awotona 1 the role of dignity and humiliation for rebuilding sustainable communities after disasters...

Awotona 1

The Role of Dignity The Role of Dignity and Humiliation for and Humiliation for

Rebuilding Rebuilding Sustainable Sustainable

Communities after Communities after DisastersDisasters byby

Adenrele Awotona Adenrele Awotona ©©University of Massachusetts University of Massachusetts

BostonBoston

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Outline of presentationOutline of presentation1.1. Abstract Abstract 2.2. The Context: The Context: Africa, female child Africa, female child

soldiers,soldiers, poverty and sustainable poverty and sustainable developmentdevelopment

3.3. The tasks which female child-soldiers The tasks which female child-soldiers perform during warsperform during wars

4.4. Humiliation and indignities which Humiliation and indignities which female child soldiers suffer during and female child soldiers suffer during and after wars after wars

5.5. Female ex-child soldiers in African Female ex-child soldiers in African countries and their potential role in countries and their potential role in community reconstruction after warscommunity reconstruction after wars

6.6. Rebuilding post-war sustainable Rebuilding post-war sustainable communities that are predicated on communities that are predicated on human dignityhuman dignity

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1. Abstract of 1. Abstract of presentationpresentation

According to the US Department of According to the US Department of State(2005) child soldiering is a global State(2005) child soldiering is a global problem. Armed groups (government problem. Armed groups (government forces, paramilitary organizations, and forces, paramilitary organizations, and rebel movements) recruit and utilize child rebel movements) recruit and utilize child soldiers in Africa, Asia, the Americas, soldiers in Africa, Asia, the Americas, Eurasia, and the Middle East. Eurasia, and the Middle East.

UNICEF reports that “an estimated UNICEF reports that “an estimated 300,000 child soldiers - boys and girls 300,000 child soldiers - boys and girls under the age of 18 - are involved in more under the age of 18 - are involved in more than 30 conflicts worldwide.” Indeed, than 30 conflicts worldwide.” Indeed, some of these children are as young as 7 some of these children are as young as 7 or 8 years of age.or 8 years of age.

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Abstract (continued)Abstract (continued) In Africa, female child fighters are In Africa, female child fighters are

increasingly common in most conflicts increasingly common in most conflicts especially in Angola, Burundi, especially in Angola, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda. In a continent Sudan, and Uganda. In a continent where the vast majority of the citizens where the vast majority of the citizens are desperately poor and lack access to are desperately poor and lack access to education and gainful employment, education and gainful employment, militia life offers training and a militia life offers training and a livelihood, especially for the young livelihood, especially for the young (Adetula, 2007).(Adetula, 2007).

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Abstract (continued)Abstract (continued)

In this presentation, I propose that if the In this presentation, I propose that if the female child-soldiers (indeed, all child-female child-soldiers (indeed, all child-soldiers) are properly soldiers) are properly demobilizeddemobilized, , emotionally and psychologically emotionally and psychologically rehabilitatedrehabilitated, and sensitively , and sensitively (especially in cultural terms) (especially in cultural terms) reintegratedreintegrated into their communities into their communities with dignity, they would be an asset to with dignity, they would be an asset to the process of rebuilding their the process of rebuilding their societies in a sustainable manner.societies in a sustainable manner.

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2. The Context: 2. The Context: Africa, Africa, female female child soldiers,child soldiers, poverty and poverty and

sustainable developmentsustainable development

Most of Africa continues to be ravaged by Most of Africa continues to be ravaged by extreme poverty, numerous armed conflicts, extreme poverty, numerous armed conflicts, inadequate access to education and inadequate access to education and extensive pandemics such as HIV and extensive pandemics such as HIV and malaria, factors which have combined to malaria, factors which have combined to render sustainable development elusive for render sustainable development elusive for the continent. For example, in 2004, the continent. For example, in 2004, approximately 300 million people in sub-approximately 300 million people in sub-Saharan Africa (41% of the population) were Saharan Africa (41% of the population) were living on a dollar a day or less (UN living on a dollar a day or less (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs).Department of Economic and Social Affairs).

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3. The tasks which female 3. The tasks which female child-soldiers perform child-soldiers perform

during warsduring wars

Some of the roles which girl-soldiers are Some of the roles which girl-soldiers are forced to take on during conflicts forced to take on during conflicts include the following (UNICEF): include the following (UNICEF): Combatant soldiers; porters; spies; Combatant soldiers; porters; spies; Trainers for recruits; looting; Trainers for recruits; looting; informants; Slave labour; informants; Slave labour; suicide/bombing missions; suicide/bombing missions; messengers; Sex-slaves; messengers; Sex-slaves; mine mine sweepers; intelligence officers; Gather, sweepers; intelligence officers; Gather, prepare, and & cook food; childcare prepare, and & cook food; childcare and rearing; and, communication.and rearing; and, communication.

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4. Humiliation and indignities 4. Humiliation and indignities which female child soldiers which female child soldiers suffer during and after warssuffer during and after wars

Kenyan (2007) has observed that Kenyan (2007) has observed that humiliation, as conceptualized and humiliation, as conceptualized and practiced in some parts of Africa, practiced in some parts of Africa, involve:involve:

Brutal military occupationsBrutal military occupations Desecration and/or destruction of Desecration and/or destruction of

religious institutions and symbolsreligious institutions and symbols Forced religious conversionsForced religious conversions Reigns of terrorReigns of terror

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Humiliation and indignities Humiliation and indignities (cont’d)(cont’d)

Execution of prominent figures and Execution of prominent figures and parading of victims’ bodies and denying parading of victims’ bodies and denying them timely and decent burialthem timely and decent burial

Rape and other forms of sexual Rape and other forms of sexual abuse/violenceabuse/violence

Demonization and persecution of entire Demonization and persecution of entire ethnic groupsethnic groups

Destruction and looting of the economic Destruction and looting of the economic assets and livelihoods of opponents, and assets and livelihoods of opponents, and

Occupation and annexation of territory…”Occupation and annexation of territory…”

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For example, the Nigerian Civil War (July For example, the Nigerian Civil War (July 6, 1967 to January 15, 1970) resulted in 6, 1967 to January 15, 1970) resulted in the destruction of about 53,732 the destruction of about 53,732 commercial and private buildings, 750 km. commercial and private buildings, 750 km. of roads, 65 bridges, about 781 primary of roads, 65 bridges, about 781 primary and 73 post-primary schools in the then and 73 post-primary schools in the then East-Central State which was the major East-Central State which was the major theater of the war (Awotona, 1992, p.79). theater of the war (Awotona, 1992, p.79). Also, the total value of capital assets in Also, the total value of capital assets in 1970 was only 36.2% of those just before 1970 was only 36.2% of those just before the outbreak of the war in that State. the outbreak of the war in that State.

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Similarly, Awotona and Johnson (1997, Similarly, Awotona and Johnson (1997, pp.111-120) have noted that during the pp.111-120) have noted that during the war in Liberia, every citizen was adversely war in Liberia, every citizen was adversely affected by the violence, destruction and affected by the violence, destruction and human rights abuses, regardless of human rights abuses, regardless of economic and social status or tribal economic and social status or tribal affiliation. Displaced women in the affiliation. Displaced women in the country were targeted for special abuses country were targeted for special abuses because of both ethnicity and gender. because of both ethnicity and gender. Rape was used as a form of torture and Rape was used as a form of torture and many women suffered psychological and many women suffered psychological and physical trauma as a result. physical trauma as a result.

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After conflicts, in some African After conflicts, in some African communities, female ex-child soldiers are communities, female ex-child soldiers are further subjected to various forms of further subjected to various forms of humiliations including the continuation of humiliations including the continuation of traditional discriminatory practices (e.g., traditional discriminatory practices (e.g., unequal rights to inheritance); unequal unequal rights to inheritance); unequal rights to housing and land; unequal access rights to housing and land; unequal access to health and educational facilities; and, to health and educational facilities; and, “being bathed with traditional concoction “being bathed with traditional concoction purportedly to cleanse them from the evil purportedly to cleanse them from the evil effects of the conflicts” (Adetula, 2007) effects of the conflicts” (Adetula, 2007)

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5. Female ex-child soldiers in 5. Female ex-child soldiers in African countries and their African countries and their potential role in community potential role in community

reconstruction after warsreconstruction after wars Some countries in Africa that are confronted Some countries in Africa that are confronted

with female ex-child soldiers include the with female ex-child soldiers include the following :following : Burundi, Central African Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic, Chad, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda, ZimbabweUganda, Zimbabwe

Although these female soldiers were used Although these female soldiers were used and abused during the war, their potential and abused during the war, their potential in contributing to the socio-economic in contributing to the socio-economic development of their communities in post development of their communities in post conflict situations is immense and should be conflict situations is immense and should be appropriately utilized, provided that they are appropriately utilized, provided that they are properly demobilised, treated and properly demobilised, treated and rehabilitated (Adetula, 2007). rehabilitated (Adetula, 2007).

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6. Rebuilding post-war 6. Rebuilding post-war sustainable communities that sustainable communities that

are predicated on human are predicated on human dignitydignity

Rebuilding communities after conflicts in a Rebuilding communities after conflicts in a manner that promotes social justice, manner that promotes social justice, economic and political sustainability, and economic and political sustainability, and the full participation of all stakeholders the full participation of all stakeholders (including female ex-child soldiers) calls for (including female ex-child soldiers) calls for the adoption of a comprehensive approach. the adoption of a comprehensive approach. AAchieving peace through Negotiation,chieving peace through Negotiation, Reconciliation, reverence for human Dignity Reconciliation, reverence for human Dignity and the promotion of and the promotion of good governance at all good governance at all levels of society “levels of society “is vital for the mechanisms is vital for the mechanisms leading up to the full recovery and leading up to the full recovery and comprehensive development of the affected comprehensive development of the affected communities” (Adetula, 2007). communities” (Adetula, 2007).

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Rebuilding post-war Rebuilding post-war sustainable communities sustainable communities

(cont’d)(cont’d)

These efforts require perseverance and These efforts require perseverance and dedication by the parties to the conflict to dedication by the parties to the conflict to do the following:do the following:

1) Honour and respect the peace accords 1) Honour and respect the peace accords and negotiations which have been and negotiations which have been brokered by local, regional and brokered by local, regional and international organizations (Adetula, international organizations (Adetula, 2007)2007)

2) Reintegration (social, economic, political, 2) Reintegration (social, economic, political, psychological) of the female ex-Child psychological) of the female ex-Child Soldiers into their communities. Soldiers into their communities.

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(cont’d)(cont’d)3) Implementation of the provisions of 3) Implementation of the provisions of

Chapter 3 of Agenda 21 of the United Chapter 3 of Agenda 21 of the United Nations 1992 Conference on Environment Nations 1992 Conference on Environment and Development in Rio which is focused and Development in Rio which is focused on poverty eradication. The objectives of on poverty eradication. The objectives of this program, which seek to address this program, which seek to address issues of “development, sustainable issues of “development, sustainable resource management and poverty resource management and poverty eradication” simultaneously, are (UNCED, eradication” simultaneously, are (UNCED, 2005): 2005): ““To provide all persons urgently with To provide all persons urgently with

the opportunity to earn a sustainable the opportunity to earn a sustainable livelihood;livelihood;

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(cont’d)(cont’d) To implement policies and strategies To implement policies and strategies

that promote adequate levels of that promote adequate levels of funding and focus on integrated funding and focus on integrated human development policies, human development policies, including income generation, including income generation, increased local control of resources, increased local control of resources, local institution-strengthening and local institution-strengthening and capacity-building and greater capacity-building and greater involvement of non-governmental involvement of non-governmental organizations and local levels of organizations and local levels of government as delivery mechanisms; government as delivery mechanisms;

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(cont’d)(cont’d) To develop for all poverty-stricken areas To develop for all poverty-stricken areas

integrated strategies and programs of integrated strategies and programs of sound and sustainable management of the sound and sustainable management of the environment, resource mobilization, environment, resource mobilization, poverty eradication and alleviation, poverty eradication and alleviation, employment and income generation; employment and income generation;

To create a focus in national development To create a focus in national development plans and budgets on investment in plans and budgets on investment in human capital, with special policies and human capital, with special policies and programs directed at rural areas, the programs directed at rural areas, the urban poor, women and childrenurban poor, women and children..””

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(cont’d)(cont’d)4) 4) Diligently apply the various existing Diligently apply the various existing

international human rights instruments to international human rights instruments to ensure that the dignity of the ex-child ensure that the dignity of the ex-child soldiers is upheld. This would guarantee soldiers is upheld. This would guarantee that all the ex-child soldiers, boys and that all the ex-child soldiers, boys and girls, are treated equally; and that they, girls, are treated equally; and that they, like all the people and communities which like all the people and communities which have been affected by the conflicts, would have been affected by the conflicts, would fully participate in the design and fully participate in the design and implementation of reconstruction plans in implementation of reconstruction plans in a dignified manner. Some of these legal a dignified manner. Some of these legal instruments are (Adetula, 2007; Batra and instruments are (Adetula, 2007; Batra and Chaudhry, 2005): Chaudhry, 2005):

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African Charter on the Rights and African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (developed in Welfare of the Child (developed in 1990; became effective in 1999)1990; became effective in 1999)

Optional Protocol to the Convention Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. on the Rights of the Child.

Maputo Declaration on the Use of Maputo Declaration on the Use of Children as Soldiers (April 1999)Children as Soldiers (April 1999)

ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 182 (adopted 1999, Convention 182 (adopted 1999, effective November 2000)effective November 2000)

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Additional Protocols to the four Geneva Additional Protocols to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 (1977)Conventions of 1949 (1977)

The Paris Commitments and Principles The Paris Commitments and Principles (2007)(2007)

United Nations Security Council Resolutions United Nations Security Council Resolutions (1999-2005)(1999-2005)

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (established, 1998; effective 2002)Court (established, 1998; effective 2002)

United Nations Millennium Declaration, United Nations Millennium Declaration, 2000, General Assembly resolution 55/22000, General Assembly resolution 55/2

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 1948

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(cont’d)(cont’d) International Covenant on Economic, Social International Covenant on Economic, Social

and Cultural Rights, 1966 and Cultural Rights, 1966 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 Convention on the Elimination of all forms Convention on the Elimination of all forms

of discrimination against women, 1979of discrimination against women, 1979 Declaration on Social Progress and Declaration on Social Progress and

Development, 1969 General Assembly Development, 1969 General Assembly resolutionresolution

Vienna Declaration and Program of Action, Vienna Declaration and Program of Action, 1993, World Conference on Human Rights. 1993, World Conference on Human Rights.

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ReferencesReferences

Awotona, Adenrele and Johnson, Mulbah (1997). "Housing Awotona, Adenrele and Johnson, Mulbah (1997). "Housing and Resettlement in Post-war Liberia", in Awotona, Adenrele and Resettlement in Post-war Liberia", in Awotona, Adenrele (ed.). (ed.). Reconstruction after disaster: issues and practices, Reconstruction after disaster: issues and practices, Aldershot, Ashgate, pp.109-130Aldershot, Ashgate, pp.109-130

Awotona, Adenrele (1992). "Approaches to post-war Awotona, Adenrele (1992). "Approaches to post-war reconstruction and development: examples from Africa", reconstruction and development: examples from Africa", Habitat International, Habitat International, Vol.16, No.4, pp.79-98.Vol.16, No.4, pp.79-98.

Adetula, Grace Oyebola (2007). Adetula, Grace Oyebola (2007). Drugs in Conflicts: The Drugs in Conflicts: The Challenges of Demobilization, Disarmament and Challenges of Demobilization, Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR) of Female Ex-child Soldiers in AfricaReintegration (DDR) of Female Ex-child Soldiers in Africa, , A A paper presented at the Workshop on the rehabilitation and paper presented at the Workshop on the rehabilitation and reintegration of female ex-child soldiers/captives in the Great reintegration of female ex-child soldiers/captives in the Great Lakes Region, Organized by the Women, Gender and Lakes Region, Organized by the Women, Gender and Development Directorate and the Peace and Security Development Directorate and the Peace and Security Directorate of the African Union Commission, December 6-7, Directorate of the African Union Commission, December 6-7, 2007, Kigali, Rwanda2007, Kigali, Rwanda

The US Department of State (2005). The US Department of State (2005). The Facts About Child The Facts About Child SoldiersSoldiers, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in , Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Washington, DC, August 8, Persons, Washington, DC, August 8, http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/fs/2005/50941.htmhttp://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/fs/2005/50941.htm

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References (continued)References (continued)

UNICEF. UNICEF. Child protection from violence, exploitation and Child protection from violence, exploitation and abuse - Children in Conflict and Emergenciesabuse - Children in Conflict and Emergencies, , http://www.unicef.org/protection/index_armedconflict.htmlhttp://www.unicef.org/protection/index_armedconflict.html

Kenyan, Hassan A. (2007) Kenyan, Hassan A. (2007) Humiliation in the context of Humiliation in the context of recent events in the Horn of Africanrecent events in the Horn of African, , http://www.humiliationstudies.org/documents/KeynanNY07meeting.pdf

Batra, Bikram Jeet and Shivani Chaudhry(2005). Batra, Bikram Jeet and Shivani Chaudhry(2005). International Human Rights Standards on Post-Disaster International Human Rights Standards on Post-Disaster Resettlement and Rehabilitation, Working DocumentResettlement and Rehabilitation, Working Document, , Habitat International Coalition – Housing and Land Rights Habitat International Coalition – Housing and Land Rights Network and People’s Movement for Human Rights Network and People’s Movement for Human Rights Learning in collaboration with the United Nations Special Learning in collaboration with the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Adequate Housing, August.Rapporteur on Adequate Housing, August.

United Nations 1992 Conference on Environment and Development in Rio (2005). . Combating poverty: Enabling the poor to achieve Combating poverty: Enabling the poor to achieve sustainable livelihoods, sustainable livelihoods, Agenda 21, Chapter 3Agenda 21, Chapter 3, , July 28,July 28, http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21chapter3.htm

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