ERNST BARLACH 1870–1938

Schult, Friedrich,Ernst Barlach Werkverzeichnis, 3vols., Ham-burg, Germany: Hauswedell, 1958 (catalogue raisonne´)

Werner, Alfred,Ernst Barlach, New York: McGraw Hill, 1966

BAROQUE AND ROCOCOThe Baroque style gained sway in Italy in the first halfof the 17th century and spread throughout Europe andLatin America, with local variations, until the mid 18thcentury. The term was first applied to artworks sug-gesting the bizarre, asymmetrical, or irregular, begin-ning about 1730. The etymology has been much de-bated, but the word “Baroque” probably comes fromthe Portuguese adjectivebarrueca, which describes anirregularly formed pearl.

As has happened with other art styles, by the timethe characteristics of Baroque were described, duringthe Neoclassical era in the second half of the 18th cen-tury, its aesthetic ideals were already outdated. Ac-cordingly, the term was used in a pejorative sense todesignate a capricious art, a bad taste that did not re-spect the Classical rules and was thus antithetical tothe ideals of Neoclassicism. Today, Baroque has beenreappraised on the basis of thorough scholarly studiesand is seen in its proper historical and artistic context.

Baroque art was born in Rome in the early 17thcentury when the Roman Catholic Church was past itsCounter-Reformation phase. The papal state, reaf-firming its authority as a political and religious power,had decided that art was to be a principal means ofpersuading and involving believers. The result was anew, prestigious recognition of the artist’s role and anotion of art as a rhetorical instrument. In fact, Baroqueart, like 17th-century poetry, was a rhetorical art parexcellence. It used metaphors, allegories, and technicaland stylistic devices to captivate and convince theviewer. It no longer sought to edify and instruct thefaithful, but to involve them by appealing to the senses,rather than the intellect. This does not mean that Ba-roque artists were not educated and erudite. To thecontrary, underlying the great fascination of theirworks were careful, scientific studies of which theviewer was not supposed to be aware. GianlorenzoBernini’s Baldacchino (1623–34) and colonnade(1656–67) at St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome were theoutcome of long, in-depth technical, architectonic, andscenographic studies intended to make them seem per-fectly natural and harmonious in their settings despitetheir enormous dimensions. In fact, optical illusion,which requires scientific study by the artist and givesthe observer immediate enjoyment, was one of Ba-roque’s favored means of expression.

Furthering this aspiration to involve the faithfulemotionally and in parallel with the fledgling disci-pline of Christian archaeology—which sought to re-

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cover the history, artistic documents, relics, and monu-ments of early Christianity—Baroque iconographygave preference to the glories of saints and martyrsand their divine ecstasies and mystical visions. It wasalso a response to Protestant criticism, in that it reaf-firmed the legitimacy of the Roman Catholic Church’suse of images and her continuity with the early Chris-tian Church. In her aspiration to represent the divineand the supernatural, the Church opened the way tothe imagination and eventually arrived at a sumptuousand magniloquent self-celebration that accurately re-flected the image ofEcclesia Triumphans(ChurchTriumphant) that the papacy wished to hand down.

Baroque art was thus born in Rome in the contextjust described, but spread fast and wide across Europeand Latin America, often following the routes takenby the Jesuit order. In France and many other countries,the style was related to the monarchy, rather than thepapacy, but some of its basic guidelines remained unal-tered. In addition, in this case Baroque reaffirmed art’srhetorical power and its power of persuasion evenwhen it served different ideals.

The new role of art as a rhetorical instrument stimu-lated sculptors to reach a very high level of technicalskill and master a variety of materials and workingmethods. Many Baroque sculptors knew how to workmarble, bronze, stucco, and papier maˆche, and theyworked simultaneously on widely differing commis-sions: restoring ancient works and designing and exe-cuting procession floats, monuments, bronzes, andtable decorations.

Baroque sculpture had an undisputed protagonist:Gianlorenzo Bernini. In hisApollo and Daphne(1622–24) andDavid (1623) in the Galleria Borghesein Rome, and in the Throne of St. Peter (1656–66) inSt. Peter’s Basilica, Bernini established Baroque’smost successful and typical themes. Because the fig-ures’ movements were perceived as natural and theyseemed to have been captured in a fleeting moment,his sculptures established a new relationship with theviewer.

Bernini drew on a variety of models ranging fromcontemporary and Renaissance painting to Roman andHellenistic sculpture, and he had the extraordinarytechnical skill needed to put in practice his new wayof conceiving sculpture in pictorial terms. Togetherwith his familiarity with different techniques and mate-rials, he was able to create works in which painting,sculpture in the round, bas-relief, and decoration werejoined in amirabile composto, a wondrous compound.

A few sculptors working in Rome in the early 17thcentury offered cues to the new Baroque generation.Among them were Nicolas Cordier, from Lorraine, andthe Venetian Camillo Mariani. Cordier’s virtuosity andhis fine capacity for penetration in portraits were

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Gianlorenzo Bernini,Apollo and Daphne Bettmann / CORBIS

suggestive for Baroque artists like Giuliano Finelli andDomenico Fancelli. Mariani contributed to the successof a Venetian taste that began to interest sculptors andpainters working in Rome around 1620. In sculpture,this meant opening to pictorial rhythms and seekingto create light effects on the forms—suggestions thatwere taken up by the Tuscans Pietro Bernini and Fran-cesco Mochi.

Pietro Bernini’s culture, his acceptance of Mariani’sluminist novelties, and his study of Hellenistic andRoman models were starting points for his son Gian-lorenzo. Mochi was a different, more complex figure.His first masterpiece was the OrvietoAnnunciation(1603–09), a group of two freestanding statues linkedtogether by a studied light effect. Mariani’s influenceis evident in the transparent flesh and in the searchfor soft light effects, whereas his Mannerist culture isexpressed in stylistic and technical refinements alreadyunderstood in a new way, although perhaps not yettruly Baroque.

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The St. Veronica(1629–40) Mochi carved for oneof the four piers in St. Peter’s Basilica is closer to thenew style. The will to challenge the solidity of marbleand draw from it light, thin drapery suspended in theair reveals Mariani’s influence, but the windswept dra-pery is an altogether new motif:St. Veronicais theonly one among the four statues of the crossing whoseems about to invade the viewer’s space. Preciselybecause of her unrestrained movement and windsweptdrapery, Bernini seems not to have liked theSt. Veron-ica, which goes to show how artistic enterprises basedon similar research but different aesthetic ideals andsenses of decorum could coexist in what we generi-cally call Baroque.

Within the vast Baroque movement, it is possibleto identify different trends, such as the Baroque Classi-cism that saw particular success in France but had itstwo most celebrated practitioners, Franc¸ois du Ques-noy and Alessandro Algardi, in Rome. Both workedwith or alongside Bernini but did not let themselvesbe much influenced by him. Like Andrea Sacchi andNicolas Poussin, they were interested in a different—more lyrical, meditated, and calm—way of telling sto-ries. Among other contributions, Algardi was the firstto investigate the potential of relief (such asPope LeoDriving Attila from Rome[1646–53] in St. Peter’s Ba-silica), a genre that may not have satisfied Bernini be-cause of “his desire for spatial interpenetration be-tween sculpture and reality” (see Wittkower, 1958).After Algardi set an example, relief enjoyed great suc-cess and was often preferred to painting. In general,during the Baroque age sculpture was held in very highconsideration, often higher than paintings and evenhigher than in Michelangelo’s day.

One of Bernini’s most talented pupils was Finelli,who soon moved to Naples and, together with CosimoFanzago, inaugurated the Baroque season in that city.After the first generation, the principal sculptors work-ing in Rome during the 1650s were Ercole Ferrata, hispupil Melchiorre Caffa`, Antonio Raggi, and DomenicoGuidi. Raggi quickly assimilated Bernini’s teachings,especially his late, more fervent and spiritual style,whereas Ferrata preferred the lyrical Classicism ofAlgardi.

Caffaand Guidi showed, in different ways, the firstsigns of the slow decline of the most genuine Baroqueideals. In the works of Guidi, the academic mannerundermined the rhetorical force of the first Baroqueartists. Caffa` opened the way to a sweeter, more senti-mental sculpture, one capable of new subtleties des-tined to find full expression in the 18th century. Theseand other Baroque sculptors and painters went to workoutside Rome, but only toward the end of the 17thcentury could Bologna, Genoa, Florence, and Venicevaunt their own schools of Baroque sculpture.

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Rome’s artistic supremacy waned toward the endof the century when the papal state began losing au-thority in the new balance of European political power,and France affirmed its cultural power. The FrenchAcademy was established in Rome in 1666, and Frenchsculptors flocked to it. Many participated in majorRoman enterprises. Pierre Legros and Pierre-E´ tienneMonnot collaborated with Camillo Rusconi on theApostlesfor the Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano,Rome, and with Jean-Baptiste The´odon, Legros, andothers on the altar of St. Ignatius at the Church ofthe Gesu`, Rome. Their style, like that of the Italiansworking in the early 18th century, is generally calledLate Baroque: the sense of dramatic unity was sup-planted by a more verbose and redundant languagewhere the dynamism of Bernini and his most faithfulfollowers was cooled by a graceful Classicism. Frenchgracefulness filtered into the work of Filippo dellaValle, one of the last representatives of Italian Ba-roque, which was already evolving into the new Ro-coco ideas. Della Valle, who had trained with GiovanniBattista Foggini in Florence and Rusconi in Rome,developed an elegant, sophisticated language that waspartial to the sentimental and extremely graceful. Ifone wishes to speak of what was no more than a blandRococo trend within Roman sculpture, Della Valle,Pietro Bracci, and a few others would have to be men-tioned. The last important collective enterprise was theTrevi Fountain (mid 18th century), where late Baroqueand a timid Rococo merge in the huge rocaille shelland in Bracci’s gracefulNeptune(1722).

To see more complete expressions of Rococo, onemust leave Italy for other countries. France had a floridBaroque season that was perhaps best defined by thework of Francois Girardon, Antoine Coysevox, andPierre Puget. Their work depended closely on the royalcourt’s choices. Girardon, who produced a sophisti-cated, Classicist Baroque, was preferred over Coyse-vox for nearly the entire 17th century. Protected byimportant people at court, he received the most presti-gious commissions in Paris and at Versailles. Coyse-vox, who worked in a more dynamic and daring sculp-tural style, managed to gain sway only toward the endof the century. His decorations, like the plaster reliefof The Triumph of Louis XIV(1681–83) in the Chaˆteaude Versailles, and his busts, which owed much to the“speaking” portraiture conceived by Bernini, areamong the most daring specimens of French Baroque.At the same time that Coysevox’s inventiveness wasbeginning to be appreciated, Puget managed to gethimself called to court. Puget, more than any of theother French sculptors, had assimilated the Italianstyle. He had trained in Rome and Florence with thepainter Pietro da Cortona, with whom he collaboratedat Palazzo Pitti (1643), and in 1666 he opened a shop

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in Genoa. There he met Filippo Parodi, a talented pupilof Bernini’s, and left what was perhaps his most fasci-nating work, aSaint Sebastian(1664–68, which wasinspired by Bernini’sDanielof 1655–60) in the Churchof Santa Maria di Carignano. Even his late works, suchas Milo of Croton (ca. 1671–82) andAlexander andDiogenes(1670–89), show frequent borrowings fromBernini and Algardi transfigured in an incisive stylerich in dynamism and pathos.

Knowledge of the great Roman and French Baroqueartists also underlies the art of the first Baroque Ger-man sculptors, such as Matthias Rauchmiller, but out-standing artists such as the Germans Balthasar Per-moser and Andreas Schlu¨ter and the Austrian JohannBernhard Fischer von Erlach did not appear until the1680s and 1690s. Permoser had been in Rome, Flor-ence, and Venice, and his sculptures for the altar inthe old Dresden court show how he had assimilatedBernini’s teachings.

Fischer von Erlach studied for 15 years in Rome,where he came in contact with important figures suchas Bernini, Carlo Fontana, and the critic Bellori. Heserved as court architect in Vienna and wrote a historyof architecture. ThePlague(orTrinity) Column(1682–94; Vienna) reveals his profound culture and his bentfor a sumptuous and sophisticated Baroque style closeto Rococo. Schlu¨ter, the court sculptor in Berlin, hadlikewise studied in Italy. His art combined his studiesof the Italian sculptors (Mochi, Bernini, and Algardi)and the French (Coysevox) with a great capacity forsynthesis, as can be seen in the equestrian monumentto Frederick Wilhelm (1697–98; Berlin), where the re-alism and the sentimental tone proper to the Germantradition are skillfully harmonized with the foreignmodels.

In England the new style was heralded by NicholasStone, who rose to become the leading mason-sculptorabout 1625. Initially intrigued by the style of the Fon-tainebleau school, then studying the ancient workspresent after 1630 in Charles I’s collection, Stone grad-ually succeeded in renewing the models of local tradi-tion and opened the way to new artistic endeavors.His son John followed in his footsteps, and one of theassistants in John’s shop was the Danish sculptor CaiusGabriel Cibber, who moved to England before 1660.In his youth Cibber had traveled in Italy, and hisknowledge of Italian Mannerist and Baroque sculptureshows up in his most important English works, suchas the allegorical bas-relief on the 1673–75 Monumentto the Great Fire of London (also known asCharlesII Coming to the Assistance of the City) and the free-standing tomb of Thomas Sackville (1677). In the lat-ter, the life-size figures of the parents mourning thedeceased direct the viewer’s eye toward the center ofthe monument with a device that was typically Ba-

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roque but exactly the opposite of the Bernini school’stendency to make sculptures explode into space. TheDutch part of Cibber’s background and his apprecia-tion of Mannerist sculpture prevented him from adher-ing to the triumphant rhetoric of Bernini-style Baroque,but his English contemporary John Bushnell flauntedit by adopting the most striking but superficial aspectsof Bernini’s teaching. The Mocenigo monument (ca.1660–63) testifies to Bushnell’s sojourn in Italy, butalmost certainly he also traveled to Rome, because hisstyle—as exemplified in the monument to John, Vis-count Mordaunt of Avalon (1675), and the monumentto William Ashburnham and his wife (1675)—revealsa good knowledge of Roman Baroque art. Howeverone may judge Bushnell’s artistic results, his impor-tance in the history of English sculpture was funda-mental, for “he was the first English artist to show anyknowledge of Baroque sculpture” (see Whinney 1988).

The Spanish Baroque expressed a more popular andgenuine religious devotion. In Spain, the new style wasindependent enough of Italian art to create some of itsown characteristics:pasos, which are statues devotedto stories from the Passion and designed to be carried inprocession; theretablo, which is a large, architecturalpanel divided into compartments; and thetranspar-ente, which is a tabernacle containing the host.

The new style appeared in the first half of the 17thcentury in painted wooden sculptures carved by Gre-gorio Ferna´ndez in Castille, Juan Martı´nez Montan˜esin Seville, and Alonso Cano in Granada. Starting fromthe Italian Mannerist tradition known in Spain fromthe works of Pompeo Leoni and Pietro Torrigiani, Fer-nandez and Montan˜es opted in the second decade fora more passionate and complex modeling of volumesand a more marked chromatism that augmented theexpressive force of their works. Ferna´ndez developeda high-level style that was extremely incisive and ex-pressive, rich in pathos and overflowing with emotion,as in hisPieta (1616; Museo Nacional de Escultura,Valladolid). Montanes’s style was more sober and ele-gant, and his emotion less flaunted, although he man-aged equally high dramatic effects, as in the Santi-ponce retable (1609; Monastery of Sant’Isidoro delCampo, Seville). Although Montan˜es had been in con-tact with Velazquez and Pacheco, Alonso Cano hadbeen the latter’s pupil and was a painter and architectas well as a sculptor. His retable in the Lebrija Church(1629–31; Seville) displayed an original style charac-terized by delicate idealization, as far from Ferna´n-dez’s realism as from Montan˜es’s dramatic effects. Hiswooden figures are painted in refined and preciouscolors and often appear composed and lost in thought.These features are accentuated in his last, very sweetcreations, theVirgin of the Immaculate Conception(1655–56; Granada Cathedral) and theSt. Diego de

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Alcala (ca. 1653–57; Palace of Charles V, Granada).Cano’s elegant example was to be developed in thesecond half of the century by his pupils Pedro de Menaand Jose´ de Mora.

Starting in the mid 17th century with the arrival ofthe Bourbons, the artistic and cultural multicentrismcharacteristic of early Spanish Baroque was put to adifficult test. The foundation of the Academia de Bel-las Artes de San Fernando in Madrid encouraged theformation of a new generation of artists but had reper-cussions on workshops in the provinces. Two schoolsthus developed: one continued the tradition of poly-chrome wooden sculpture, and the other engenderedan official art that preferred marble.

At around this time the celebrated Churriguera fam-ily of sculptors and architects came to the fore. Work-ing in Salamanca and Madrid, they created a style oftheir own in which decorative elements covered all thesurfaces. The wooden altar of St. Eustace (1693–96;Jesuit Church, Salamanca) is one of the masterpiecesthat reveal a knowledge of Bernini motifs, which theChurriguera family interpreted in the exuberant plater-esque style of decoration. So great was their fame thatit gave rise to a new word,churriguerismo, designatingthe decoratively rich work typical of the Spanish Ba-roque.

Narciso Tom was the artist who reached the peakof Spanish ornamental exuberance in theTransparenteof the Cathedral of Toledo (1732). The work was de-signed to enable the congregation to see inside the tab-ernacle of the host by surreal lighting obtained by cut-ting a hole in the ceiling of the deambulatory so thatthe sun’s rays could penetrate from above. The hostwas framed by a cohort of angels flanked by decoratedcolumns and surmounted by a sculptural group of theLast Supperand theAscension of the Virgin. The per-fect harmony and blending of architecture, sculpture,and painting in an ensemble of curved and wavy lines,polychromy, and the use of different materials height-ened the scenographic effect of this extraordinarywork, which owes much to Bernini’s devices but alsoreveals new ideas that came to be prized in the Rococostyle.

In Spain in the late 17th and early 18th century, theinfluence of the Italian tradition was joined by the newFrancophile taste imported by the Bourbons. ManyFrench sculptors, including Rene Fre´min (a pupil ofGirardon), Jean Thierry (a pupil of Coysevox), andJacques Bousseau, were brought in to work on theroyal residence of Sant’Ildefonso, known as theGranja. The relationship between garden and palace,sculpture and architecture, was patterned closely on theVersailles model; the interior is sumptuously decoratedand the garden is dotted with mythological statues and

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fountains, giving rise to a complex in which Baroqueand Rococo were already cohabiting.

In the meantime, Versailles, which had subscribedto Girardon’s elegant Classicism and then to Coyse-vox’s lively Baroque, gave birth to the new Rococostyle. Just as Baroque was the style of the Roman Cath-olic Church in the 17th century, Rococo was the styleof the French court in the 18th century. Restorationsand new projects at Versailles came at the dawn ofthis new climate, which found its first expression inPierre Lepautre’s interior decorations.

Like Baroque, the term Rococo was coined in apejorative sense during the Neoclassical era. It derivesfrom the Frenchrocaille, a type of garden and grottodecoration featuring a shell motif. Rococo was consid-ered a late degeneration of Baroque, but it was a style inits own right with its own identifiable characteristics.Many Late Baroque motifs flowed into Rococo, butthey were reinterpreted in a different way. Often thetwo styles coexisted in a single architectural complex,as in the Spanish example of Granja, or contaminatedeach other, especially in places where the Baroque wasassimilated more slowly.

The new Rococo sensibility materialized first inFrench architecture (palaces and private residences)but found its most felicitous expression in internal dec-oration and gave new importance to the “minor” arts(porcelain, silver, furniture, and mirrors). It retainedthe Baroque rhetorical aspect of enjoyment and illu-sion, accentuating the importance of ornament, grace-fulness, and elegance. Sculpture acquired a specialrole. Except for examples such as Guillaume I Cous-tou’s Horses Restrained by Grooms(1739–45; Muse´edu Louvre, Paris) and Robert Le Lorrain’s great relieffor the Hotel de Rohan (1740), large dimensions wereeither banned or reserved for parks and fountains.

Rococo preferred different materials for differentuses: lead for fountain sculptures (because with waterits delicate shine creates precious light effects); porce-lain, Chinese lacquer, and precious materials for smallsculptures (because they are glossy, fragile, and richin light); and stucco for interior decoration (becauseits softness and ductility could well express the grace-fulness dear to Rococo). Porcelain was used for smallobjects that formed a separate genre of knickknackswith no meaning other than the sentimental.

The best examples of Rococo were created duringthe 1730s in France: the Adam Brothers’ decorationof the Hotel Soubise in Paris, the decoration of theanteroom in the Hoˆtel de Matignon, and the red draw-ing room in the Hoˆtel de Roquelaure. All evince thenew absolute importance given to the decorative ele-ment, which acquired a life of its own no longer subor-dinated to the architecture.

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Nicolas-Se´bastien Adam (Adam Family),Prometheus, 1762Collection Muse´e du Louvre Scala / Art Resource, NY

The new French taste quickly spread to foreignlands. The first and most original response came fromthe southern German-speaking countries. The externaland internal parts of the castle of Nymphenburg (Mun-ich) show this earliest assimilation starting in the1730s. Later but equally significant is the palace ofWurzburg decorated by Antonio Bossi. Bossi trans-posed his clear debt to Bernini into a light and gracefulstyle and played with the ductility of stucco to expressthe amiable gaiety, surprise, and delicate irony thatcharacterize Rococo.

Among the monumental sculptures, one must noteJoseph Anton Feuchtmayer and Johan Georg Ublho¨r’sGnadenaltarat the center of the church in Vierzehn-heiligen, Bavaria. This is a sort of votive altar on which11 statues of saints are arranged around a canopy.Made entirely of stucco and following curved lines andinclined planes, the monument flaunts its precariousequilibrium as if it had won a challenge to copy arefined product of the goldsmith’s art on the monu-mental scale.

In garden sculpture, the transition to Rococo can beseen in the works of Ferdinand Tietz for the park atVeitshochheim. Here monumental Baroque statues ap-pear disguised as playful stage actors who cross thegarden dancing and winking at the visitor. From Ba-

FREDERIC-AUGUSTE BARTHOLDI 1834–1904

varia the new Rococo style spread to Austria andthroughout Germany, thanks in part to traveling artistsand books of etchings that circulated the ornamentalmotifs.

Conversely, Italy participated in the new movementwith works of good quality, although episodic or indi-vidual. One practitioner was the virtuoso stucco crafts-man Giacomo Serpotta, who worked in Sicily in theearly 18th century and was famous for his inventivegenius and the rich ornamental exuberance of his deco-rations (1609–1707; Oratory of St. Lawrence). On thewhole, however, the Late Baroque style was still vitalenough in Italy to slow the progress of the new style.

In England, too, the Rococo gained ground slowly.John Michael Rysbrack, for one, occasionally used fig-urative solutions close to the Rococo aesthetic ideals,as in his statues of Peter Paul Rubens (1743) andHer-cules (1744; Stourhead, Wiltshire), but most of hisworks were characterized by a solemn and magnilo-quent Classical language.

It was a French artist, Louis Franc¸ois Roubiliac,who opened England’s Rococo season. Starting withhis earliest works—the statue of George Frideric Han-del (1738; Victoria and Albert Museum, London), thebusts of William Hogarth (1740; National Portrait Gal-lery, London) and Alexander Pope (1741; private col-lection)—Roubiliac fine-tuned the fundamental fea-tures of a new conception, intimate and penetrating,of portraiture. He captures his subjects in a fleetingmoment—lost in their thoughts, their poses informaland perfectly natural—and that is how he offers themto the public eye. The same unaffected narrative veinreappears in Roubiliac’s principal funerary monu-ments, to the Second Duke of Argyll (1745–49; West-minster Abbey; London), the Duchess of Montagu(1754?; Warkton, Northamptonshire), and Mr. andMrs. Nightingale (1758–61; Westminster Abbey, Lon-don). These works show that Roubiliac had an exten-sive knowledge of Bernini and the Roman Baroque (hehad visited Rome in 1752), but also that his real interestlay in a more graceful and elegant language that couldmitigate the force and the rhetorical emphasis of theItalian models. Roubiliac’s garland-bearing putti andfemale figures, in their sweet, languid poses, are hispersonal, charming responses to the new Rococo style.Among the pupils who further developed Roubiliac’sRococo line, Nicholas Read deserves special mention.His monument to Nicholas Magens shows that the Ro-coco style was still vibrant in 1779.

While Rococo continued to spread through otherEuropean countries, where it would prevail for someyears, France was the first to decree its end. In the1770s and 1780s, the new Neoclassical taste was al-ready making many of the most exquisite Rococo crea-tions seem outdated.

MADDALENA SPAGNOLO

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See alsoAlgardi, Alessandro; Bernini, Gianlorenzo;Bracci, Pietro; Caffa, Melchiorre; Cano, Alonso; Cib-ber, Caius Gabriel; Coustou Family; Coysevox, An-toine; Fancelli, Domenico; Fanzago, Cosimo; Ferna´n-dez, Gregorio; Feuchtmayer, Joseph Anton; Finelli,Giuliano; Girardon, Franc ois; Guidi, Domenico;Legros II, Pierre; Leoni Family; Mena, Pedro de;Mochi, Francesco; Monnot, Pierre-Etienne; Mon-tanes, Juan Martınez; Parodi, Filippo; Puget, Pierre;Rusconi, Camillo; Schluter, Andreas; Serpotta, Gia-como; Stone, Nicholas; Torrigiani, Pietro; Valle, Filip-po della

Further Reading

Bauer, Hermann, and Hans Sedlmayr,Rokoko: Struktur undWesen einer europa¨ischen Epoche, Cologne, Germany: Du-Mont, 1992

Blunt, Anthony, editor,Baroque and Rococo Architecture andDecoration, London: Elek, and New York: Harper and Row,1978

Bottineau, Yves,L’art baroque, Paris: Mazenod, 1986Boucher, Bruce,Italian Baroque Sculpture, New York: Thames

and Hudson, 1998Briganti, Giuliano, and Antonia Nava Cellini, “Barocco,” in

Enciclopedia universale dell’arte, Rome: Istituto per la Col-laborazione Culturale, 1958

Lavin, Irving, Bernini and the Unity of the Visual Arts, 2 vols.,New York: Oxford University Press, 1980

Martin, John Rupert,Baroque, New York: Harper and Row,1977

Montagu, Jennifer,Roman Baroque Sculpture: The Industry ofArt, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1989

Scott, Katie, The Rococo Interior: Decoration and SocialSpaces in Early Eighteenth-Century Paris, New Haven,Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1995

Souchal, Franc¸ois,French Sculptors of the 17th and 18th Centu-ries: The Reign of Louis XIV, vols. 1–3, Oxford: Cassirer,1977–87, and vol. 4, London: Faber and Faber, 1993

Whinney, Margaret,Sculpture in Britain, 1530–1830, Londonand Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin, 1964; 2nd edition, re-vised by John Physick, London and New York: Penguin,1988

Wittkower, Rudolf,Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600–1750,London and Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin, 1958; 6th edi-tion, 3 vols., revised by Joseph Connors and Jennifer Mon-tagu, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1999

Wittkower, Rudolf, and Irma B. Jaffe, editors,Baroque Art:The Jesuit Contribution, New York: Fordham UniversityPress, 1972

FREDERIC-AUGUSTE BARTHOLDI1834–1904 FrenchThe extraordinary fame of the Statue of Liberty (Lib-erty Enlightening the World) has eclipsed the memoryof its maker, a sculptor whose civic allegories, statuesof heroes, and funerary monuments express profoundmoral and political convictions. Born into a cultivatedand prosperous land-owning family in Alsace, Fre´d-