bandura’s social learning theory applied to a “how-to” expository

Running head: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Applied to

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Applied to a “How-to” Expository

Writing Piece

Carla Johnson, Pam Daigle, Ibraghimdzhon Rustamov

University of Hartford; EDT 665

December 13, 2010

Abstract

This paper reviews a classroom observation from the first lesson of an eight to ten day “How-

To” unit. Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory was applied to an introductory expository

writing lesson for fifth grade students at a local elementary magnet school. The social learning

theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors,

attitudes, and emotional reactions of others (http://tip.psychology.org/bandura.html). The

tangram “How-To” activities enabled students to understand instructions, create and perform

actions, and interact with one another. This paper studied examples from a real classroom of

students applying the social cognitive theory for understanding, interactions with each other, and

observing models.

Introduction

The “How-To” activities are divided into eight to ten days of classroom lessons and

activities (see appendix A). Students read, analyzed, and evaluated six articles, wrote their own

“How-To” and taught others. The first lesson of this unit involves students receiving and giving

directions. The purpose of this lesson is to help students to understand the importance of giving

clear and explicit directions in order to write an expository “How-To” piece. A “How-To”

expository writing is when the students write a piece to give directions to complete a task (How-

to, 2010).

According to Schunk, social cognitive theory is a learning theory based on the ideas that

people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to

understanding personality. This theory briefly states that most of learning takes place in a social

environment. When learners observe others they may acquire knowledge, rules, skills,

strategies, beliefs, and attitudes. Students also learn consequences of modeled behaviors, and

their beliefs of their own abilities or self-efficacy (2007). Bandura’s social cognitive theory is a

study of human behavior within a framework of triadic reciprocality, or three reciprocal

interactions; person, behavior, and environment (2007). These factors interact and influence one

another. It is like a triangle, all three parts are needed to keep the triangle in place. These

interactions impact the learner’s self-efficacy. An example of this triadic model is explained as a

student’s (person) self-efficacy or belief in their own abilities will impact his/her learning, and

the teacher telling a student that he/she can succeed (environment) will impact the student’s

outcome in learning (behavior). While social cognitivists agree that there is a fair amount of

influence on development generated by learned behavior displayed in the environment in which

one grows up, they believe that the individual person (and therefore cognition) is just as

important in determining moral development (Santrock, 2008). Reinforcement, or feedback, is

important to learners to give them information about how well they are working and to help

motivate them so they will improve (Schunk, 2007). Personal variables are critical to help

students learn. They include self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, values, and self-

regulation processes (Schunk, 2007).

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing the

behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura states: "Learning would be

exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of

their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned

observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new

behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for

action." (Social learning theory, 2010). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms

of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.

The component processes underlying observational learning are: (1) Attention, including

modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and

observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2)

Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor

rehearsal), (3) Production, including physical capabilities, self-observation of production,

accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self- reinforcement

(Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura) ).

Because it encompasses attention, retention, production, and motivation, social learning

theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the

strictly behavioral interpretation of modeling provided by Miller & Dollard (1941). Miller &

Dollard believed that “by imitating these observed actions the individual observer would solidify

that learned action and would be rewarded with positive reinforcement (Miller & Dollard, 1941)

(Social cognitive theory, 2010). “The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and

theorized by Albert Bandura from 1962 to the present.” (Social cognitive theory, 2010).

Bandura’s work is related to the theories of Vygotsky and Lave which also emphasize the

central role of social learning (Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura) ).

Theorist

“Of the many cues that influence behavior, at any point in time, none is more common than the

actions of others.”

“What people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave. The natural and extrinsic effects

of their actions, in turn, partly determine their thought patterns and affective reactions.”

(Bandura, 1986)

Albert Bandura was born on December 4, 1925, in the small town of Mundare in northern

Alberta, Canada (Boeree, 2006). He was the youngest child and only boy among six children in

a family of Eastern European descent. Both of his parents had immigrated to Canada when they

were both adolescents; his father from Krakow, Poland, and his mother from the Ukraine.

Following high school, he found work repairing Alaska’s highways. Some of the characters he

worked with had either fled creditors, alimony, the draft board, or probation officers. Bandura

quickly developed a keen appreciation for the psychopathology of everyday life. In search of

continuing his education, Bandura went to the University of British Columbia in Vancouver.

Bandura's choice of psychology as a major came about by complete chance. Although he

intended to major in one of the biological sciences, Bandura noticed that an introductory

psychology course would fill his schedule at the early time slot. He decided to take the class,

became extremely interested in psychology, and decided to concentrate on it. Three years later,

in 1949, he graduated with the Bolocan Award in Psychology. This award is only given to the

top student in psychology. Bandura then went on to pursue graduate study at the University of

Iowa. It was there that became interested in the behaviorist tradition and learning theory (Thom,

2010).

As a professor at Stanford University, Bandura began a research program exploring the

influences on social behavior (Schunk, 2007). Bandura and Walters found that hyper-aggressive

adolescents often had parents who modeled hostile attitudes (Thom, 2010). Bandura extended

this work to abstract modeling of rule-governed behavior (“Albert Bandura”, n.d.). Results from

this work led Bandura to conduct a program of research on social modeling using an inflatable

“Bobo doll”. Children who viewed violent models subsequently displayed forms of aggression

towards the Bobo-doll whereas the children in the control group rarely did so. These results

revealed that these children had changed their behavior by simply observing a model and not

being personally reinforced "(Thom, 2002). Bandura's research took a more holistic approach,

and his analyses tended towards giving a more comprehensive overview of human cognition in

the context of social learning. The theory he expanded from social learning theory soon became

known as social cognitive theory (Albert Bandura, 2010).

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and “How-To” Lesson

Goals and Expectations

The teacher laid out her expectations and goals for the lesson. She explained that she would

model the writing of a beginning of a “How-To” on making Friendship Soup. She explained that

after she modeled for them, they would write their own “How-To” on a topic of their choice.

Bandura believed, “An important factor that affects observational learning and performance of

learned behaviors are observers’ goals and their expectations of success and of outcomes of

actions. People are more likely to attend to models when they believe the modeled behaviors

will help them attain their goals” (Schunk, 2007). The teacher we observed translated her goals

and expectations through verbal and written models. She began by writing, “Friendship Soup”

on the top of her chart paper and began thinking aloud: ”I’m thinking that I always like to start

my writing with a question, but this time I am going to stretch myself and do something different

than I normally do.” She began her writing with an anecdote and continued to model using the

think-aloud strategy and the writing process.

Goals motivate people to exert effort necessary to meet task demands and to persist at the

task over time (Lock & Latham, 1990, 2002). Greater effort and persistence pay off with better

performance. Goals also direct individuals’ attention to relevant task features, behaviors to be

performed, and potential outcomes, and can affect how they process information (Schunk, 2007).

Modeling

Modeling is a critical component in social cognitive theory. It is critical in education, because

as teachers when we model the expected outcome we want our students to imitate us to a

successful degree. “Research conducted by Bandura suggests that observers learn from models

and that observational learning occurs when observers display new patterns of behavior”

(Schunk, 2007). The new pattern of behavior was the students learning to write a “How To.” In

order for the modeling component to be a success, there are four processes under observational

learning that must be considered: the students’ attention, retention, production, and motivation.

According to Bandura, “modeled activities that observers believe are important and likely to

lead to rewarding outcomes command greater attention. Attention is influenced by perceived

functional value” (Schunk, 2007). If the fifth graders believe that this expository writing

process is relevant to learning, it will increase their motivation. We noted that in the lesson the

teacher stressed the importance of writing directions to make soup so that all the students could

follow the directions and have the same results. She also addressed the importance of stating

directions clearly during the guided activity. Retention of the information being modeled is key.

In Bandura’s research he found that retention requires cognitively organizing, rehearsing,

coding, and transforming modeled information for storage in memory (Schunk, 2007). The

teacher allows for this in future lessons in the unit (see Appendix A) when she says they will

have an opportunity to write and follow the directions to a “How-To”. Under production, which

involves translating visual and symbolic conceptions of modeled events into overt behaviors,

learners acquire a rough approximation of a complex skill (Bandura, 1977). The teacher needs to

make sure students have continued practice and corrective feedback from her to assess whether

she needs to reteach. The modeling piece was very motivating because the teacher gave poor

directions intentionally. The students were very excited and motivated to work in pairs to see if

they could give better directions than their teacher did. According to Schunk (2007) learners will

be motivated to “perform those actions that they believe will result in rewarding outcomes.”Need

a citation here) The learner’s motivation to outdo their teacher was very successful. Students

cheered for one another as they successfully completed one another’s designs. This teacher’s

knowledge of motivation as critical to learning is reflected in her ability to make learning

interesting, and relating material that interests her students.

Influences on Learning and Performance

Although the students are observing the teacher’s think-aloud and modeling, it does not

necessarily mean learning has occurred. In social learning theory “Several factors influence

vicarious learning and performance of learned behaviors, these include development status,

model prestige and competence and vicarious consequences; outcome expectation and self-

efficacy “ (Schunk, 2007). Learning depends heavily on developmental factors and the teacher’s

ability to assess her students’ levels of learning. “Fifth graders understand how to develop their

own goals and ways of recording progress, and they begin to feel the exhilaration of personal

achievement, and the disappointment of frustrated goals” (Robinson, 2010). Fifth grade

students are expected to be successful at writing expository pieces. These expository pieces

include compare/contrast and How-To pieces. Older children acquire a more extensive

knowledge base to help them comprehend new information, and they become more capable of

using memory strategies. They also represent information visually or symbolically (Schunk,

2007). The teacher, therefore, used a variety of techniques to ensure that her students were

successful at learning the concept. She provided them with a small Ziploc bag of tangrams. She

explained to them that they would create a design with the tangrams by following her directions.

She verbally gave them step-by-step directions of what to do with the tangrams. Model prestige

and competence is when students pay closer attention to the lesson because they believe they will

need to reproduce this experience (Schunk, 2007). The students attended to their teacher’s

actions because they believed they will need to perform the task later. After finishing her

directions, the teacher held up her design and asked the students to compare their designs to hers.

It became evident that most students’ designs differed from hers as well as their classmates.

This led into a rich discussion about the importance of giving and following directions. They

even discussed ways to provide better directions. Although the teacher expected the students to

get different results, the students expected to have the same design. These learners understood

the importance of following instructions. The students’ beliefs about the anticipated outcome

could have been based on personal experiences with following verbal directions (Schunk, 2007).

When everyone noticed the tangram designs were different, the teacher stated that she did not

give wonderful directions. According to Bandura, “Vicarious consequences or observing the

consequences of other students’ models can affect observers’ learning and performance of

modeled actions” (Schunk, 2007). The students understood from their teacher’s experience that

she needed to have stated her directions in a more clear and explicit way.

The teacher also followed up with an independent activity. She asked pairs of students to

sit back to back with their tangram pieces. One person gave directions to create a design, while

the other student followed them. Students worked together each having the opportunity to give

and receive the directions. Students at this age use their classmates’ progress to analyze their

own progress. Once the students completed this process, they turned to face each other

comparing their final projects. Finally, they discussed their successes and struggles of the

activity with their partner and then with the whole class. The students were proud of their ability

to give more clear directions than their teacher did. According to Bandura’s Social Cognitive

Theory, results showed that both self-efficacy and outcome expectations related positively to

actual achievement (Schunk, 2007).

“Motivation is a function of personal expectations and goals, and self-evaluative process.

As people work to achieve goals they evaluate their progress. If the evaluation is positive,

personal feelings of self-efficacy are enhanced which sustain motivation. Self-efficacy refers to

self-perceptions or belief of capability to learn and perform particular levels. Efficacy beliefs

influence how people feel, think, motivate themselves, and behave. Social and contextual factors

affect motivation through their influence on expectations, goals and self-evaluations of progress.

Among the factors that have an impact are social comparisons, goals, rewards and reinforcement,

classroom organization and types of feedback “ (McInerney , 2005). According to Bandura,

social cognitive theory, growth of intrinsic interest is fostered through affective self-reactive and

self-efficacy mechanisms. People display enduring interest in activities at which they feel

efficacious and from which they derive self-stratification (1997). The students felt confident in

their abilities to both give and receive directions. Other student models in the classroom

provided an important source for the students to gauge self-efficacy (Schunk, 2007). When

learners observe similar peer models performing a task well it raises the observers’ self-efficacy

(Schunk, 2007). The students modeled for one another as well as cheered on their peers. This

behavior raised the self-efficacy for the students. In Bandura’s triadic reciprocality, or three

reciprocal interactions; person, behavior, and environment were observed in this lesson. As the

students (person) worked on giving clear and explicit directions (behavior) and the students

received positive reinforcement for their efforts (environment) they became more confident.

Their self-efficacy improved along with their abilities.

Self-Regulation

“Bandura says that humans are able to control their behavior through a process known as

self regulation. This process involves three steps: self-observation, judgment, and self-response

(self-reaction)” (Moore, 1999). If self-observation suggests that students self-evaluate their

progress to see if they met the objective or standards of the lesson, then we would have observed

this in their discussions and when they asked questions. “Self-judgment refers to comparing

present performance level with one’s goal. The belief that they are making progress enhances

their self-efficacy, which sustains their motivation to complete the task.”(Weiner et al 2003, p.

67)

Self- response or self-reaction helps learners to accomplish their goals. “Negative

evaluations do not decrease motivation if individuals believe they are capable of improving”

(Schunk, 2007). This was evident when the students enthusiastically joined a partner to give and

receive directions to create tangram designs, even though they were not successful when their

teacher gave the directions. They believed they could be more successful at the task than their

teacher was.

Social cognitive theory integrates the cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational

mechanisms of self-regulation (Bandura, 1986). "Development of self-regulation is understood

to play a pivotal role in children’s emerging sense of self as being "good" or "bad" at learning at

school, which impacts performance and elicits feedback from teachers, parents, and peers that

serves to instantiate trajectories toward high or low achievement" (Hoyle, 2010). “Effective

methods for teaching self-regulation often include social models, corrective feedback, strategy

instruction and practice, goal setting, and self-evaluations of learning progress”(Schunk &

Etmer, 2000). During many parts of the “How-To” lesson we noticed students adjusting and

making efforts to improve their performance. There were moments of self-evaluation when

discussions occurred around the successes and failures of some their designs. Some students

shared that they needed to agree on what specific terms meant, like “above” as opposed to “on.”

By the teacher modeling and allowing for independent practice students were able to self-assess

their own learning. Self-efficacy would also be high in this type of setting because both students

giving the directions and following the directions would be right. Every student was on an equal

learning field when the teacher gave the wrong directions to the entire class. No student felt

isolated or labeled. As part of the closure, the teacher had the students complete a survey (see

Appendix B) asking them to reflect on what they know, what they want to know, what they have

learned, and what they still need to know about writing a “How-To” piece. In the final lessons

of the unit there is an opportunity for students to self-regulate by completing a self-assessment

using rubric (see Appendix C). This will influence their performance during the unit.

People do not develop their knowledge and their cognitive competencies entirely by

themselves. In gaining mastery over difficult subject matter, they must seek academic assistance

from time to time from knowledgeable adults and classmates to gain important information they

lack. Social cognitive theory acknowledges the social nature of self-regulated development

(Bandura, 1997, p. 230). Bandura says that self-regulators seek needed information from others

to achieve higher levels of mastery self-directedly. This form of social assistance requires

effective exercise of self-directedness. (Bandura, 1997, p. 230)

Conclusion

The unit on expository “How -To” Writing pieces and lessons were chosen because of their

interactive lessons. Many of the lessons support the social cognitive theory that students learn

from their social environments. The “How-To” lesson was designed so that students could

influence each other’s’ learning. It also required students to reflect on their learning with the

survey and also the importance of being clear and specific in giving directions. The reciprocal

interactions among the students’ personal factors, environmental variables, and behaviors are

important constructs found in this lesson. When the teacher and students provided corrective

feedback, they were more receptive to their classmate’s assessments. As the follow-up lessons

continue throughout the week, the students are able to assess whether or not they’re making

progress on the learning goals. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory contends that behavioral

consequences serve as sources of information and motivation. People who succeed at a task or

are rewarded, understand that they are performing well (Schunk, 2007). The students feel

successful in these lessons which prepare them for their final products. According to Bandura,

the consequences of behavior are especially important because behaviors that result in successful

consequences are retained and those that lead to failures are discarded (Schunk, 2007).

Although, the students met some successes and failures, their failures motivated them to try

again and analyze where in the “How-To” process they went wrong. Because the unit allows for

additional practice, the students have an opportunity to refine and internalize self-regulatory

skills and strategies. In the final paper and presentation students need to include sequential,

clear, and explicit steps or instructions, follow the writing process, and practice their “How-To”.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive theory supports lessons that foster interactions, learning, and

self-evaluating among peers. Social cognitive theory is a learning theory based on the ideas that

people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to

understanding personality (Schunk, 2007). The students learning in this fifth grade elementary

magnet school thrived in this lesson, because it supported their learning through social cognitive

theory.

References

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How-to. (2010, November 27). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=How-to&oldid=399110735

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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_cognitive_theory&oldid=397716489

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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_learning_theory&oldid=401102168

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Irving B. Weiner, William M. Reynolds, John A. Schinka, Gloria E. Miller. (2003). Handbook of

Psychology: Educational psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

McInerney , D. M. (2005). Helping Kids Achieve Their Best:Understanding And Using Motivation In The

Classroom. IAP.

Moore, A. (1999, May). Psychology History. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from Albert Bandura:

http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/bandura.htm

Robinson, Z. (2010). Physical Development Milestones: 5th Grade. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from

Education.com: http://www.education.com/magazine/article/Fifth_Grader_Able_To/

Santrock, J. S. (2008). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (4th ed.). New York, NY:

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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http://tip.psychology.org/bandura.html

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http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/albertbandura.html

Appendix A

WRITING: HOW-TO EXPOSITORY WRITING UNIT

Unit Standards:

3.1 Students use descriptive, narrative, expository, persuasive and poetic modes.

3.2 Students prepare, publish and/or present work appropriate to audience, purpose and task.

4.1 Students use knowledge of their language and culture to improve competency in English.

4.3 Students use Standard English for composing and revising written text.

Unit Overview: Students will have a variety of experiences to follow and evaluate directions. Students

will practice writing “Mini How-To” before writing and teaching their own “How-To” lesson. This unit

will take about three to four weeks.

Curriculum:

Use expository writing to demonstrate “How To” do or create something.

Use the writing process to publish a “How To” expository writing piece.

Use proper grammar when writing and speaking.

Practice presentation, public speaking skills.

Share a skill or talent.

Self-assess both the writing and the presentation.

Assessment:

A Pre and post assessment will be used to check for understanding of what a “How To”

expository writing is.

A Rubric for both the writing and the presentation will be used.

The rubric is given to both the students and their parents.

Model how it’s used.

Instruction:

Pre-assessment of “How To” writing.

Model how to write the recipe for the class “Friendship Soup.”

Model directions using tangrams, then work in pairs back-to-back with tangrams. One person

creates and gives the directions for his/her partner to copy it. Then the students switch roles.

Post-assessment of “How To” writing.

Read professional “How To”

Create a list of possible “How To” projects.

Review rubric with a model.

Hand out parent letter.

LESSON ONE: Writing a How-To Expository Writing Piece.

Subject Area: Writing

Specific Topic of the Lesson: Experiencing why giving clear directions are important.

Why is it important to give clear directions?

Goal (Big Idea) – Students will give and receive directions to complete tangram designs.

Time Needed for Lesson - Sixty minutes

Grouping Arrangement – Whole and pair instruction.

Materials/Resources Needed -

Pre-test; one for each student

Seventeen sets of tangrams; one for each student

Class recipe for Friendship Soup

Initiation – Ask students to review the “recipe” they created from their Friendship Soup. Ask if they

could make the soup again using their recipe?

Behavioral Objectives - Students will work in pairs to give and receive directions to complete

tangram designs.

Teaching Procedure (teaching and learning activities):

1. Students will take a pre-test about writing an expository How-To.

2. Students will follow the teacher’s direction to make a tangram design.

3. Whole class discussion about the teacher’s directions for the tangram design.

4. Students will create a list of words to use to write a good how to.

5. Students will work in pairs back-to-back with tangrams. One person creates and gives the

directions for his/her partner to copy it. Then the students switch roles.

6. Whole class discussion about how each pair gave and received the directions.

Closure - Ask students to give feedback to help improve their ability to give directions.

Performance:

Students will give and receive directions to complete tangram designs.

Assessment: Students will self-assess and respond to feedback.

WRITING: HOW-TO EXPOSITORY WRITING

LESSON TWO: “Merry Messenger”


Specific Topic of the Lesson: Following directions to make a “Merry Messenger”

Evaluate the directions for a How to make a Merry Messenger.

Goal (Big Idea) – Students will follow directions to make a “Merry Messenger.”


Grouping Arrangement – Whole and individual instruction.


Merry Messenger Kit for each student

o Medium pom-pom

o Two double sided adhesive stripes

o Two tiny goggle eyes

o Piece of paper for message

o Glue sticks

Merry Messenger How To directions Initiation – Ask students to review what makes a good “How-to” and the list of words to use to write a

good how to.

Behavioral Objectives - Students will work in pairs to follow the how to directions to make a

Merry Messenger.


1. Students will generate an idea bank for “Merry Messages” on the board.

2. Students will read and follow the directions to make a Merry Messenger.

3. Students will choose an encouraging message from the board for their “Merry Messenger.”

4. Students will work with a partner to evaluate the directions.

5. Students will clean-up their work stations, and return to their seats.

Closure - Ask students to share if they believe the procedural steps listed for the “Merry

Messenger” were detailed and explicit. Students will provide feedback to help improve the

procedure.

Performance:

Students must make a “Merry Messenger” and share feedback with their partner.

Assessment: Students will self-assess and respond to student’s feedback.


LESSONTHREE: Professional “How-To” articles.


Specific Topic of the Lesson: Preparing to write a “How-to” expository writing piece.

How do Professionals Write “How-To” articles?

Goal (Big Idea) – Students will read and evaluate six professional “How-To” articles.




Professional “How-To” articles for each student.

Evaluation forms for each student.

Initiation – Ask students if they have ever read a professional “How-To?” Students will pair share what

they think professionals would write to have a good “How-to.”

Behavioral Objectives - Students will work in pairs to read and evaluate six professional “How-

To” articles.


1. Students will work with a partner to read the article.

2. Students will evaluate the article by writing what each author wrote that was helpful for them to

understand the directions.

3. Students will repeat steps one and two until all six articles have been read and evaluated.

Closure - Ask students to share what their team thought was the most helpful from each article.

Add to their recording sheet as needed.

Performance:

Students must write an evaluation for each article.

Assessment: Students will use evaluation sheets to aid them in writing their own “How-To”

article.


LESSON FOUR: “Ants on a Log”



How do You Make “Ants on a Log?”

Goal (Big Idea) – Students will make “Ants on a Log” and write the steps as the go along. Then

they will make a second one following their directions, editing as needed.




Celery; washed and cut onto 4” pieces/2 for each student

4 Small blocks of cream cheese with plastic knives

4 Bowls of raisins with spoons

Blank recipe for “Ants on a Log” Initiation – Ask students to review their response from reading and evaluating the “How-to” articles.

Review what makes a good “How-to.”

Behavioral Objectives - Students will work independently to write a recipe for “Ants on a Log.”

with a partner to complete a Notice and Wonder chart.


1. Students will make ants on a log and record what they do.

2. Students will make a second ants on a log by following their recipe.

3. Students will edit their recipes to improve their directions.

4. Students will review the chart of words to use to write a good how to that they made during lesson

one.

5. Student will share their recipes with the class and edit as needed.

Closure - Ask students to share their final recipe with the whole class. Students will provide

feedback to help improve each recipe.

Performance:

Students must write a recipe for “Ants on a Log.”

Assessment: Students will self-assess and respond to student’s feedback.


LESSON FIVE: Write directions to make an ice cream cone.



How do you write directions to make an ice cream cone?

Goal (Big Idea) – Students will write directions to make an ice cream cone. The teacher will follow the

direction exactly the way the students wrote them to make an ice cream cone for each student.




Student’s directions from their homework

Vanilla ice cream

Ice cream cones; one for each student

Napkins

Ice cream scoop Initiation – Ask students to review their directions from their homework on “How-to” make an ice cream

cone.

Behavioral Objectives - Students will give their directions to make an ice cream cone to the teacher. The

teacher will follow the directions exactly the way the students wrote them to make an ice cream cone for

each student.


1. After the students give their directions to the teacher, she will follow the directions exactly the way

the students wrote them to make an ice cream cone for each student.

2. Students will have an opportunity to rewrite their directions.

Closure - Ask students to share how they edited the directions to improve their direction.

Performance: Students will write directions so they have an ice cream cone.

Assessment: Students will write directions to successfully have an ice cream cone.


LESSON SIX: Write a how-to expository writing piece.


Specific Topic of the Lesson: Write a “How-to” expository writing piece.

How do You Write and Present a How-To Expository Writing

Piece?

Goal (Big Idea) – Students will write and present their how-to expository writing.

Time Needed for Lesson - Four to Six Sixty minute periods.



Rubric

Initiation – Review the model for “Friendship Soup” and what makes a good “How-to.”

Behavioral Objectives - Students will write and present their how-to expository pieces.


1. Students will begin writing using the model of “Friendship Soup”

2. Students will follow the writing process to write a how-to expository writing piece.

3. Students will present their how-to piece to the class.

Closure – Review the students work. Remind students to follow the writing process.

Performance:

Students must write and present a how-to expository writing piece.

Assessment: Students will self-assess and be scored using the rubric.

Appendix B

Name _______________________ Date ____________ #

“How To” Expository Writing

1. What do you know about “How To” Expository Writing?

__________________________________________________________________

______________________________________

2. What do you want to know about “How To” Expository Writing?

__________________________________________________________________

______________________________________

3. What have you learned so far about “How To” Expository Writing?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

_______

4. What do you still need to know?

________________________________________________

Appendix C

Name ________________________ Date ___________ #

“How To” Rubric

Directions: Students score your writing and presentation using a blue or black pen. Then fill in the

student score in the space allocated. The teacher will score using a colored pen.

CATEGORY

Exemplary

(4 Points)

Proficient

(3 Points)

Partially

proficient

(2 Points)

Developing

(1 Point)

WRITING

Introduction

Interesting,

sufficient

length, clearly

introduces the

topic.

Somewhat

interesting,

more detail is

needed, topic

is introduced.

Does not grab

readers interest,

confusing

details, topic is

not clear.

No introduction,

missing details,

no topic is

stated.

Body

Well organized,

good use of

sequence

words,

thoroughly

explains steps.

Organized,

sequence

words are

used,

adequately

explains steps.

Some

organization,

some

sequencing,

steps are

confusing.

Little

organization, no

sequencing,

steps may be

missing or

confusing.

Closing

Summarizes

topic, sufficient

length,

interesting,

listener knows

your finished.

Summarizes,

adequate

length,

somewhat

interesting,

conclusion is

included.

Some summary

included, brief,

partial

conclusion.

Little or no

summary,

difficult for

reader to know

when finished.

WRITING TOTAL Student /12 Teacher /12

CATEGORY

Exemplary

(4 Points)

Proficient

(3 Points)

Partially

proficient

(2 Points)

Developing

(1 Point)

PRESENTATION

Verbal

Remember to

read loud

enough

Used strong

attention getting

device, clear and

understandable

vocabulary, stayed

on topic, well

informed, did not

read.

Used an attention

getting device,

somewhat clear and

understandable

vocabulary, stayed

on topic, informed,

and did not read.

Used a week

attention getting

device,

confusing

vocabulary,

strayed off

topic, read some

of writing piece.

Does not grab

listener’s attention,

confusing, strayed

off topic, read from

writing piece.

Nonverbal

Very good pace,

not too fast or too

slow, very good

eye contact, strong

use of visual/props,

engaged body

language.

Good pace, not too

fast or too slow,

good eye contact,

some use of

visual/props,

mostly engaged

body language.

Week pacing,

too fast or too

slow, little eye

contact, little

use of

visual/props,

body language

not engaged.

Pacing was too fast

or too slow, no eye

contact, no use of

visual/props, body

language not

engaged.

PRESENTATION

TOTAL

Student /8 Teacher /8

WRITING

TOTAL

(From the 1st

page)


PROJECT

TOTAL


bandura’s social learning theory applied to a “how-to” expository

Documents

social environment

grade students

students outcome

learning behavior

social cognitivists

expository howto piece

students person selfefficacy

real classroom of students