DIVERSTYTaxonomy of Indonesian giant clams (Cardiidae, Tridacninae)UDHI EKO HERNAWAN

118-123 6

The exploration and diversity of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus L.) from Papua based onits physical characteristics and chemical compositionMURTININGRUM, ZITA L. SARUNGALLO, NOUKE L. MAWIKERE

124-129 6

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTYStudy of biodiversity and limiting factors of Ag-gol Wetland in Hamadan Province, IranMAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, VAHID NORISHARIKABAD, HOSHANG VAFAEI

130-134 5

Assessment of biodiversities and spatial structure of Zarivar Wetland in KurdistanProvince, IranMAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, KAMAL HOSHMAND

135-139 5

Diversity of soil macrofauna on different pattern of sloping land agroforestry in Wonogiri,Central JavaMARKANTIA ZARRA PERITIKA, SUGIYARTO, SUNARTO

140-144 5

Fish biodiversity in coral reefs and lagoon at the Maratua Island, East KalimantanHAWIS H. MADDUPPA, SYAMSUL B. AGUS, AULIA R. FARHAN, DEDE SUHENDRA,BEGINER SUBHAN

145-150 7

ETHNOBIOLOGYJernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) management by Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Village,Batanghari, Jambi ProvinceIIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

151-160 11

56 56

Front cover:

Tridacna crocea(PHOTO: UDHI EKO HERNAWAN)

Published four times in one year PRINTED IN INDONESIA

ISSN: 1412-033XE-ISSN: 2085-4722

E-ISSN: 2085-4722ISSN: 1412-033X

biodiversitas vol. 13, no. 3, july 2012

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witono indonesia

soendjoto indonesia

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