AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

H E L D AT P H I L A D E L P H I A FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

NEW SERIES-VOLUME1953

43, PART 2

ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF ROMAN LAW

ADOLF BERGERCity College, New York and French University (Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes), New York

T H E AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

I N D E P E N D E N C E SQUARE PHILADELPHIA 6

Copyright 1953 by The American Philosophical Society

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 53-7841

PREFACE The idea of preparing a Dictionary of Roman Law in encyclopedic forin came to my mind soon after my arrival in the United States, as I became more familiar with the status of Roman Law in American schools and legal ~vriting. T h e idea grew further while I was working with my friend, Professor A. Arthur Schiller of Columbia University School of Law, on a con~plete bibliography of the Romanistic literature published in English since 1939. I t became increasingly clear to me that man). a reader must encounter great difficulties in understanding tlie technical language of papers concerned with Roman Law. The severely restricted place occupied by Roman Law in college and university curricula has produced a situation in-which it is entirely true that R O That I finally undertook the work, despite a variety of difficulties, may be attributed in large measure to the warn1 encouragement I received from scholars in various fieltls of Roman antiquities. They approved iny plan enthusiastically and stressed tlie usefulness of a dictionary as I conceived it, designed for teachers and students of Roman Law in the classroom, for students of legal history ~ v h o have no or only little Latin, and for readers of juristic or literary Latin works in translations which not al\va!.s are relialde when legal terms or problems are involved. I n particular, the idea of an encyclopedic dictionary with extensive bibliographies met with the approbation of everyone consulted. NOW, after several years of intensive work, after several decades of study'and research in my c1;osen field. I may he permitted to offer this Dictionary to all who are interested in ancient Rome's legal institutions, sources, history, and language, to scholars and students, both beginners and those more advanced, with the wish and hope that the cupidn lcgunz izrzlcrrtzts may include in its desire for kuotvledge of the law that legal systenl which, even in our own day, is the foundation and the intellectual background of the law of a large part of the world. N o one is more aware of the deficiencies of a work of this kind than the author himself. T h e selection of the entries from all the domains of Roman Law, the rnaintenance of a proper proportion in presenting the various topics without concessions to those more familiar or more interesting to the author personally, and the necessity of remaining within the limits of a single volume, all created embarrassing difficulties. F o r the principles of selection and organization finally adopted, the reader is referred to the Introduction. Preparation of the Dictionary would not have been possible if the American Philosophical Society had not been generous with renewed grants-in-aid froin the very beginning of the project. I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the Society for this assistance and encouragement and for accepting the Dictionary for publication in its Transnctiol~s. I am further gratefully indebted to the Mid-European Studies Center of the National Committee for a Free Europe for the helpful interest it took in my work in its later stages. Thankful mention mukt also be made of the Social Science Research Council for grants in the years 1946 and 1949. Invaluable assistance was rendered by several colleagues who assuined the tedious task of polishing the n~anuscriptlinguistically and stylistically. My most sincere thanks are due Professors M. I. Finley of the Newark College of Rutgers University, Jacob Hammer of Hunter College, Lionel Casson of New York University, and Naphtali Lewis of Brooklyn College for the service they have rendered to me in true friendship.

.,

A. B.S e \ v York, June 15, 1952

MALVAE UXORI OPTIMAE PIISSIMAE CONSOCIAE LABORUM MEORUM

ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF ROMAN L A WCONTENTSIr~trotluctiott ........................................... 335 List of abhreviatiot~s ...................................336 Dictionary ............................................. 338 English-Latin glossary ................................. 773 General bibliography ................................... 786 I. Textbooks, manuals and general presentations of Roman Law. History of sources .......... 786 11. Roman private law. A. Law of persons (family, marriage, guardianship, slavery corpora- tions) ...................................788 B. Law of things (ownershil), possession, real securities) .............................. 788 C. Law of obligations ...................... 789 D. Law of succession .......................790 E. Civil procedure .........................791 111. Roman criminal law and procedure ............ 791 IV. Roman public law (constitution, administration, international relations) ................... 792 V. Miscellany (economy, public finances, social con- ditions, labor, industry, numismatics) ...... 793 VI. Legislative activity and legal policy of the emp.erors ................................ 794 VII. Problems connected with the development of Roman Law. Foreign influences .......... 795

PACE

VIII. Christianity and Roman Law .................. 796 I X . Roman Law arid modern legal systems (includ- ing Byzantine and medieval law) .......... 797 X. Roman Law and the Anglo-American world . . . 798 XI. Roman Law and legal education (ancient legal history, methods of instruction, the so-called "crisis" of Roman law study) ............. 799 XII. Sources (editions, textual criticism, juristic language) ............................... 800 X I I I . Interpolations in Justinian's legislative work . . . 801 XIV. Roman Law in non-juristic sources ............ 802 XV. Latin inscriptions ............................. 804 XVI. Papyri (general presentations of the law of Greco-Roman Egypt, comprehensive biblio- graphical surveys, introductory manuals) .. 805 XVII. Collections of source material for teaching purposes .................................805 X V I I I . Collective works ............................. 806 A. Studies it1 honor of scholars .............. 806 B. Studies published on particular occasiot~s (congresses, anniversaries) .............. 806 C. Collected works of individual scholars .... 807 XIX. Encyclopedias, dictionaries, vocabularies . . . . . . . 807 XX. Bibliographies ................................807

PACE

INTRODUCTION This Dictionary has several purposes: to explain techAll the more important entries are encyclopedic as nical Roman legal terms, to translate and elucidate those well as lexicographical. That is to say, an attempt has Latin words which have a specific connotation when been made in each case to depict as succinctly as posused in a juristic context or in connection with a legal sible, the historical development of the legal institution institution or question, and to provide a brief picture of or term it defines, the use of certain words in the lanRoman legal institutions and sources as a sort of a first guage of the jurists or the imperial chancery, and parintroduction to them. ticular attention has been given to important substantial The objectives of the work, not the juristic character changes from early law to classical law and again in the of available Latin writings, therefore, determined the reforms of Justinian. Additional matter is indicated inclusion or exclusion of any single word or phrase. by cross-references, printed in small capitals. AnaloSince the Dictionary is not intended to be a complete gous terms and institutions are also noted by small capiLatin-English dictionary for all words which occur in tals, sometilnes in the body of the text, sometimes at the the writings of the Roman jurists or in the various codi- end of an entry. (As a matter of course, with a few fications of Roman law, the reader must consult a gen- exceptions, every Latin word used to explain or illusera1 Latin-English lexicon for ordinary words that have trate a term has its own entry even when that fact is no specific meaning in law or juristic language. I n this not specifically indicated by the use of small capitals.) respect, as in others, the present work differs funda- Synonyms and antonyms are indicated in many entries. mentally from Heumann's Handlexikon zu den Quellen Considerable attention has been given to the sources des romisclzen Rechts (in the excellent edition by Emil themselves. A large number of entries are devoted to Seckel, 1907). On the other hand, numerods entries them, ranging in time from the archaic regal ordinances concern words and phrases which occur only in non- (the leges regiae) to Justinian's codification, and, in juristic sources, literary writings or inscriptions, but more limited measure, to post-Justinian Byzantine and which must, nevertheless, receive attention if the Dic- medieval writings and collections of laws. Basic defitionary is truly to survey all fields of the vast province nitions, legal rules of fundamental importance, and charof Roman law; private, criminal, public, administrative, acteristic utterances of the jurists are given in literal sacral, and military law, taxation, etc. Many entries, translations within quotation marks, followed by a citafurthermore, deal with Latin terms of medieval or mod- tion of the pertinent source. Titles of the Institutes, ern coinage, unknown to the ancient Romans, but now Digest and Justinian's Code or Novels that deal ex professo with a specific topic are noted at the end of the widely accepted in the Romanistic literature. 335

336

ADOLF B E R G E R

[TRANS. AMER. SOC. PHIL.

entry. Substantial interpolations by which classical institutions and terms were eliminated as well as the more reliable linguistic criteria have been taken into consideration.BIBLIOGRAPHY

T h e extensive bibliographical apparatus is intended for a \vide circle of readers. F o r that reason, space has been given to publications in English, many of which nlay be unknown to the international guild of Romanists, at the same time that works in other languages are fully represented in the interest of readers in other countries and of students and research workers who have a mastery of other languages. Stress has been primarily placed on the international Romanistic literature of the twentieth century. Earlier works are cited only when they have remained standard treatments or did not lose their importance despite later publications. All recent puhlicatioiis have been taken into account in so far as they were available. A few books that were not accessible to the author 'have been included after their usefulnrss was ascertained by correspondence with scholars abroad. T o insure completeness and at the same time to avoid \vasteful duplication, the bibliography was divided into t\vo distinct parts. A General Bibliography in twenty clia~)tersaappears a I~lockat the end of the Dictionary. as I t comprises textbooks and comprehensive general presentations, which as a matter of rule are not repeated in the I)ibliographies appended to the single entries, and literature concerning general problems of the development of Roman law, the sources and their editions, and the influence of Roman law on modern legal systems. The Anglo-American reader will find Chapter X, "Roinan Law ant1 the Anglo-American World" of special interest. It is a first attempt to provide an extensive 11il)liographp of works and articles on the part played by Roman law in the development of the common law and on the value of the study of Roman law in countries in the sphere of Anglo-American law. Chapter X I V on Iioman law in non-juristic sources, Chapter V I on the legal policies of the emperors, and Chapter X I concerned with the literature on the place of Roman law in legal education, are also first attempts at systematic bibliograpliic treatment.

The secoild part of the bibliographical apparatus is the specialized section, scattered throughout the Dictionary among the individual entries. Here, too, the aim was to satisfy both the beginner and the expert. First place has been assigned to the renowned encyclopedias : the Reale~zzyklopaedie der klassisclzet~ Altertumsm'ssenschaft ( R E ) of Pauly, Wissowa, Kroll et al., the Dictionnaire des antiquitis grecques et rowlai~zesof Daremberg and Saglio ( D S ) , the ATuovo Digesfo Italiano ( N D I ) , De Ruggiero's Dizionario epigrafico ( D E ) and the very recent Oxford Classical Dictiorzauy ( O C D ) . Then come the special monographs, periodical articles, ess~ys4itr,volumes published in honor of, or in memory of distinguished scholars, congress publications, anniversary papers, and the like. Frequent reference has been made to doctoral dissertations in vaiious languages, since at the very least they provide good bibliographies. O H rare occasions special attention is drawn to reliable bibliographical references collected in other papers. I n general, a n effort has been made in the individual bibliographies to indicate appropriate sections within a larger work o r publications whose titles do not suggest a discussion of the entry concerned. When the index word is mentioned in the bibliography it is frequen'tly ahbreviated to the initial letter. Bibliographical omissions are unavoidable even when remarkable papers are involved. I am confident, however, that the selections scrupulously compiled will enable the reader to find without any difficulty the literature left out in this book.GLOSSARY

A selected English-Latin Glossary is appended for thebenefit of readers who have little or no familiarity with Latin legal terminology. I t includes the more important terms in English whose Latin counterparts are not virtually the same. Thus, "sale" or "lease" are included, but not "senate" or "consul," "formula" o r "exceptio." Terms connected with administration are generally omitted. The Latin words of the Glossary are covered by pertinent entries in the Dictionary proper together with the cross-references. Thus the reader will have the opportunity to become acquainted not only with the term itself but also its legal significance and applications.

L I S T O F ABBREVIATIONSA B a y A l t ' . Ahhandltrngrn drr Baycrischrn Akadenzie dcr W i s srttschafteit (Munich). A C D R . ,l!ti tiel Cottqrrsso Intcrnosionale di diritto rolnaiio, 1933; Bologt~a 1-2. Roma 1-2 (1934, 1935). .4C/Vpr, A t t i dcl Congrcsso Internasionalc di diritto vomano r di s / o r i ~ tic1 diritto, Vcrnna, 1948; vol. 1 ff. (in press). l A C S R . A t t i dci Cott(lrrs.~iNazionali di S t u d i Rontarti. A D O - R I D A ; see 1211),4. A e g . Argyptus. I Z i ~ ~ i s t a italiana di rgittologia c di fiapirolo!~in. A G . Arrhivio giliridico. A H D E . Anuario tlc IIistoria dcl Drrrcho Espar701 ( M a d r i d ) . A n ~ l l ' h i l o l . .4,n~rican Journal of Philolo!ly. A N a p . A t t i dell' Accnd~ntitrtii S c i ~ t t s emorali r politichc dclla Soripfa Rcalr di ,lJapoli. AitBari. Annali dclla Fncoltci d i ~irrrisprrrdr~tza dcll' Ilniz,crsitd di Bari. AitCam. Annali dell' lini71crsitd d i Catnrririo. Scziottc yiuridicn. AnCat. Annuli dcl Scnzinario giuridico dcll' Uniztcrsitci d i Catania. AnGrcn. Anttalcs tlc l'Uiti?~crsitt;dc Guriiohlr. Scction L r t trrs, Droit. A n h f a c . Annuli dcll' Univcrsit2 di Il.lacrrntn. AltMes. Annali dcll' Insfituto drlle Scicnsc giuridiclze dell' l l n h ~ c r s i f ddi Mrssiita. A ~ t P a l . Annali drl Srminario gittridiro dell' Universitd di Palerrno. A n P r r . Annali dcll' Istittcto gittridico dcll' Clniz~crsitd di Prruyia.

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A n T r . Annuli Triestini di diritto, cconomia e politica ( a cura dell' Universiti di Trieste) . Ant. Antonym. AntC1. Antiquitk Classique (Brussels). APad. Atti dell' Accademia scientijca di Padova. A P r A W . Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der W i s senschaften in Berlin, philosophisch-historische Klasse. A r C P . Archiv fiir civilistische Praxis. ArPap. Archiv f u r Papyrusforschung. ASochGW. Abhandlungen der Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Leipzig, philosophisch-historkche Klasse. Ath. Athenaeum. Studi periodici di leftere, e storia dell' antichitci ( Pavia). ATor' Atti dell' Accademia delle Scienze di Torino. AVen. Atti dell' Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. BerSachGW. Berichte der Sachsischen Gesellschaft der W i s senschaften, Leipzig, philosophisch-historkche Klasse. Bibl. Bibliography. B I D R . Bt~llettinodell' Istituto del diritto romano. C . Codex Justinianus. CambLJ. Cambridge Lazo Journal. CewtCodPav. Per il X I V Centenario della codijcazione giusti- nianea. Studi pubblicati dalla Facoltd di giurisprudenza di Pavia, 1934. C1J. Classical Journal. ClMed. Classica et Medievalia (Kopenhagen) . ClPhilol. Classical Philology. ConfCast. Conferenze romanistiche tenute nell' Univ. di Pavia rtell' anito 1939 a ricordo di G. Castelli, Milano 1940. Conflnst. Confkrences faites d l'lnstitut de droit rom. en 1947, Paris 1950. ConfMil. Conferenze pel X I V Centenario della Pandette, Milan, 1931. C R A I . ComptesRendus de l'dcadkmie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres. CristDirPriv. Cristianesimo e diritto privato. Pubblicazione dell' Universitd del Sacro Cuore, Milan, 1935. D. Digesta Iustiniani. DE. Dizionario epigrafico di antichitd romane, ed. E. De Ruggiero. D S . Dictionnuire des antiquitks grecques et romaines, ed. Ch. Daremberg and E. Saglio. Et. etudes. Fg. Festgabe. Fil. I1 Filangieri. F I R . Fontes Iztris Romani Anteiustiniani, ed.' Riccobono, Baviera, Ferrini, Furlani, Arangio-Ruiz, 1-3 (Florence, 19401943). Fr. Vat. Fragmenta Vaticana. Fschr. Festschrift. G G A . Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen. GrZ. Griinhut's Zeitschrift fur das Gffentliche und Privatrecht der Gegenwart. Her. Hermes. Hist. Historia. Studi storici per I' antichitd classica (Milan). IhJb. Ihering's Jahrbucher fur die Dogmatik des heutigen romischen und deutschen Privatrechrs. Inst. Institutiones Iustiniani. J R S . Journal of Roman Studies. JurR. Juridical Review. K1. Klio. Beitrage zur alten Geschichte. K r V j . Kritische Vierteljahresschrift f u r Gesetzgebung und Rechtm'ssenschaft. L Q R . L a w Quarterly Review. ~ e ' l .~6langes. MemBol. Memorie dell' Accademia della Scienze e Lettere dell' Istituto di Bologna. MemLinc. Memorie delP Accademia dei Lincei. MemLomb. Memorie dell' Istituto Lombardo di Scienzc e Lettere. MemTor. Mentorie dell' Istituto giuridico dell' Uniz+ersitd d i Torino.

Mn. Mnemosyne. Bibliotheca philologica Batava. Mous. Mouseion. Rivista di scienze classiche (Naples). N D I . Nuovo Digesto Italiano. Nov. Novellae Instiniani. N R H D . Nouz~elle R m e historique de droit franfais et itranger (since 1922 Revue historique etc. = R H D ) . OCD. T h e Oxford Classical Dictionary. PBritSR. Papers of the British School at Rome. PubMod. Pubblicaaioni della Facoltd di giurisprudenza di Modena. R A C . Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum. R B S G . Rassegna bibliografica delle scienze giuridiche, sociali e politiche. RDCiv. Rivista di diritto civile. RDCom. Rivista di diritto commerciale. R D N a v . Rivista di diritto di navigazione. R E . Realenzyklopadie der klassischen A l t e r t u ~ ' s s e n s c l t a f t , ed. Paully, Wissowa, Kroll, Mittelhaus, and Ziegler. Rec. Recueil. RendBol. Rendiconti dell' Accademib delle Scienze e Lettere dell' Istituto di Bologna, Classe di science morali. RendLinc. Rendiconti dell' Accademia dei Lincei. RendLomb. Rendiconti dell' Istituto Lombardo di Scienee e Lettere. R H D . Revue historique de droit frangais et dtranger (since 1922 continuation of N R H D ) . R I D A . Revue internationale des droits de l'antiquitd. Since 1952 published under the title: Archives d'histoire du droit oriental et Reaue internafionale des droits de l'antiquitt (= ADO-RIDA). R I S G . Rivista italiana per le scienze giuridiche. R S t D I t . Rivista di storia del dirittto italiano. SbBerl. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der W i s senschaften Berlin, philosophisch-historische Klasse. SbHeid. Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akadefnie der W i s senschaften, phi1.-hist. Klasse. SbLeipz. Sitzungsberichte der Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften i n Leipzig. SbMunch. Sitzungsberichte der Bayrischen Akademie der W i s senschaften, Munchen, Phil.-hist. Klasse. SbWien. Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wisse~tschafterz Wien, phi1.-hist. Klasse. Scr.--Scritti. S D H I . Studia et documenta historiae et iuris. Sem. Seminar. An annual extraordinary number of The Jurist (Washington, D. C.) . St. Studi (in onore, in memoria, and the like with the name of the scholar honored). StDocSD. Studi e documenti di storia e diritto. StCagl. Studi economico- giuridici dell' Universitd di Cagliari. StPav. Studi nelle scienze giuridiche e sociali dell' Istituto di esercitazioni presso la Facoltd di giurisprudenza dell' Universitd di Pavia. StSas. Studi Sassaresi. StSen. Studi Senesi. StUrb. Studi Urbinati. Symb. Symbolae. TAmPhilolAs. Transactions of the American Philological Association. Syn. Synonym. T R . Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis (= Revue &Histoire de droit ( Haarlem-La Haye). Trad. Traditio. Studies i n Ancient and Medieval History, Thought and Religion (Washington, D. C.) . T u l L R . Tulane Law Review. Varia. Varia. Etudes de droit romain. Publications de I' Institut de droit romain de PUniversiti de Paris, 1952. Z S S . Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte, Romanistische Abteilung. Z V R . Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Rechtswissenschaff.

Abdicatio. Renunciation, abandonment. I n private law, the term is used of the renunciation of an inheriKalopothakes, DE 2, 114. tance or a guardianship (abdicatio tutelae). The A cognitionibus. The chief of the division of the abandonment of a child (abdicatio liberorunz) by the imperial chancery concerned with judicial matters.head of a family (pater fanzilias) was forbidden by See COGNITIO. the law, as expressly stated by Diocletian (C. 8.46.6), De Ruggiero, LIE 2, 320; v. Premerstein, R E 4, 220. but was nevertheless practiced. In public law abdiA commentariis. See COMMENTARII, COMMENTARI- catio indicates the resignation of a magistrate or an EXSIS. imperial official from his post.-See EXPONERE A consiliis. See A STEDIIS. LIBERUM. A diplomatibus. See DIPLOMA. Leonhard, R E 1 ; Neumann, R E 1 ; Humbert, DS 1 ; for abdicatio tutelae: Perozzi, RettdBol 1918/9 (= Scritti 3, A libellis. The head of the division of the imperial 215) ; Solazzi, RcndLotnb 51 (1918) 873; idem, St. Pavia chancery which dealt with all kinds of petitions ad6 (1921) 116; Sachers, R E 7A, 1532; for abdicatio liberodressed to the emperor. His later title was 11lagister rutit: Dull, Z S S 63 (1943) 71. 1ibellorutn.-See LIBELLUS. Abigeatus. Cattle stealing (rustling) from a stable or ThCdCnat, D S 3, 1174; v. Premerstein, R E 13, 15. pasture. Unlike an ordinary theft (see FURTUM) it A memoria. A high official of the imperial chancery was prosecuted as a public crime (see C R I M I N A PUBwho prepared the drafts for the emperor's public LICA) and punished- more sever~ly.-D. 47.14; C. allocutions. 9.37.Bloch, DS 2, 723; Fluss, R E 15, 655.

Abbreviation for absolvo written by judges of crim- inal courts (see QUAESTIONES) wooden tablets (see on TABELLAE) indicate a vote for acquittal. See to ABSOLUTIO. A condemnatory vote was expressed by the letter C = condemn0 ( = I condemn). I n criminal matters submitted to the popular assemblies (see COMITIA) abbreviations used were : L = libero for the acquittal, and D = datnno for condemnation. The abbreviation NL ( = non liquet) meant that the case was not clear to the voter.-See LIQUERE. A. Abbreviation for antiquo, written by the participants in a popular assembly (see COMITIA) wooden on tablets, indicated a vote against the proposed bill. Antiquo = I leave it in the ancient state, I reject. On the contrary, the abbreviation UR = uti rogas (as you propose) was used for an affirmative vote. -See LEX, ROGATIO. A, ab. These prepositions appear in the official titles of the heads of certain divisions in the imperial chancery; see the following items. Some of these officials were later called magistri. A censibus. An official of the imperial chancery charged with the examination of the financial situation of persons who aspired to admission to the sena- torial or equestrian rank. Such admission depended upon the possession of a considerable property.-See CENSUS, O R W SENATORIUS, EQUITES.

A.

in more complicated legal and governmental matters. Later his title was magister a studiis. A similar office may have been that of the a consiliis.Kiibler, R E 4A, 397; Chapot, DS 4, 1546; 0. Hirschfeld, Kaiserl. Verwaltungsbeamtez (1905) 332; Bersanetti, Epigraphic~9 (1947) 56.

A b actis. See ACTA. A b epistulis. The director of the imperial secretariat which was subdivided into two departments, one for Latin (ab epistulis Latinis) and one for Greek letters (ab epistulis Graecis). The office was concerned with the private and official correspondence of the emperor, in both civil and military matters, and also with the appointment of military officers.--See EPISTELA,S C R I N I U M EPISTULARUM.

Rostowzew, R E 6, 210; Bloch, D S 2, 712; De Ruggiero, DE 2, 2133.

Ab intestato. See INTESTATES. Abactor. See ABIGEUS. Abactus. A magistrate forced to resign his office by the decision of a popular assembly.-See LEX SEM- PRONIA DE ABACTIS. Abactus partus. See PARTUS ABACTUS. Abalienare. See ALIENATIO. The term is used primarily of alienations through MANCIPATIO.Berger, Kritische Vierteljahresschr. fur Gesetsgebutzg und Rechtm'ss. 14 (1912) 414; De Visscher, Rcv. Etudes Lafines 1936, 130 (= Nouvelles Etwdcs, 1949, 257).

A rationibus. The head of the division of the imperial chancery which was concerned with the emperor's financial matters and the control of the fiscal administration throughout the whole empire. From the time of Claudius he was an official of the state and PROCURATOR A not an imperial functionary.-See RATIONIBUS, RATIONES.

Rostowzew, DE 3, 133.

Hartmann, R E 1 ; Humbert, U S 1 ; Berger, Sem 2 (1944) 23.

Abigeus.

A cattle thief, a rustler. Syn. abactor.-See

ABIGEATUS.

Abiurare. T o deny a debt on oath ; to hold back fraudulently.-See IUSIURANDUM.

Wlassak, R E 1 ; D. Daube, Studies i9t biblical law, 1947, 229.

A studiis. An imperial official (from the middle of the first century) somewhat connected with the emperor's judicial activity, probably his special counsel

Aboleri. See ABOLITIO. Abolitio. (From abolere.) I n penal law, the annulment of an accusation and consequently of the whole trial through deletion of the name of the individual 138

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charged with a crime from the list of accused persons. See ACCUSATIO. Abolitio publica ( = general abolition) was ordered by the emperor on the occasion of some happy event or of thanksgiving festivities (gratulatio). Withdrawal of the accusation by the accuser (desistere) or his death produced abolitio. Aboleri = extinction of the right of suing or prosecuting a person in civil or criminal matters.-D. 48.16; C. 9.42 ; 43.45.Saglio, D S 1 ; A. Leschtsch, A. paschalis, Diss. Freiburg, 1904; P. Duparc, Origitres de la grcice dans le droit PPnal row., 1941, 24.

be concluded inter absentes by means of a letter (epistula) or a messenger (nuntius) .-In Justinian's rules on LONGI TEMPORIS PRAESCRIPTIO, inter praesentes means that the owner of the immovable and the factual possessor live in the same province. Ant. inter absentes.-See COMMEATUS, STIPULATIO I N T E R 4BSENTES.

Wlassak, R E 1 ; Guarneri-Citati N D I 1 (s.7,. assenza).

Abortio (abortus). Abortion. For abortio caused by a poisonous drink (poci4lui1z abortionis), see VENENUM.Waszink, R A C 1 (1950).

Absolutio. (From absolvere.) Refers to a judgment by which the defendant in a civil trial or the accused in a criminal one was absolved. I n the formulary procedure the term was expressly used in the formula to authorize the judge to render an absolutory judgment (absolvito) .-See SENTENTIA.Wlassak, R E 1 ; Leonhard, ibid.

Absolutorius. There was a maxim in classical Roman Abrogare legem. T o annul a statute in its entirety by law (Gai Inst. 4, 114) : omnia judicia absolutoria sunt an abrogating legislative act. A law may also lose its = all civil trials may lead to an absolution (of the binding force by disuse (DESUETUDO) which is the defendant). If the defendant satisfied the plaintiff expression of a "tacit consent of the whole people" after LITIS CONTESTATIO but before the judgment (D. 1.3.32.1 ) .-See DEROGARE. (SENTENTIA), judge had to render an absolutory the Absens, absentia. ( I n judicial trials.) The Twelve judgment. The rule was accepted by some jurists Tables already provided that the absent party autoonly with regard to IUDICIA BONAE FIDEI,but by the matically lost the case to the party present. Under the second century it was generally recognized. formulary procedure a plaintiff who did not appear in Abstinere(se)hereditate. The praetorian law granted court was cleemed to have renounced his claim. The the so-called SUI ET NECESSARII HEREDES the right to absence of the defendant in the first stage of the trial refuse the paternal inheritance (ilts abstinendi) in before the magistrate ( I X IURE)might under certain order to avoid the acceptance of an insolvent inhericircumstances lead to the seizure of his property; see tance which otherwise would fall to then1 auton~atiMISSIO I N BOXA; non-appearance before the judge his cal1y.-C. 2.38.-See PRO HEREDE GERERE. (apud iudice~n)might lead to his condemnation; see Absumptio. See RES QUAE usu CONSUMUNTUR. CONDEMNATIO, CONTUMACIA , EREMODICIUM. The Aburnius Valens. A Roman jurist under Hadrian and normal consequences of the absence could be annulled Antoninus Pius, author of an extensive treatise on by an extraordinary praetorian measure (RESTITUTIO fideicommissa. I N IXTEGRUM)it was justified by important reasons if Jars, R E 1 (no. 2) ; Orestano N D I 1. such as sickness, acting in the interest of the state, Abusus. See RES QUAE usu C O N S U M U N T U R . and the like. Abuti. To abuse, to make bad use of a thing or a right, Wlassak, R E 1 ; Kipp, R E 6, 417; Fliniaux, Bt Girard 1, particularly with the intention to harm another.-See 1912; Solazzi, S t . Sittloncclli, 1917; idem, Cortcorso dei AEMULATIO. creditori 1 (1917) 66, 70 (Bibl.). Absentes, absentia. Persons absent enjoy a particular protection in cases in which the defense of their rights required their presence. The remedies were various. In the case of justified absence the praetor could annul by means of RESTITUTIO I N INTEGRUM any rights acquired to the prejudice of the absent person; see the foregoing item. Property of persona absent in service of the state (such as governors of provinces, officials, soldiers) could not be-acquired by USUCAPIO. Such persons were also excused from civil charges, as TUTELA, CURA. A particular defense was granted to Roman citizens who became prisoners of war. See CAPTIVI,O S T L I M I N I U M . I n contractual relations the P absence of the creditor does not interrupt the prescription of his actions. The distinction absentesprnesentes is of importance in the conclusion of verbal and consensual contracts : whereas the former require the presence of the contracting parties, the latter canRiccobono, B I U R 46 (1939) 1 ; Appleton, Rev. gdltirale du droit 55 (1931) 115.

Accensi. Non-armed soldiers without any property qualification. They were mustered into a special CENTURIA and formed a reserve troop which in battle took the place of fallen legionaries. Syn. zlclati (= clothed with a military cloak).-Acccnsi were also the orderlies of higher magistrates (with i~npcrium).Cichorius-Kubitschek, RE 1 ; Humbert-De la BergeSaglio, D S 1 ; De Ruggiero, D E 1 ; Vogel, Z S S 67 (1950) 86.

Acceptilatio. An oral form of dissolving oral obligations, according to tlle rule that obligations contracted verbis had to be dissolved in the same way (orally). The stipulatory debtor asked his creditor: "What I promised to you, have you received it (liabcsne accepturn) ?" The latter answered "I have (Izabco)." Later, Greek words were admitted. I n order to dissolve an obligation other than an oral one by acccpti-

340

ADOLF BERGERAccursius. A famous glossator (1 182-1260), professor a t the law school in Bologna. H e compiled the in glosses of other glossators (see GLOSSATORES) a general collection called glossa ordinaria.Monti, N D I 1 ; E. Landsberg, Die Glosse des .4., 1883; Genzmer, Fschr Wenger 2 (1945) 223; Torrelli, RStDIt 7 (1934) 429.

Accusatio. (From accusare.) Except for a few instances of a civil nature this means accusation in criminal affairs in the Roman criminal procedure of the last century of the Republic. Prosecution began at the initiative of a citizen' (not a magistrate) who assumed the role of the accuser by denouncing the wrongdoer and filing a charge against him with the chairman of the competent criminal court (quaestio). Acceptum habere. See ACCEPTILATIO ; syn, acceptt4m This first step of the accuser was called nomen deferre fnc&r, a c r c ~ t o ferrc. (nominis delatio), he being the delator (denouncer). Acceptum rogare. The debtor's question in ACCEPTIIf the magistrate accepted the accusation (nomcn r r LATIO. cipere), normally presented by writing (libcllus accuAccessio. (From accedere.) The union of one thing satorius), he ordered its registration (inscriptio) in (land or movable) with another either by natural the official record of persons to iace a criminal trial. forces or artificially (mechanically, iunger;) so that The accusatio could be supportetl by the signatures they form an organic unity ( a whole, accessio wate(subscriptio) of additional accusers. In order to ~ i a e ) . The cases of accessio were very manifold. If prevent nlalicious accusations, an oath (IURAMENTUM the things mixed, melted, woven, etc., belonged to CALUMNIAE) imposed on the accuser.-In civil was different owners, the question of ownership over the matters, accusatio is used in connection with a guardnew whole might involve difficulties. A general rule ian alleged to be dishonest or negligent (see TUTOR was that when one of the things was only an accessory SUSPECTUS), a freedman, ungrateful to his patron with of the other, the ownership of the latter was decisive. (see INGRATUS), with an undutiful testament (see and Outward appearance, usage or custoil~ determine QUERELA INOFFICIOSI TESTAMENTI) .-D. 48.2 ; C. which was principal and which accessory.-D. 22.1. CAPITIS ACCUSATIO, EDICTUM -See FERRUMINATIO, INTEXERE, LITTERAE, PICTURA, 9.1 ; 2.-See CALUMNIA, CONSTANTINI, PRAEVARICATIO, TERGIVERSATIO, REPEPLANTARE, SUPERFICIES, EXHIBERE.Leonhard, R E 1 ; Natalucci, N D I 1 ; De Ruggiero, Scritti A . Marglticri (1921) 415; Wlassak, Z S S 42 (1921) 394; Bohacek, AnPal 11 (1923) 379; Cugia, A . solutioni comparatur, 1924; idenz, St. Mancalconi, 1938, 111 ; idem, St. Boltolis I (1942) 247; Michon, Rcc. Gc'rty I (1934) 42; Solazzi, Estir~siottc dell'obbligazio~te I' (1935) 246; P. Meylan, A . ct poicn~cnt, 1934; G. Lombardi, Ricerche in tclna di ills gcntiutrr 1946, 185; Daube, Z S S 66 (1948) 119. Leonhard, R E 1 ; Baudry, D S 1 ; Sanfilippo, iVDI 1 ; Riccobono, AnPal 5 (1917) ; Guarneri-Citati, AnMac 1926, 1929; idelit, AnMes 1927; AnPal 14 (1930).TERE ACCUSATIONEM.

lofio, which was the safest form of receipt, the parties transferred the obligation into a stipulatio to which an nccrptilntio was afterwards applied. This extension of clrcrptilnfio was introduced by the jurist AQUILIUS CALLUS who con~posedthe formula of the novating sfiplrlatio, called sfipulafio Aqui1iano.-D. 46.4 ; C. 8.43.

Accessio possessionis. ,4ddition of possession. I n some particular cases (LONGI TEMPORIS PRAESCRIPTIO, ccusator. A An accuser in a criminal trial. U S U C A P IINTERDICTUM UTRUBI), periods of pos- Accusatorius libellus. See ACCUSATIO. ~, the session of two or more successive holders were added Acilius (Atilius ?), Lucius. A jurist of the early sectogether to the benefit of the last one. Syn. accessio ond century B.c., author of a commentary on the temporis. Twelve Tables.Zanzucchi, A G 72 (1904) 177, 353; 76 (1906) 3 ; P. Kriiger, Z S S 26 (1905) 144; Suman, R I S G 59 (1917) 225; Ratti, St. Bonfante 1 (1930) 263. Klebs, R E 1, 252 (no. 7 ) .

Leonhard, R E 1 ; Vinet, D S 1 ; Lauria, N D I 1 ; idem, A.-inquisitio, ANap 56 (1934) ; Wlassak, SbWien 184, 1 (1917), 194 (1920) ; Hitzig, R E 4 (s.v. delatio nominis).

Accessio t e m ~ o r i s . See ACCESSIO POSSESSIONIS. Accipere iudicium. See IUDICIUM ACCIPERE. Acclamatio. A demonstration of esteem and friendly feeling in the form of fixed cheers, tendered to high magistrates and later to the emperors when they ap- peared in public on certain occasions. A victorious general was acclaimed by a loud salutation when he entered the city of Rome in triumph. I n the senate, acclamation was a sign of approval of the emperor's oratio (see ORATIO PRINCIPIS).I t was considered a vote and noted in records of the senate (acta senatus). -See TRIUMPHUS.De Ruggiero, D E 1, 72; Saglio, D S 1 ; Klauser, R A C 1 (1950) 221; Dessau, Ephemeris epigraphica 7 (1892) 429; Seeck, Rheinisches Museum 48 (1893) 199 ; 0. Hirschfeld. Kleine Schriften, 1913, 691; Charlesworth, J R S 33 (1943).

Acqu-. See ADQU-. ~ c t - a . Records drawn up by officials, concerning their activity and proceedings developed before them as well as certain binding declarations of private individuals (donations, testimony, etc.) made before them (apud acta) . Syn. gesta, sometimes commentarii. The term for the performance of binding deeds, entered into the acta, is in later times insinuare.-Ab actis = a general designation for officials concerned with acta (secretaries = scribae, the subordinate personnel in the pertinent offices).Kubitschek, R E 1 ; Weiss, R E Suppl. 7 (s.v. gesta) ; Humbert, D S 1 ; De Ruggiero, DE 1.

A c t a Caesaris. Acts performed or ordered by an emperor before his death. They had to be respected by his successor who was obliged to take an oath to that effect upon accepting the throne. A similar oath with

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34 1

regard to arta Caesaris was also compulsory for senators. Syn. acta principis, which may also mean the records of imperial orations, decisions, etc. A c t a diurna. An official law bulletin, introduced by Caesar for the publication of statutes and decrees of the senate (SENATUSCONSULTA) as well as of important news concerning the state, and the imperial family. A c t a militaria. Records pertaining to the administration of larger military units, as, e.g., legions, in which there was a file for each soldier summarizing his service and his financial affairs (proceeds, savings, and the like).Kubitschek, R E 1, 286; Humbert, D S 1 ; 0. Hirschfeld, Kleine Schriften, 1913, 682.

move the construction. Originating in the Twelve Tables, the acfio acquired a different aspect in Justinian's law since its availability was considerably reformed.-D. 39.3.G. Baviera, Scrifti 1 (1909) ; Berger, Z S S 31 (1910) 405; Schijnbauer, Z S S 54 (1934) ; M. Sargenti, L'a.a.p.a., 1940.

Actio arbitraria. See

ACTIO DE EO QUOD CERTO ACTIONES ARBITRARIAE.

LOCO,

A c t a populi. Another designation for ACTA DIURNA. They were also called acta urbis, urbana, publica, since P . Huvelin, Le furtum, 1915, 67; Fliniaux, St. Bortfoitte 1 they contained news about important local events. 1 (1929) 523; Berger, St. Riccol~o~to (1936) 614; E. A c t a senatus. Records of the discussions in the senate, Carrelli, S D H I 5 (1939) 327; idena, AtiBari 2 (1939) ; another of Caesar's innovations (see ACTA D I U R N A ) . Kiessling, lour. of jur. papyrologg 4 (1950) 317. Orations of the emperor delivered in the senate were Actio auctoritatis (de auctoritate). The transferor also published there. of quiritary ownership over a RES M A N C I P I throughMANCIPATIO was obliged to defend the transferee by against a claim of ownership (REI VINDICATIO) a third person (see EVICTIO).I n this context AUCTORIActio. In the definition of the jurist Celsus, "nothing TAS means a kind of guaranty in case of eviction. If else than the right of an individual to sue in a trial the transferor failed to do so or the transferee lost the for what is due to him" ( D . 45.1.551 ; Inst. 4.6 pr.). case, the latter had nctio nzrctorifatis for double the I n the formal sense actio is referred to the action of price paid. This liability on the part of the ulancipio a plaintiff by which he initiates a suit (actione esdons (the transferor) lasted according to the Twelve periri, actionern exercere) as well to the whole proTables two years for imniovables, one year for all ceedings, or to the formula granted for a specific other things, because after these periods the transclaim. I n this last meaning actio is synonymous with feree acquired full ownership through USUCAPIO. izidirilrnz, both being applied to particular formulae. PETITIO, DARE ACTIONEM, DENEGARE, Where usucapio by the transferee was excluded, as, -See IUDICIUM, for instance, in the case of stolen things, or of a transREPETERE ACTIONEM, PERIRE.-Inst. 4.6; D. 44.7; C. feree who was a foreigner (hostis) the liability for 4.10.-In the following presentation the different auctoritas of the transferor was unlimited in tinle, types of actions appear under ACTIONES; specific the "eternal" (aeterna auctorifas) . actions are dealt with either under the name of the Leist, R E 2, 2276; Ferrini, N D I 1 (s.v. attctoritotis a ) ; legal institution with which they are connected or E. Levy, Die Konkurrens dcr Akfionen, 2, 1 (1922) 238; under their own denomination. P. F. Girard, MClanges 2 (1923) 5, 153, 290; Leifer, Z S S

Actio a r b o r u m furtim caesarurn. The Twelve Tables introduced this acfio against anyone who secretly cut down trees belonging to another's property. T h e fixed penalty of 25 asses for each tree was later changed to double value bv the ~ r a e t o r i a naction dc arboribus succisis, modeled after t h e decemviral action. Moreover, the wrongdoer could be sued for the damage done through the ACTIO LEGIS AQUILIAE. -D. 47.7.

-

Humbert, D S 1 ; De Ruggiero, D E 1, 45; O'Brien Moore, R E Suppl. 6, 770; 0 . Hirschfeld, Kleine Schriften, 1913, 689.

-

Wlassak, R E 1 ; Anon., D S 1 ; Landucci, N D I 1 ; Brugi, N D I 1 (s.v. azione) ; Albertario, In tema di clnssificazione delle azioni, 1928 (= Scudi 4 [I9461 219) ; Arangio-Ruiz, Cours de droit ronzaiit. Les actions, Naples, 1935; G. Pugliese, Actio e diritto subbiettivo, 1939; Biondi, A C D R , Roma 1 (1935) 185. 1LEGITIMA

56 (1936) 136; v. Lubtow, Fschr Koschokcr L (1939) 117; De Visscher, R H D 16 (1937) 574; ( .Yo~tvelIe~tttdc.~, 1 L 1949, 179) ; Giffard, R H D 17 (1938) 339; P. Noailles, Fas et ius, 1948, 339; M . Kaser, Eigcr~titv~ R ~ s i t s 1943. ztird . passim; idem, Z S S 68 (1951) 168, 174; Magdelaiti, IZIDA 5 (= M i l De Visschcr 4, 1950) 145.

Actio calumniae. See IuDrcluM C A L U M N I A E . Actio calumniosa. A n action brought hy a plaintiff QUERELA I N O F F I C I O S I TESTAMENTI. only with the purpose of chicanery.-See C A L U M N I A . Balis, Z S S 55 (1935) 272. Actio Calvisiana. The patron's right to inherit from Actio aestimatoria. See ACTIO Q U A N T I M I NORIS, his freedman was protectetl by this action against EMPTIO.-D. 19.3. AESTIMATUM, fraudulent alienation by the latter in the case of intestacy. If the freedman's testament contained disActio a q u a e pluviae arcendae. Action against the positions to defrautl the ~ x ~ t r o n analogous action the owner of a neighboring plot of land for having confor annulnient of such dispositions was the artio structed a work which might change the natural flow F R A G M E N T U M I)E F O R M U L A FARIANA. Fabinno.-See of rain-water to the detriment of the plaintiff's propE. Levy, Privatstrafr urtd Schndenscrsats (1915) 69. erty. T h e actio had to be brought before damage was done; the defendant when defeated had to re- Actio certae creditae pecuniae. See M U T U U M .;

Actio a d exhibendum. See EXHIBERE. Actio a d supplendam legitimam. See PARS

Actio civilis in factum.VIIRHIS.

See

ACTIO

PRAESCRIPTIS

Actio civilis incerti. See ACTIO rRAEscRIPTls VERBIS. Actio commodati. See colt MODATUM. Actio communi dividundo. Action among co-owners for tlivision of common property. Along with this primary function, the c~c-tioserved for the settlement of ~111other controversial questions that might arise from common ownership, e.g., from unequal distribution of profits froni, or expenses on, the common thing. The ocfio belongs to the category of IUDICIA B O N A E FIDEI;thus the judge had the possihility of taking into acco~ultand atljusting the various reciprocal liabilities anlong the co-owners (procstafioncs personal~~).--D. 10.3 ; C . 3.37 ; 38.-See cow M U N I O , COMMUNIS, SOCIETAS, DIVISIO, ACTIONES DUPLICES,ADIUDICATIO.

Actio de eo quod certo loco. If someone promised by STII'ULATIO a perforniance at a certain place, the creditor could sue-him onlv there since the fi~lfillment of the ol~ligation another place niight l)e more exat pensive to the debtor. By this praetorian action the judge was given the possil~ilityof taking into account the difference. The action is also ter~netlcirhifraria for a reason which is not quite clear; its classical formula hat1 not the arbitrium-clause which was the characteristic feature of the so-called A C T I O N I : ~ A R B I TRARIAE.-D. 13.4; C. 3.18.-See P1,u~rs PETIT10LOCO.

4 . Berger, Z u r E~~tz~~ickl~tr~gs~rscI~icI~fc der Trilutzgsklayer~ klassischert rciqrl. R r c h f , 1912; Albertario, Strtdi 4 (1946, ex 1913) 167 ; Arangio-Ruiz, R I S G 52 (1912) 223 ; Biondi, A ~ t P r r .1913; Ein, B I D R 39 (1931) 73 ; Frezza, K I S C 7 (1932) 3.ittt

G. v. Reseler, Etlicfrrrct de eo qrrod certo loco, 1907; Dumas, N R N D 34 (1910) 610; Arangio-Ruiz, B I D R 25 (1912) 130. 26 (1913) 147; Biondi, AnPal 1 (1916) 19; idem, B l n R 26 (1913) 5, 153; Lenel, Z S S 37 (1916) 121 ; Reseler, T R 8 (1928) 326; S. G. Huwardas, Bcitriigc zrtr Lelrre von derr ncfioncs arl>ifmrine,1932 ; Astuti, AtzCnrrr 11, 2 (1937) 157; L. LVenger, Irtstitrrfes of fltr R . la7w of civil proccd~tre, 1940, 151 ; Biscardi, StScrz 60 (1948) 656 (Bibl.) ; D'Ors, R I D A 4 (1950) 435.

Actio conducti. See LOCATIO CONDUCTIO. Actio confessoria. See VINDICATIO SERVITUTIS,FESSIO I N IURE.

CON-

Actio constitutoria. See CONSTITUTUM. Actio curationis causa utilis (iudicium curationis utile). The name given by Justinian to the action granted the curator of a winor for recovery of expenses or losses he had incurred in connection with the management of the ward's affairs.-See MINORES,CURATOR M I N O R I S .

Actio de in rem verso. See P E C U L I U M . Actio de mod0 agri. If land is transferred I)y M A N C I PATIO the transferee has this clctio against the transferor if the area of the transferred land proves to be less than asserted by the former owner. The latter must pay double the proportionate part of the price.Cuq, D S 3, 1958.

Actio damni infecti. See D A M N U M INFECTUM. Actio de aestimato. See AESTIMATUM. Actio de albo corrupto. Action for spoiling, damaging or falsifying the praetorian edict promulgated on the ALBUM. The actio is penal, in factli~n,and popular. See ACTIONES I N F A C T U M , ACTIONES POPULARES, ALBUM, EDICTUM. Actio de arboribus succisis. See ACTIO ARBORUMFURTI M CAESARUM.

Actio (iudicium) de moribus. The action of a husband against his wife in case of divorce for misconduct. The actio, which in ancient times may have been merely a criminal accusation, is penal in character and, under certain circumstances, may cause the divorced wife to lose her whole dowry. The action was abolished by Justinian.-C. 5.17.Klingmiiller, R E 9 (s.v. iudiciurn, de ~ t . ;) Cuq, D S 3, 2001 ; Wolff, Z S S 54 (1334) 315 (Bibl.) ; Volterra, R I S G 85 (1948) 115.

Actio de deiectis vel effusis. A praetorian action against a householder for throwing things or pouring liquids from his dwelling, so as to harm people on the street. The householder is responsible also if his slave, guest, or child did so. Justinian listed such cases among obligations which arise "as if from a e delict" (obligafionesqwae qz~nsi x delicto nascuntur). Similar responsibility arose when things were located or suspended on the outside of a house or in a window in such a way as to endanger passers-by. The pertinent action was actio de positis ac suspensis. -See I-IOSPES.Fioretti, N D I 5 (s.et. effusa) ; G. A. Palazzo, Obbligazioni quasi e x delicto, 1919.

Actio de pastu pecoris. Action for damage caused by another man's cattle grazing on the plaintiff's property. Belongs to the category of ACTIONES NOXALES.-See NOXA.Fliniaux, M i l Cortzil 1 (1926) 245 ; Carrelli, AnBari 2 (1939) 3.

Actio de pauperie. Action for damage done by a domestic four-footed animal (qundrupes) . Its owner had either to compensate for the damage ( j a u p e r i e s ) or surrender the animal ( n o x a e dedere). See NOXA. Justinian extended the actio to another case of liability of animal owners. Keeping a dog or a savage animal near the road was prohibited by the edict of the aediles and the injured victim was entitled to redress. Justinian granted an actio de pauperie in such a case in addition to the aedilician action.Robbe, N D I 9 (s.21.pauperies) ; Haymann, Z S S 42 (1921) ; E. Levy, Konkurrenz der Aktionen, 2, 1 (1922) 225; Biondi, AnPal 10 (1925) 3 ; Kerr Wylie, S t . Riccobono 4 (1936) 459 ; Robbe, R I S G N.S. 7 (1932) 327 ; Lenel, Z S S 47 (1937) 2 ; Visconti, S t . Solmi 1 (1941) 157; Dull, Z.SS 61 (1941) 1 ; Condanari-Michler, Fschr Wenyer 1 (1944) 236.

Actio de dolo. See ACTIO DOLI. Actio de dote (dotis). In some interpolated passages the name for the action for recovery of a dowry (actio rei uxoriae) , thoroughly reformed by Justinian. -See DOS.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF ROMAN LAWActio Fabiana. See ACTIO CALVISIANA. Actio familiae (h)erciscundae. Action among coin heirs (COHEREDES) order to bring about division of the coinnlon property inherited.-D. 10.2 ; C. 3.36 ; 38.-See DIVISIO, FAMILIA.Frezza, N D I 1; Sciascia, AG 132 (1945) 75; seeCOhlhlUNI DIVIDUNDO.

Actio de peculio. See PECULIUM. Actio de pecunia constituta. See CONSTITUTUM. Actio de positis ac suspensis. See ACTIO DE DEIECTIS VEL EFFUSIS. Actio de rationibus distrahendis. Action for double damages against a guardian guilty of embezzlement ; it was available only after the termination of the guardianship.-D. 27.3.Sachers, R E 7A, 1563; Solazzi, Rend Lomb 50 (1917) 178; 53 (1920) 121; Levy, Konkurrenz der Aktionen 2, 1 (1922) 247.

ACTIO

Actio de servo corrupto. See ACTIO SERVI CORRUPTI. Actio de termino moto. Action against the persofi who intentionally removed and set at another place a boundary stone in order to change the boundary of a landed property to the prejudice of the owner. Such an action could be brought by any citizen.-See TERM I N U M MOVERE, ACTIONES POPULARES. Actio de tigno iuncto. See T I G N U M IUNCTUM. Actio de universitate. A postclassical name for HEREDITATIS PETITIO.E. Albertario, Studi 4 (1946) 65.

Actio fiduciae. See FIDUCIA. Actio finium regundorum. Action between neighbors to settle a dispute over the boundaries (fines) of their lands. The judge (an arbitrator, often an expert land-surveyor = agrimensor) could transfer a piece of land from one party to another into full ownership (ADIUDICATIO) 10.1 ; C. 3.39. . D.Humbert, DS 2 (s.v. finiuuz reg. a . ) ; Arangio-Ruiz, B I D R 32 (1922) 5; Buckland, R H D 15 (1936) 741.

Actio funeraria. The praetor granted an action to a person who arranged a funeral at his own expenses without being obliged to do so. The heir who did not fulfil his duty of piety towards the deceased because of negligence or absence, was liable.-D. 11.7; C. 3.44.-See FUNUS, SUMPTUS FUNERUM.Cuq, D S 2, 1405; De Francisci, Fil 40 (1915) ; idenz, AnPer 32 (1920) ; E. Levy, Privatstrafe urad Schadensersatz, 1915, 33; Donatuti, S D H I 8 (1942) 18.

Actio depensi. A 'surety by SPONSIO who paid the principal debtor's debt because the latter failed to do so, had an actio depensi according to the Lex Publilia (about 200 B.c.) if within six months after the payment he was not reimbursed by the principal debtor. -See SPONSIO.Eisele F., Beitrage zur rom. Rcchtsgesch., 1896, 25.

Actio depositi. See DEPOSITUM. Actio doii (de dolo). Action for fraud (dolus, dolus malus), introduced by the praetor Aquilius Gallus in 66 B.C. In the praetorian edict, it wasgenerally promised for restitution of damages by the following announcement: "When acts are alleged to have been done dolo malo (by fraud), if there is no other action available in such a case and there appears to be just cause, I shall grant an action" (D. 4.3.1.1). Its applicability was gradually extended, even in Justinian's law. Actio doli belongs to the category of ACTIONES I N FACTUM; is of penal character, init faming, limited to one year (after Constantine to three years) from the time the fraud was committed, and available only when no other remedy, particularly a contractual one, could be applied. Because of its general applicability the actio is called by Cicero "a drag-net of all ill-will" (De nut. deorzun 3.30.74:.F. Litten, Festg. K . Giiterbock, 1910, 255; G. Maier, Priitorische Bereicherungsklagen, 1932, 35 ; F. Palumbo, L'azione di dolo, 1935; Buckland, L Q R 55 (1939); G. Longo, Contributi alla dottrina del dolo, 1937.

Actio furti. See FURTUM. Actio furti concepti. See FURTUM CONCEPTUM. Actio furti non exhibiti. See FURTUM N O N EXHIBI- TUM. Actio furti oblati. See FURTUM CONCEPTUM. Actio furti prohibiti. See FURTUM PROHIBITUM. Actio hypothecaria. See HYPOTHECA. Actio incerti. ACTIO EX STIPULATU and ACTIO EX TESTAMENT~ have sometimes the addition incerti. Actio civilis incerti is a Justinian creation.-See ACTIO PRAESCRIPTIS VERBIS, LEGATUM, STIPULATIO.De Villa, A.i. 1932; Giffard, S D H I 3 (1938) 152; idem, R H D 16 (1937) 670.

Actio in iudicem qui litem suam facit. See IUDEX QuI, etc. Actio iniuriarum. See INIuRIA. Actio institoria. See INSTITOR. Actio institutoria. See ACTIO QUAE INSTITUIT OBLIGATIONEM.

Actio dotis. See ACTIO DE DOTE. Actio empti (ex empto). See EMPTIO. Actio ex stipulatu. See STIPULATIO. Actio ex testamento. Action of a legatee against the heir to enforce a legacy bequeathed per damnationenz or sinendi modo. See LEGATUM. Actio exercitoria. See EXERCITOR.

Actio interrogatoria. See INTERROGATIO. Actio iudicati. See IUDICATUM. Actio iurisiurandi. See I U R A M E N T U M VOLUNTARIUM. Actio legis Aquiliae. See LEX AQUILIA. Actio legis Plaetoriae. See LEX PLAETORIA. Actio locati. See LOCATIO CONDUCTIO. Actio mandati. See MANDATUM. Actio negatoria (negativa). Action brought by the owner of a landed property against anyone who, without denying the plaintiff's ownership, claimed a servitude or usufruct over his property. The aim of the actio was judicial recognition that the plaintiff has full ownership not encumbered by any right of the

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ADOLF BERGERSER-

[ T R A M . A M E R . PHIL.SOC.

defendant. See ACTIO PROHIBITORIA, VINDICATIO VITUTIS, CAUTIO DE N O V A M P L I U S TURBAXDO.

Arangio-Ruiz, Azioni confessorie e negatorie, 1908 ; Biondi, A n M e s 3 (1929) ; Bohacek, B I D R 44 (1937), 46 (1939).

Actio negotiorum gestorum. See NEGOTIORUM GESTIO. Actio oneris aversi. Action against the master of a ship for fraud committed in the delivery of cargo.P . Huvelin, Le Furtum (1915) 511 ; Solazzi, R D N a v 2 (1936) ; De Santis, S D H I 12 (1946) 89.

in the position to usucapt it. It is an actio ficticia, the fiction being that the plaintiff had already acquired full property by a completed zisucapio. The function of the actio Publiciana was the same as that of REI VINDICATIO, which, however, the plaintiff could not use because he had no quiritary ownership.D. 6.2.-See ACTIONES FICTICIAE, EXCEPTIO IUSTI DOMINII.LCcrivain, D S 4 (s.u. Publ. a.) ; Montel, N D I 10; Perozzi, B I D R 7 (1894) ; V. Seeler, Z S S 21 (1900) ; Pfliiger, ibid. 42 (1921) 469; Carrelli, S D H I 3 (1937) 20; De Sarlo, S t Solazzi (1948) 203.

Actio operarum. See OPERAE LIBERTI. INTERDICTUM Actio ~ a u l i a n a . See FRAUS,TORIUM.

FRAUDA-

Actio pigneraticia. See PIGNUS, HYPOTHECA. Actio praescriptis verbis. Not a classical term; the classical jurists speak of agere praescriptis verbis when "common and usual names of actions are lacking," that is to say, when the foundation of an action is a bilateral transaction for reciprocal performances which do not conform to the typical and recognized species of contracts. The name praescriptis verbis originates from the fact that in the respective formula the factual background of the action had to be described, praescriptis verbis rent gestam demonstrare. Justinian's collaborators created the term actio praescriptis vcrbis and extended the applicability of the action although the formulary procedure had been out oi use for centuries. It was qualified by Justinian as an actio bonae fidei and had a general function, being adaptable to very different legal situations in which the plaintiff after performing his duty claimed the performance of the reciprocal duty by the defendant. The terlilinology is not stable, the actio is also called actio civilis incerti, civilis i n fnctlim, and by other names.-D. 19.5; C. 4.64.

Actio quae instituit obligationem. Improperly called institutoria, a term unknown to the sources. If a woman intervened for another person by assuming a contractual obligation for him, her intercession being void, the praetor granted the creditor an action directly against the real debtor who personally was not obliged.-See INTERCESSIO, SENATUSCONSULTUM VELLAEAN U M.Bortolucci, A.q.i.o., 1915; Carelli, R I S G 12 (1937) 63; Beretta, R I S G N.S. 2 (1948) 367.

Actio quae restituit obligationem (restitutoria). When a creditor lost his actio against his debtor because of a novatory intercession by a lvonlan, the praetor granted him the primary action since the woman's intercession was void. See INTERCESSIO,

-

SENATUSCONSULTUM V E L L A E A N V M .

Carrelli, S D H I 3 (1937) 305; Beretta, R i S G 2 (1948) 368.

Actio quanti minoris. See EMPTIO.-D. 21.1.Pringsheini, Z S S 69 (1952) 234.

auasi institoria. See INSTITOR. quasi Serviana. See PIGNUS, HYPOTHECA. quod iussu. See IUSSUM. quod metus causa. See METI:S. Audibert, M i l . Ge'rardin, 1907; P . Meylan, Origine et rationibus distrahendis. See ACTIO DE RATIOnature de l'a.6.v. 1919: P. De Francisci. Svnallaoma. 1-2 - (1913/16) ; ~ r e t s c h m e r ,Z S S 59 (1939) 190; ~ h a y e r , NIBUS DISTRAHENDIS. Tulane L R 19 (1949) 62; P . Voci, Contratto (1946) 234. Actio recepticia. See RECEPTUM ARGENTARIT. Actio principalis. See ACTIONES DIRECTAE. Actio redhibitoria. See EMPTIO. Actio pro socio. See SOCIETAS.-Syn. I U D I C I U M SO- Actio rei uxoriae. See DOS. CIETATIS. Actio rerum amotarum. Action for recovery of Actio prohibitoria. An action similar to ACTIO NEGA- things stolen by the wife from her husband in view TORIA. Its existence in classical law is controversial. of an imminent divorce. The milder qualification "for It is assumed that its I N T E N T I O aims at recognition having taken things away" instead of "having stolen" of the plaintiff's right to forbid the defendknt to exer(furtunz) was chosen to avoid the infaming actio cise a certain right (servitude, usufruct) over the furti between husband and wife.-D. 25.2; C. 5.21.plaintiff's property. See VINDICATIO SERVITUTIS. See RETENTIONES DOTALES.Bortolucci, B I D R 21 (1909) ; R. Henle, Unus casus, 1915, 138 ; Eiondi, A n M e s 3 (1929). Zanzucchi, R I S G 42 (1906) ; 47 (1910) ; Icretschmar, ZSS 59 (1939) 199.

Actio Actio Actio Actio Actio

Actio protutelae. Action against a person who acts as a guardian ( p r o t ~ l t o r e ) without having been legally appointed.Peters, Z S S 32 (1911) 243; Solazzi, .4S 91 (1924) 150.

Actio Publiciana in rem. An honorary action (actio honoraria) createtl.l)y a praetor named Publicius and granted to the bonitary ( I N BONIS) owner of a thing for reclaiming property of which he has lost possession. The plaintiff has to prove only that he acquired the thing under conditions which put him

Actio rescissoria. In a few cases an action is granted for the annulment of a legal situation created by special circunistances, as in the case of the return of a soldier from captivity or of a person who had been ahsent in public service. By ])ringing this acfin within a year after their return, they could rescind the usucapion (rescinderr tfsltcapioncnz) achieved during their absence. See ABSENTES.Carrelli. S J l f I I 3 (1937) 20; P. Collinet, La ~ ~ a t l o c dcs c~ctions,1948, 457.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY O F ROMAN LAW SeeACTIO QUAE RESTITUIT OBLI-

345

Actio restitutoria.GATJONEM.

Actio Rutiliana. An action devised by the praetor Rutilius to the benefit of the purchaser of the property of a bankrupt debtor (bonorum emptor). For debts due to the latter, whose universal successor the bonorum emptor was, he sued in the name of the other (see INTENTIO), asks for condemnation in but his own name. Another actio granted to the bonorum emptor was the so-called actio Serviuna! by which he sued under the fiction "as if he were the heir" (ficto se herede) if the bankrupt died. See ACTIONES FICTICIAE, CONVERTERE, BONORUM VENDITIO. Actio sepulcri violati. A praetorian, penal action in case of violation of a grave.-D. 47.12; C. 9.19.See SEPULCRUM, VIOLATIO SEPULCRI. Actio sequestraria. See SEQUESTER. Actio servi corrupti (de servo corrupto). Action by a slave's master in case of his slave's corruption. Those liable were persons who persuaded the slave to commit robbery or some other crime, moral misconduct or luxury, to flee from his master, and the like, so that the slave became worse (deterior factus). The corruptor (instigator, sollicitator) is responsible only when he did it purposely (dolo malo). H e had to pay not only the lessening in value of the slave but also double damages done by the slave.-D. 11.3; C. 6.2.Kleinfeller, R E 4 ; Schiller, Columbia Law Rev. 30 (1930) 839 ; idem, St. Riccobono 4 (1936) 79.

Actio venditi. See EMPTIO. Actio vi bonorum raptorum. See VIS, RAPINA. Actiones adiectiliae qualitatis. See EXERCITOR NAVIS. Actiones aediliciae. Actions introduced bv the aedilician edict. They were concerned with the sale of slaves and animals (see EMPTIO) damages caused and by animals, see ACTIO DE PAUPERIE.-C. 4.58.-SeeEDICTUM AEDILIUM CURULIUM.

Actiones annales.

See

ACTIO TEMPORALES.

Beretta, RISG 2 (1948) 353.

Actiones arbitrariae. Actions the formula of which contained the so-called arbitrary clause authorizing the judge to bid the defendant by an arbitrium (arbitratus), an interlocutory order, to satisfy the defendant's claim by restoring or producing (exhibere) the object claimed ("nisi arbitrio tuo [of the judge] res restituatur, exhibeatur"). If the defendant did so, he was absolved; if not, the final judgment condemned him to pay a sum of money, which was more disadvantageous to him than the immediate fulfillment of the judge's order (he might be condemned to a higher amount, he had to pay a fourfold amount in the actio quod metus cazrsa [see METUS], inhe curred infamy in actio doli, etc.). It is controversial whether the words "arbitrio tuo" were in the formula and whether the term arbitrariae actiones was used by the classical jurists.Biondi, BIDR 26 (1913) 1, 153; idem, St sulle actiones arbitrariae e l'arbitrium iudicis, 1913; May, MBI Girard 2 (1912) 151; Lenel, Fschr Sohm, 1914, 201; Berger, K r V j 16 (1914) 122; Levy, Z S S 36 (1915) 1 ; R. Dull, Der Gutegedanke, 1931; M. Kaser, Restituere als Prozessgegenstand, 1932; G . Huwardas, Beitrdge zur Lehre -Jon den a.a., 1932 ; Herdlitczka, Zur Lehre vom Zwischenurtcil bei den a.a., 1930; idem, Skizzen zum rom. Zizrilprozess, 1934; Schonbauer, St. Riccobono 2 (1936) 371 ; F. Schulz, Class. R. Law, 1951, 37.

Actio Serviana. See PIGNUS, HYPOTHECA. Actio Serviana. Of the bonorum emptor, seeRUTILIANA, VENDITIO BONORUM.

ACTIO

Actio subsidiaria. An action granted to a ward against a municipal magistrate for having appointed an incapable guardian or having failed to demand adequate guarantee from the appointed guardian (see CAUTIO REM PUPILLI SALVAM FORE). Roman and provincial magistrates were not answerable under this action.-D. 27.8 ; C. 5.75.Sachers, R E 7A, 1581 ; E. Levy, Privatstrafe und Schadensersatz, 1915, 41 ; Brugi, Mil Girard 1 (1912) 143; Berger, K r V j 16 (1914) 84.

Actio tributoria. A praetorian action lying against a father or master whose son (or slave) doing commercial business with his peculium, contracted debts with the knowledge of the father (master), and the peculiunz subsequently became insolvent. The remainder of the peculitrm was to be shared proportionally among the creditors and the father (master) if anything was due to him. Claims on the part of the creditors that an unfair distribution has been made by the father (master) could be sued by actio tributoria.-D. 14.4. -See PECULIUM.L. Lemariti, De Pat., ThPse, Paris, 1910.

Actio tutelae. See TUTELA.-D. 27.3. Actio vectigalis (actio quae de fundo vectigali proposita est). See AGER VECTIGALIS.

Actiones bonae fidei. See IUDICIA BONAE FIDEI. Actiones (formulae) certae. Actions with a precisely specified object, sum of money or a thing, claimed by the plaintiff. Ant. actiones incertae. In the formulary procedure the object in dispute was defined in the INTENTIO of the formula. Hence the distinction: intentio certa and incerta. In the latter the plaintiff's claim is directed to "quidquid" ( = whatever it will appear that the defendant has to pay or do). Actiones civiles. Actions which protected rights recognized by the IUS CIVILE. Their origin lay in the Twelve Tables, in certain statutes or in the creative activity of the jurists. Ant. actiones honorariae, see ACTIONES PRAETORIAE, ACTIONES AEDILICIAE. Actiones contrariae. See ACTIONES DIRECTAE. Actiones directae. (1) Actions the formula of which could be extended through an appropriate modification to analogous factual circumstances, not covered by the original formula. The modified formula was an nc-tio utilis, as opposed to the original actio directa. (2) ~ c t i o n s rising from certain contracts a which normally created liability in one party, as, e.g.,

346

ADOLF BElensive condition under which the promise Was given was Committi fisco (or similar). T o incur a confiscation. -See C O M M I S S U M (in fiscal law). Commixtio. See COM MISCERE.

Commodator' See COMMODATUM. gratuitous loan of a thing (origiChmmodatumnally movables, later also immovables) to be returned by the borrower to the lender (commodator) on the terms fixed in the agreement or reasonably correLeonhard, R E 4 ; Humheft, D S 1 ; M. P . Charlesworth, sponding to the purpose of the loan. C o m m o d a f u ~ ~ ~ Trade routes and conatlterce in the R . Empire, Cambridge, 1926; 0.E, Powers, Studies k the commercial v o c a b u l ~ r ~ belongs to the so-called real contracts concluded by of early Latin, Chicago, 1944; Sautel, in Varia. Bt. de the delivery (re) of the thing and is governed by droit rom., Paris, 1952; Kaser, St Arangio-Ruiz 2 (1952) 171 bona jides. r\;orn~allyco7ilmodatum was to the ex- clusive benefit of the borrower; therefore his liability Comminatio. A threat applied by a magistrate to a for the use of the thing is extensive (diligentia, czis- party in a trial to the effeck that certain consequences todia). H e is not responsible for damages caused will result if his order is not followed, as, e.g., payto the thing by accidents beyond his control (casus). ment of interest if the debt is not paid at the date The lender had an action (actio cornmodati) against fixed.-C. 7.57. the borrower for the misuse or the return of the thing, Commiscere .(commixtio). To mingle things towhereas the borrower might sue with actio commo- gether. The product resulting from the mixing todafi contraria for the recovery of extraordinary ex- gether of materials belonging to different owners 'svas penses and for damages caused by the fault of the owned by them in common, when the materials were lender.-D. 13.6; C. 4.23.-See FIDUCIA C U M AMICO. of the same kind, or when they were of different but Leonhard, R E 4 ; Humbert, DS 1 ; C. Ferrini, Opere 3, inseparable sorts. 81; G. Segrh, S t Fadda 6 (1906) 313; R. De Ruggiero,LOl.

*

Pampaloni, B I D R 37 (1929) 38.

Commissoria lex. ( I n sales.) An additional clause in a sale (emptio vendifio) under which the seller had the right to rescind the contract if the buyer failed to pay the price or its remainder within a certain time.-D. 18.3.Leonhard, R E 4 ; Humbert, DS 1 ; F. Wieacker, Er-

B I D R 19 (1907) 5 ; Cicogna, ibid. 235; Schulz, GrZ 38 (1911) 12; J. Stock, Zuna Begriff der donatio, 1932; Pfliiger, Z S S 65 (1947) 121.

Commodum. Advantage, profit. Legal benefits, resulting from statutes or senatusconsulta are designated as commoda, similarly the rights connected with a certain legal situation (possession, ownership)

400

ADOLF BERGER

[TRANS. AMER. SOC. PHIL.

as well as proceeds, such as interest, wages, and the like. Ant. inconzmodum, onus. "It is natural that he who suffers the disadvantage of a thing should have also the profits thereof" (Inst. 3.23.3; D. 50.17.10). A similar saying is: "he who bears the risk should have also the profit." T h e rule applies to the contract of sale (emptio venditio) to the effect that the buyer who bears the risk (periculum) of deterioration, destruction or disappearance of the thing purchased but not yet delivered has the right to its products and increase after the conclusion of the sale.-see EMPTIO VENDITIO. Commodum re~raesentationis. See REPRAESENTARE. Commonitorium. A letter of reminding, an order. Comwtonitorium sacrum = an order of the emperor to an official.Seeck, R E 4.

the actio familiae ( h ) erciscundae. These divisory actions offer an opportunity for settling other controversies among co-owners, such as restitution of expenses made on the common thing by one coowner, equalization of profits and damages and the like (so-called praestationes personales) .-D. 10.2 ; ADIUDICATIO, IUS 3 ; C. 3.36; 3 7 ; 3 8 ; 4.52.-See PROHIBENDI, ACT10 C O M M U N I DIVIDUNDO, IUS ADCRESCENDI, N E M O INVITUS.Leonhard, R E 4 ; Biondi, NDI 4 ; A. Berger, Zur Entwicklunysgeschichte der Teilunysklagen, 1912 ; Bonfante, BIDR 25 (1912) ; Riccobono, Dalla communio del diritto quiritarjo, Oxford Essays in legal history, 1913; idem, Dal dirhtor rom. classico a1 dir. moderno. AnPal 3-4 (1917) ,165; Ein, BIDR 39 (1931) ; Branca, RISG 6 (1931) 215, 7 (1932) 247; Borettini, RISG 7 (1932) 459; J. Gaudemet, Le rkgime juridique de l'indivision en dr. rom., 1934; Solazzi, ANap 57 (1935) 127; Arangio-kuiz, La societd (Corso), 1950, 32; Ambrosino, SDHI 16 (1950) 188.

Communio sacrorum. See SACRA. Communis. (Adj.) A thing may be coiniizunis (common property) to all (see RES C O M M U N E S OMNIUM), Beseler, ZSS 44 (1924) 373 ; G. Donatuti, Le praesumpor belong to a corporate body (corpus, collegium) or tiones nal diritto row., 1930, 22; idem, Rivista di dir. prito two or more persons, res coinmunis (see COMvato 3 (1933) 198. MUNIO). Commune ( a noun) embrac$s all that sevCommunicare. T o share a thing with another by eral persons have in common. I t may be ownership, making him co-owner thereof or by dividing it or or another right, as superficies, ius in agro vectigali. its proceeds with him. I n the denomination of the actio communi dividundo, Communicare lucrum c u m damno. T o share profits commune is used in this large sense. Communis is and losses with another. This is a fundamental prinalso what is in the interest of more persons or the ciple of the contract of partnership (societas) except whole society (coinmunis utilitas) or .concerns more for losses caused by fraud or negligence of one of persons (communis culpa, periculunz) . Communia the partners. In relations among successors, espe(pl. noun) = rules which equally apply to similar cially when an heir was obliged to deliver the inherilegal institutions; several titles in the Code contain tance wholly or partially to a fideicom7nissarius, resuch common rules, as, e.g., conz~~zunia legatis et de ciprocal stipulations were made in order to guarantee fideicommissis (C. 6.43) .-see IUS COMMUNE, UTILIthe coilinion participation in profits and losses (de TAS. lttcro et damno commztnicando) . Communiter agere. T o act on behalf of more perCommunio. Common ownership. It arises when two sons or a corporation.-See STIPULATIO C O M M U N I S . or more persons buy or acquire through inheritance Comparare. s e e PARARE, COMPARATIO LITTERARUM. or legacy the same thing in common. They have Comparatio. A n agreement between colleagues in either equal or unequal shares thereof, the thing office concerning the division of competence or the remaining physically undivided (pro indiviso) . The assignment of the performance of a specific official co-owners have the same legal situation with referact to one of them.-See COLLEGAE. ence to the whole and participate according to their Comparatio litterarum. The comparison of handshares in the l)rotluces (fructus) and expenses. Each writings. Experts on handwriting (comfiaratores) of the111 niay freely dispose of his share but not bewere heard in a trial when doubts about the authenyond it. Ilivision of the common property becomes ticity of a written document arose. necessary when the co-owners disagree (comununio Compascere. T o exercise the right of conlmon pasest tnater rixarum = common ownership is the mother turage (ius compascendi, ius compascui) . of disputes). It is achieved I)y the actio comi~zuni Compatroni. Co-patrons who manumitted a common dividzrndo, or in the case of common inheritance by slave.

Commorientes. Persons who died in the same accident (e.g., a shipwreck). There were certain rules concerning the simultaneous death of parents who died together with their children: children below the age of puberty (impuberes) were presumed to have died before their parents, whereas children over that age (puberes) had to be considered dead after their parents. The rules, which probably originate in Justinian's law, had to be observed in the case of succession. Syn, simul (pariter) perire (decedere) . Ant. supervivere ( = to survive).

Communio incidens. The term is used in literature to indicate common ownership which arose without interference of the co-dwners, as in the case of an inheritance or legacy awarded to two or several persons who thu.; "fell in together into common property" ("incidimus in communionem") .Arangio-Ruiz, S t Riccobono 4 (1936) ,355 ; Donatuti, S t Albertario 1 (1952).

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401

Compendium. A profit. Syn. lucrurn, ant. dispendiuwz. Compensatio. Occurred in classical law when the judge on grounds of good faith (only in a bonae fidei iudicium) took into consideration what the plaintiff owed to the defendant from another transaction and condemned the defendant to pay the balance only if his debt was larger. Later a set off of reciprocal debts was available under certain circumstances through exceptio doli. The practice of the cognitio extra ordinem favored the development of the institution and thus it became a general form of extinction of obligations which operated even beyond the judicial courts. I n this final stage cowzpensatio worked ipso iure ( = by the force of law) and not ope exceptionis (through an exception) when reciprocal debts between two persons met together.-D. 16.2; C. 4.31. -See ARGENTARII, DEDUCTIO.Leonhard, R E 4; Humbert, D S 1 ; Biondi, N D I 3; Brassloff, ZSS 22 (1901) ; P. Kretschmar, Entzen'cklung der Combensation, 1907; Leonhard, M i l Girard 2 (1912) ; B. Biondi, La compensazione, AnPal 12 (1929) ; Solazzi, La compensazione' (1950) ; Kreller, Iura 2 (1951) 82.

legal instrument (a testament, a codicil, a stipulatio, a compromise, or a procedural formula). Componere controversiam. T o settle a dispute by a compromise. Compos mentis. Fresh of mind, mentally healthy. Ant. demens. Comprobare. See ADPROBARE. Syn. PROBARE. Compromissum (compromittere). An agreement of the parties to submit their controversy to an arbitrator (cornpromittere in aliquent de aliqua re). I t normally provided for the payment of a penalty by the defeated party defaulted in the fulfilment of the arbitrator's decision (pecunia cornprontissa) .-SeeARBITER E X COMPROMISSO.

Leist, R E 4; De Ruggiero, D E 1, 615; La Pira, St Riccobono 2 (1936) 187; Roussier, R H D 18 (1939) 167.

Comperendinatio. ( I n a criminal trial, particularly on extortion, rebetundue.) Compulsory division of the case into two proceedings (actio, prima, actio secunda). Voting took place at the end of the second hearing.-See LEX SERVILIA DE REPETUNDIS and the following item.Kipp, R E 4, 790; Balsdon, Papers of the British School of Rome, 1928, 98.

Comperendinus dies. The third following day. On that day after the appointment of the iudex the parties had to appear before him (in the legis actio proceedings) .-Syn. perendinus dies.Kipp, R E 4 (s.v. comperendinatio) ; Humbert, D S 2, 177 (s.7~. dies) ; Ferrini, N D I 3.

Competens. When applied to procedural elements as actio, iudex, poena, tribunal, etc., indicates the action, the judge, etc., pertinent (competent) to the specific case. Justinian's compilers often substituted the term cornpetens in place of the classical expression which in Justinian's time was obsolete because of the reformed organization of the procedure and administration of justice.Guarneri-Citati, Indice2 (1927) 19; Berger, KrlJj 1914, 142.

Computare. T o reckon, to include in an account (e.g., in quartatn Falcidiawz). Syn. calculus. Error computationis = ERROR CALCULI. Conatus. ( I n penal law.) An attempt LO commit a crime. The Roman jurists did not elaborate a general theory of the criminal attempt, nor did they establish any rule as to when an attempt should be punished. With regard to some crimes preparations made with criminal intent were declared to be liable to punishment (as, for instance, some cases under the Lex Cornelia de sicariis), with regard to others they were not. Nor is a clear distinction made between intent to commit a crime (consiliurn, voluntas sceleris) and an actual but unsuccessful attempt. However, juristic and literary texts distinguish between intended and not committed crimes (cogitata, non perfecta scelera) and those actually carried out (exitus, factunz, evenfus). In a rescript of Hadrian we read: "With regard to crimes intention is taken into consideration, and not the result (exitus)" (D. 48.8.14). Similarly a late imperial constitution of A.D. 397 (preserved in the Theodosian Code 9.26.1, but not accepted into Justinian's Code) contains, in connection with the Lex Iulia de awtbitu, the rule : "Statutes (the laws) punish equally a crime and the intention to commit it (sceleris voluntas) ." These dicta not only did not become a general rule but are even contradicted by other texts-in legal sources.See COGITATIO.Costa, I1 conato criminoso, BIDR 31 (1921) 20.

Competere. Actio cornpetit is used of actions which were granted by the ius civile, while praetorian actions are "given" ( a praetore dantur). When used with reference to other actions than those of ius civile the term may be frequently of compilatory origin.P. Kriiger, ZSS 16 (1895) 1; Guarneri-Citati, Ittdicc2 (1927) 19; Vinci, AnCat 2 (1948) 365.

Concedere. T o concede, to grant another a right (e.g., a servitude). Sometimes syn. with cedere. M7hen referring to a debt = to remit, to release from an obligation. Concepta verba. Appears in a text by Gaius (4.30) as synonymous with the fornzula in the formulary procedure.-See CONCEPTIO VERBORUM.Solazzi, Fschr Wenger 2 (1945) 54.

Competitor. ( I n later imperial constitutions.) An imperial official of the treasury charged with the seizure of goods submitted to confiscation. Syn. (sometimes) petitor. cornponere (compositio). T o draft the text 3f a

Conceptio. A conception. The time of conception is decisive for the personal status of the child. In classical law the child was free if at any time between the conception and the birth the mother was

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a free person. Similarly the time of conception is of importance in the doctrine of posthumous children (postumi), inasmuch as there was a difference according as the conception took place before or after the testament was made. Conceptio verborum. The drafting of a legally important oral declaration (an oath, a stipulation) or a written procedural instrument (formula, interdicturn, libellus). Conceptus. Conceived and not yet born. See CONCEPTIO. Syn. in utero esse. The law protects the interests of a child not yet born, in particular his rights of succession and for this purpose the child whose birth is expected (nascitttrus) is treated as if it were already born (pro nato habetur).-See POSTUMI, NASCITURUS.Albertario, S t 1 (1933) 3; Castello, S t Solazzi, 1948, 232; idcln, RID,4 4 (1950) 267; BastoSek, RID.4 2 (1949) 28.

Concilium manumissionum. An advisorv board of five senators and five equites constituted to examine the, reasonableness of exceptional manumissions (of slaves under thirty or when the master was under twenty). Such councils existed also in the provinces under the chairmanship of the governor. Concilium propinquorum. See CONSILIUM PROPINQUORUM. Concipere. See CONCEPTA VERBA, CONCEPTIO VERBORUM. CONCEPTIO. CONCEPTUS. Concordans matrimonium. (Syn. concordantes vir et uxor.) A marriage in which husband and wife live in perfect accord. The terms occur in connection with the ~roblemof whether the father of the wife may exercise his patria potestas in order to dissolve such a marriage.Volterra, R I D A 1 (1948) 232.

Concubina. See CONCUBINATUS. Concilia plebis. Assemblies of the plebs alone. They Concubinatus. A concubinage. The sources do not contain any definition of concubinatus. I t is a permet originally by curiae and later (LEX PUBLILIA manent, monogamous union of men and women not VOLERONIS) tribus (concilia plebis tributa) . Resoby legally married. It differs from marriage through lutions passed by the concilia plebis = plebiscita. the lack of AFFECTIO MARITALIS and of the honor Three statutes are cited in connection with the legismatrimonii (the social dignity of a woman living with lative power of the plebeian assemblies (LEX PUBa man in a legitimate marriage). Concubinatus was LILIA PHILONIS, VALERIA HORATIA, HORTENSIA) but not prohibited bv law and the LEX IULIA DE ADULthe extant evidence is not precise enough to admit TERIIS did not apply to persons living in concubinatus. of an exact understanding of their significance. The Restrictions which barred the conclusion of a valid last statute (287 B.c.) is the most concrete in this marriage were also binding with regard to concubiobscure history. The plebiscites were passed upon the motion of the plebeian tribunes.-See PLEBISCITA, natus. The relation did not produce any legal consequences. Justinian favored the transformation of T R I R U N I PLEBIS. the concubinatus into marriage by establishing the Kornemann, R E 4 ; Humbert, D S 1; Vaglieri, D E 2; G. W . Botsford, T h e Roman assemblies, 1909, ,119. presumption that a union with a free woman of honest life (honestae vitae) is considered a valid marriage Concilia provinciarum. Provincial assemblies comunless the parties declared in a written document posed of leading personages as representatives (lebefore witnesses that they were living in concubinatus. gati) of the various political entities in the prov-D. 25.7; C. 5.26.-See PAELEX. ince. The original purpose of these gatherings was Leonhard, R E 4 ; Baudry, D S 1 ; De Ruggiero, D E 2 ; of a religious character: to celebrate the cult of the P. M. Meyer, Der rom. Konkubinat, 1895; Costa, B I D R divinity of the emperor (Augustus) in the capital 11 (1900) 233; J. Plassard, Le concubinat rom. sous le of the province. Their activity developed considHatit-Elifpire, 1921; G. Castelli, I1 concubinato e la legiserably. They maintained a direct contact with the lazione Augustca, Scritti 1 (1923) 143; Bonfante, St Perozzi, 1925,283 ( =Studi 4,563) ; E. J. Jonkers, Inzdoed governor of the province through envoys and exervan lzet Christendom op de romeinsche wetgewing betrefcised a kind of control over his activity which might fend het concubinaat, 1938; C . Castello, I n tema di matriresult in a criminal prosecution of the governor at monio e concubinato nel mondo rom., 1940; Janeau, De Rome. In the second half of the third century they Padrogation des liberi naturales, 1947, 29. began to disappear. Concubitus. Coition. The term occurs in the classical Kornemann, R E Suppl. 4 (s.v. koinon = the Greek term rule concerning the conclusion of a marriage. Nupfor c.) ; E. G. Hardy, S t in R . history, 2nd ed., 1910, 235. tias non concubitus, sed consensus facit ( = consent, Conciliabulum. A settlement, a community of lesser not intercourse, constitutes marriage, D. 35.1.15; extent than a municipality (municipium) . The or50.17.30).-See MATRIMONIUM. NUPTIAE. gans of local administration were similar to those of Concurrentia delicta. See DELICTA CONCURRENTIA. a municipality, including an administrative council Concurrere. Said of actions which lie in favor of one (ordo decurionum). - Some conciliabula may have person for the same thing (de eadem' re). Actiones been important market places since conciliabulunz concurrentes are to be distinguished from actions often appears in connection with a FORUM.-See which arise from the same fact but have different MUNICIPIUM. aims, as for instance in the case of a theft, see FURSchulten, R E 4 ; Grenier, D S 5, 856. T U M . The claimant could sue only with one of the

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concurrent actions de eadem re according to the rule "if one was chosen the other is consumed" (D. 47.7.34 pr. ; D. 50.17.43 pr.). Leonhard, R E 4 ; Humbert, DS 1 ; Peters, Z S S 32 (1911)179; 1. Alibrandi, Del concorso delle azioni, Opere 1 (1896) ; E. Levy, Die Konkurrenz der Aktionen, 1-2, 1 (1918, 1922) ; Liebman, Azioni concorrenti, St Ratti, 1934; Naber, Mn 52-53 (1924-25) ; Betti, Istituzioni I' (1942) 335 (Bibl.).

defendant to pay a fixed sum. Ant. condemnatio incerta.-See CONDEMNATIO. Condemnatio cum deductione. See DEDUCTIO. Condemnatio incerta (incertae pecuniae). A condemnatio in which the sum is indefinite. Ant. condemnatio c e r t ~ . The condemnatio incerta is either unlimited or limited by a maximum (cu19a taxatione). Condemnatio in quantum facere potest. (Sc. the defendant.) A condemnation to what the defendant is able to pay.-See BENEFICIUM COMPETENTIAE. Condemnatio pecuniaria. A condemnatio to pay a sum of monei. The classical law did not admit of any other condemnation in a civil trial than a pecuniary one. In suits in which the plaintiff claimed the delivery of a specific thing an evaluation in money (see LITIS AESTIMATIO) necessary to make the was conversion into money in the condetnnatio possible, unless the defendant preferred to satisfy the plaintiff by the delivery of the thing in dispute before the judgment was passed.-See ABSOLUTORIUS.Pfaff, Juristische Vierteljahresschr., 18 (1902) 3 9 ; Schlossmann, IhJb 46 (1904) ; Levy, Z S S 42 (1921) 476; M. Nicolau and P. Collinet, RHD 15 (1936) 751; S. Riccobono, Jr., AnPal 17 (1937) 43; Wenger, Z S S 59 (1939) 316 ; Gioffredi, SDHI 12 (1946) 136 ; idem, Contributi a110 studio del process0 civ. ronz., 1947, 46; v. Liibtow, Z S S 68 (1951) 321.

Concursu partes fiunt. When the same thing (inheritance, legacy) or the same right' is assigned to several persons all share equally therein, unless the testator disposed otherwise. Concursus causarum. Occurs when a person to whom a determined .thing is due becomes owner thereof under a different title. The obligation to deliver the thing automatically becomes void, "because what is o