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City University of Hong KongDepartment of Applied Social Studies

Criminology SS3300Biological and Psychological Theories on Crime

I. Biological Theory

Biological explanations of crime propose that offenders differ from non-offenders in somephysiological way. Scholars studied facial features or difference in skull and sought acorrelation between criminal behavior and characteristics such as the shape of the ears andthe eyes.

1. Atavism (C. Lombroso, 1835-1909)1.1 Criminal is a biological degenerate,

a throwback to an earlier evolutionary stage,

more ape-like than human.

1.2 Lombroso called this degeneracy atavism (born criminal).Atavism manifested itself in certain characteristics that he called stigmata.

1.3 He presented a long list of stigmata, eg.ears of unusual size, or occasionally very small,or standing out from the head; fleshy and swollen lips;receding or protruding chin;premature and abundant wrinkling of the skin;supernumerary fingers, toes, or nipples;

greater strength in the left limbs.

1.4 After examining 383 Italian men convicted of variouscrimes, he reported that 21 % has just one of these traits,but 43 percent has five or more.

1.5 He concluded that the presence of five or more stigmata indicated atavism.

2. Mistakes of Lombroso

He failed to select in a careful way a control group from the general population withwhich to compare criminals.

Many of the differences between criminals and non-criminals that he documentedwere small enough to have occurred by chance.

3. Contributions of Lombroso

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Lombrosos most important contributions to modern criminology were theapplication of measurement and the testing of hypotheses.

As a result of this positivist method, his ideas on crime causation were revised, andhe increasingly took social and environmental factors into account.

4. The study of Twin criminals (Conklin, p.105).

Identical twins develop from a single female egg and have no inherited differences.Fraternal twins develop from two eggs and do have inherited differences.

Evidence for genetic factors would take the form of a higher concordance rate(similarity of criminal behavior), between identical twins than between fraternaltwins.

The results of twin studies conducted in the US, Japan, and Europe between 1929and 1962 are consistent with the idea that inherited factors influence criminalbehavior. It is found that if one identical twin had a criminal conviction, the othertwin also had a conviction in 35%; however, for fraternal twin, the percentage is 12%

5. Biochemical Factors and Temperament

Some violent behavior seems to be associated with defects in the neurotransmittersserotonin () and dopamine() .

Serotonin reduces aggressiveness by inhibiting behavioral responses to emotionalstimuli; violent and impulsive behavior seems to be more common among people withlower level of serotonin.

6. Brain Dysfunctions

Studies suggest that impaired function of the brain's frontal lobes contributes to a

host of pathological behaviors ranging from hyperactivity to homicide. Wallace Deckel et al. report evidence that frontal lobe dysfunction also is a risk

factor for destructive drinking and that this dysfunction may be detectable in at-riskindividuals before they become problem drinkers.

In addition, Deckel et al.'s research offers clues as to why alcoholism and socio-pathic behavior often go hand-in-hand.

7. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A study (Laetitia Thompson and colleagues) report that boys with attention deficithyperactivity disorder (ADHD) had significantly worse conduct disorder andsubstance abuse problems than those without ADHD.

The researchers studied 171 boys, ranging in age from 13 to 19, in a residentialprogram for substance abusers with behavioral disorders. The results of the studysuggest that conduct-disordered boys with ADHD are "particularly troubledindividuals."

II. Psychological Theories

1. Intelligence and crime (A. Binet, late 1800s; Goddard, 1914)

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1.1 Intelligence tests were developed by Binet and subsequentlyused to explain criminality through the concept of inheritedfeeblemindedness, or lack of intelligence.

1.2 Goddard modified Binets test to develop a unilinear scale of intelligence.He administered the test to the residents of boys and girls institutionsand found that none scored above the mental age of twelve (or IQ75).(He assumed that full mental capacity is achieved by chronological age 16).

1.3 He considered that the high-grade defectives (morons) were potentiallydangerous because , even though they could be trained to function in society,their stupidity would very likely get them into trouble.

1.4 The segregation of the feebleminded in special institutions as well assterilization were proposed solutions to the problem.

1.5 Until US army agreed to allow the testing of the degree of feeblemindedness,the idea that most offenders were feebleminded had fallen into disfavor.It was found that more than half the US was considered as feebleminded.

2. Self-concept and crime (Reckless et al, 1956; 1957, containment theorists)

2.1 Self-concept is the persons perception of himself in reference to significantothers in his immediate word.

2.2 A good self-concept veers slum boys away from delinquency.

2.3 A poor self-concept gives the slum boy no resistance to deviancy,delinquent companions, or delinquent subcultures.

2.4 The self-concept is viewed as one factor which might insulate adolescentsfrom the adversities of family, class position, and neighbourhood.

Explanation of the relationship between self-concept and crime

1. People with low self-concept tend to become offender because theydont value themselves, don't care what happens to them.

2. Criminal activity is another route to the success, by succeedingat crime they can recover some of their lost self-respect.

3. Some people - adolescents in particular - may commit offensesbecause they will lose status in the eyes of their friends.

4. Poor self-image of some offenders is product of the fact that

they have been identified as such (effect of labeling).

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3. Criminal personality (S. Freud, 1856-1939)

3.1 Id: drives and instincts - sex and aggression

3.2 Ego: reality principle, balance between id and superego

3.3 Superego: conscience, produces feelings of guilt

3.4 The ego of a healthy individual successfully represses id impulses or channels them tosome acceptable outlet (a process of sublimation).

3.5 Criminal behavior arises from

Weak (underdeveloped) egoeg. fixed in a particular psychosexual stage

castration anxiety (the Oedipus complex)penis envy

Underdeveloped superegoeg. lack of parental care or love

Overdeveloped superegoeg. too harsh and rigid,

generate a desire of punishment,unconsciously wishing to be caught to allay the guilt feelings

Reference:

Conklin, John E. (2004). Criminology (Eighth Edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacan.

Glick, L. (2005) Criminology, NY: Pearson Education.

Schmalleger, F. (2006) Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, NJ: PrenticeHall.

Siegel, L.J. (2003) Criminology (Eighth Edition), CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning (2007)

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