AUGUSTAN AGE (1689–AUGUSTAN AGE (1689–1740)1740)

Presented toPresented toMiss Maimona AnwarMiss Maimona AnwarPresented byPresented byRushda Saeed- Political and Religious situationRushda Saeed- Political and Religious situationFazila Fazal Abbas- Social and Economic situationFazila Fazal Abbas- Social and Economic situationZahra Nayab- PoetryZahra Nayab- PoetryTayyaba Ahmad- Augustan DramaTayyaba Ahmad- Augustan DramaSabia Munawar- Prose and Novel Sabia Munawar- Prose and Novel

POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS ISSUES IN AUGUSTAN AGE ISSUES IN AUGUSTAN AGE

Political conditionPolitical condition

The Restoration period ended with The Restoration period ended with the exclusion crisis, where the exclusion crisis, where Parliament set up a new rule for Parliament set up a new rule for succession to the British throne succession to the British throne that favored Protestantism.that favored Protestantism.

The parliament brought William The parliament brought William and Mary to the throne instead of and Mary to the throne instead of James II.James II.

After their demise, Queen Anne After their demise, Queen Anne Stuart came to the throne.Stuart came to the throne.

Queen Anne - - - "when in good Queen Anne - - - "when in good humor, [she] was meekly stupid humor, [she] was meekly stupid and, when in bad humor, was and, when in bad humor, was sulkily stupid."sulkily stupid."

King George I of Hanover (the King George I of Hanover (the capital of the federal state of capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony, Germany) who Lower Saxony, Germany) who inherited the throne after the inherited the throne after the death of Queen Anne Stuart, death of Queen Anne Stuart, according to the Act of Settlement according to the Act of Settlement 1701.1701.

…….Continued.Continued

The Augustan Age is generally regarded as a golden age, The Augustan Age is generally regarded as a golden age, like the period of Roman History which had achieved like the period of Roman History which had achieved political stability and power as well a flourishing of the arts.political stability and power as well a flourishing of the arts.

During George's reign the powers of the monarchy During George's reign the powers of the monarchy diminished and Britain began a transition to the modern diminished and Britain began a transition to the modern system of cabinet government led by a prime minister.system of cabinet government led by a prime minister.

George spent much of his time in Hanover, even after George spent much of his time in Hanover, even after gaining the throne of Britain, and never learned English.gaining the throne of Britain, and never learned English.

The political organization was hierarchical, hereditary and The political organization was hierarchical, hereditary and privileged. Thus elections were largely controlled by the privileged. Thus elections were largely controlled by the powerful landowners and politicians who were more powerful landowners and politicians who were more interested in bribing for winning their elections than in interested in bribing for winning their elections than in obtaining the vote of the citizens.obtaining the vote of the citizens.

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Whigs and ToriesWhigs and Tories The Tories were the conservatives, who supported the monarchy The Tories were the conservatives, who supported the monarchy

and the Church and had a great influence under the Stuarts.and the Church and had a great influence under the Stuarts. The Whigs stood for industrial and commercial development, a The Whigs stood for industrial and commercial development, a

vigorous foreign policy and religious toleration. They achieved vigorous foreign policy and religious toleration. They achieved influence under the Hanoverians and they met without the king influence under the Hanoverians and they met without the king under the guide of a prime minister. under the guide of a prime minister.

The first Prime Minister was Sir Robert Walpole, who managed to The first Prime Minister was Sir Robert Walpole, who managed to keep England out of foreign conflicts and made trade flourish.keep England out of foreign conflicts and made trade flourish.

While the Hanoverian succession was initially popular, George's While the Hanoverian succession was initially popular, George's own behavior - his lack of speaking English, public preference for own behavior - his lack of speaking English, public preference for Hanover over England - started to produce some discontent.Hanover over England - started to produce some discontent.

James Francis Edward Stuart launched an attempt to retake the James Francis Edward Stuart launched an attempt to retake the throne in 1715. Another attempt was launched by the latter's son throne in 1715. Another attempt was launched by the latter's son Charles Edward Stuart in 1745.Charles Edward Stuart in 1745.

George I was served by Robert Walpole until his death. George I was served by Robert Walpole until his death.

Religious AspectsReligious Aspects

London's population exploded spectacularly --- The London's population exploded spectacularly --- The population pressure lead to the urban discontent.population pressure lead to the urban discontent.

Dissenters (those radical Protestants who would not Dissenters (those radical Protestants who would not join with the Church of England) recruited and join with the Church of England) recruited and preached to the poor of the city.preached to the poor of the city.

The Dissenters saw the Roman Catholic Church as the The Dissenters saw the Roman Catholic Church as the Whore of Babylon. Whore of Babylon.

While Anne was high church, George I came from a While Anne was high church, George I came from a far more Protestant nation than England.far more Protestant nation than England.

Anyone too high church was suspected of being a Anyone too high church was suspected of being a closet Jacobite- - - closet Jacobite- - - JacobitismJacobitism was the political was the political movement dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart movement dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart kings to the thrones of England, Scotland, and the kings to the thrones of England, Scotland, and the Kingdom of Ireland Kingdom of Ireland

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SITUATION DURING AUGUSTAN SITUATION DURING AUGUSTAN

AGEAGE

Social situationSocial situationThe age of enlightenmentThe age of enlightenment

Empiricism is a theory of knowledge that asserts that knowledge arises Empiricism is a theory of knowledge that asserts that knowledge arises from evidence gathered via experience.from evidence gathered via experience.

Empiricism: the most eminent feature to make Augustan age , the age of Empiricism: the most eminent feature to make Augustan age , the age of enlightenment.enlightenment.

Press made the material easily available for the common people.Press made the material easily available for the common people. Literature was spread quickly, everybody contributed in producing Literature was spread quickly, everybody contributed in producing

literature.literature. Newspapers not only began but multiplied. Newspapers were compromised Newspapers not only began but multiplied. Newspapers were compromised

as well.as well. Literacy rate increased and education was not confined only to aristocracy.Literacy rate increased and education was not confined only to aristocracy. Because of this literacy increase, literature began to appear from all over Because of this literacy increase, literature began to appear from all over

the kingdom.the kingdom. 1818thth century was more educated than the centuries before. century was more educated than the centuries before. Because of accepted, clear, rational methods as superior to tradition, this Because of accepted, clear, rational methods as superior to tradition, this

age is called the Age of Reason as well.age is called the Age of Reason as well. However, there was a darkness to such literacy as well; nonsense and However, there was a darkness to such literacy as well; nonsense and

insanity were also getting more adherent than before.insanity were also getting more adherent than before.

The socioeconomic situation of The socioeconomic situation of LondonLondon

The population of London was The population of London was increasing. In the Restoration increasing. In the Restoration it grew from around 3,50,000 it grew from around 3,50,000 to 600,000, by 18to 600,000, by 18thth it had it had reached 950,000.reached 950,000.

The Enclosure Acts destroyed The Enclosure Acts destroyed lower class farming in the lower class farming in the countryside and The black act countryside and The black act forced them to migrate to the forced them to migrate to the big cities.big cities.

The Enclosure Acts were The Enclosure Acts were series of United Kingdom Acts series of United Kingdom Acts of Parliament which enclosed of Parliament which enclosed open fields to common open fields to common people.people.

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The countryside was The countryside was left emptyleft empty

This situation swelled This situation swelled the ranks of the ranks of population in the city.population in the city.

Poor and cheap labour Poor and cheap labour increased for the city increased for the city employers.employers.

This population This population pressure led to the pressure led to the proper crimes in the proper crimes in the city.city.

Economic situationEconomic situationIndustrial revolutionIndustrial revolution

Industrial revolution Industrial revolution was stepping in. was stepping in. industrial revolution industrial revolution was a period from the was a period from the 1818thth to the 19 to the 19thth century. century.

Major changes in Major changes in agriculture, agriculture, manufacturing, mining manufacturing, mining and technology had a and technology had a profound effect on the profound effect on the socioeconomic and the socioeconomic and the cultural conditions.cultural conditions.

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Innovations of industrial revolutionInnovations of industrial revolution1.1. Transfer of knowledgeTransfer of knowledge2.2. More focus on scientific More focus on scientific

experimentsexperiments3.3. Cheap labourCheap labour4.4. The countryside was left which The countryside was left which

provided free land to establish provided free land to establish factoriesfactories

Social factors of Industrial Social factors of Industrial revolutionrevolution

1.1. Factories and urbanization in the Factories and urbanization in the countrysidecountryside

2.2. Environment was pollutedEnvironment was polluted3.3. Child labourChild labour4.4. CapitalismCapitalism5.5. Life standard was improvedLife standard was improved6.6. Aristocracy was falling downAristocracy was falling down7.7. The study of Political economy was The study of Political economy was

focusedfocused

POETRYPOETRY

In the classical sense, Augustan poetry was written during the reign of Caesar In the classical sense, Augustan poetry was written during the reign of Caesar Augustus and includes poets such as Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. Augustus and includes poets such as Virgil, Horace, and Ovid.

In the English sense (early-to-mid 18th century poetry), it is a neoclassical In the English sense (early-to-mid 18th century poetry), it is a neoclassical type of poetry such as that found in the works of Alexander Pope. During the type of poetry such as that found in the works of Alexander Pope. During the time period, many poets focusedtime period, many poets focused

18th century 18th century English poetry was political, satirical, and marked by the central was political, satirical, and marked by the central philosophical problem of whether the individual or society took precedence philosophical problem of whether the individual or society took precedence as the subject of verse.as the subject of verse.

Augustan poetryAugustan poetry is a branch of is a branch of Augustan literature, and refers to the , and refers to the poetry of the eighteenth-century, specifically the first half of the century. The poetry of the eighteenth-century, specifically the first half of the century. The term comes most originally from a term that term comes most originally from a term that George I had used for himself. had used for himself. He saw himself as an Augustus. Therefore, the British poets picked up that He saw himself as an Augustus. Therefore, the British poets picked up that term as a way of referring to their own endeavors, for it fit in another respectterm as a way of referring to their own endeavors, for it fit in another respect

In the Augustan era, poets were even more conversant with each other than In the Augustan era, poets were even more conversant with each other than were novelists.were novelists.

Their works were written as direct counterpoint and direct expansion of one Their works were written as direct counterpoint and direct expansion of one another, with each poet writing satire when in oppositionanother, with each poet writing satire when in opposition

direct counterpoint and direct expansion of one another, with each poet direct counterpoint and direct expansion of one another, with each poet writing satire when in oppositionwriting satire when in opposition

…….continued.continued

The other development, one seemingly agreed upon by both The other development, one seemingly agreed upon by both sides, was a gradual expropriation and reinvention of all the sides, was a gradual expropriation and reinvention of all the Classical forms of poetry. Every genre of poetry was recast, Classical forms of poetry. Every genre of poetry was recast, reconsidered, and used to serve new functions. reconsidered, and used to serve new functions. Ode, , ballad, , elegy, satire, parody, , satire, parody, song, and , and lyric poetry would all be would all be adapted from their older uses.adapted from their older uses.

Odes would cease to be encomium, ballads cease to be Odes would cease to be encomium, ballads cease to be narratives, elegies cease to be sincere memorials, satires no narratives, elegies cease to be sincere memorials, satires no longer be specific entertainments, parodies no longer be longer be specific entertainments, parodies no longer be bravurabravura stylistic performances, songs no longer be personal stylistic performances, songs no longer be personal lyrics, and the lyric would become a celebration of the lyrics, and the lyric would become a celebration of the individual rather than a lover's complaint.individual rather than a lover's complaint.

There are many other plausible and coherent explanations of There are many other plausible and coherent explanations of the causes of the rise of the the causes of the rise of the subjective self,subjective self, but whatever the but whatever the prime cause, poets showed the strains of the development as a prime cause, poets showed the strains of the development as a largely conservative set of voices argued for a social person largely conservative set of voices argued for a social person and largely emergent voices argued for the individual person.and largely emergent voices argued for the individual person.

Alexander PopeAlexander Pope

Pope began publishing when very young and Pope began publishing when very young and continued to the end of his life, his poetry is a continued to the end of his life, his poetry is a reference point in any discussion of the 1710s, reference point in any discussion of the 1710s, 1720s, 1730s, or even 1740s. Furthermore, 1720s, 1730s, or even 1740s. Furthermore, Pope's abilities were recognized early in his Pope's abilities were recognized early in his career, so contemporaries acknowledged his career, so contemporaries acknowledged his superiorit.The case with figures such as superiorit.The case with figures such as John Dryden or or William Wordsworth, a second , a second generation did not emerge to eclipse his generation did not emerge to eclipse his position.position.

Pope and his enemies (often called "the Pope and his enemies (often called "the Dunces" because of Pope's successful Dunces" because of Pope's successful satirizing of them in satirizing of them in The Dunciad of of 1727 and and 1738) fought over central matters of the ) fought over central matters of the proper subject matter for poetry and the proper subject matter for poetry and the proper pose of the poetic voice, and the proper pose of the poetic voice, and the excesses and missteps, as much as the excesses and missteps, as much as the achievements, of both sides demonstrated the achievements, of both sides demonstrated the stakes of the battle.stakes of the battle.

The Scribbleran Club (GAY)The Scribbleran Club (GAY) In 1728, his In 1728, his The Beggar's OperaThe Beggar's Opera was an was an

enormous success, running for an unheard-of enormous success, running for an unheard-of eighty performances.eighty performances.

Old style poetic Old style poetic parody involved imitation of involved imitation of the style of an author for the purposes of the style of an author for the purposes of providing amusement, but not for the purpose providing amusement, but not for the purpose of ridicule. The person imitated was not of ridicule. The person imitated was not satirizedsatirized

AUGUSTAN DRAMAAUGUSTAN DRAMAAugustan drama can refer to the Augustan drama can refer to the dramas of of Ancient Rome during during the reign of the reign of Caesar Augustus, , but it most commonly refers to but it most commonly refers to the the plays of Great Britain in the in the early 18th century.early 18th century.

In drama, it was an age in In drama, it was an age in transition between the highly transition between the highly witty and sexually playful witty and sexually playful Restoration comedy, the , the pathetic pathetic she-tragedy, and any , and any later plots of middle-class later plots of middle-class anxiety. The Augustan stage anxiety. The Augustan stage retreated from the Restoration's retreated from the Restoration's focus on cuckoldry, marriage for focus on cuckoldry, marriage for fortune, and a life of leisure. fortune, and a life of leisure. Instead, Augustan drama Instead, Augustan drama reflected questions the reflected questions the mercantile class had about itself mercantile class had about itself and what it meant to be and what it meant to be gentry..

  

PLAYPLAY

The English stage was changing rapidly from The English stage was changing rapidly from Restoration comedy and and Restoration drama and their noble subjects to the quickly developing and their noble subjects to the quickly developing melodrama..

George Lillo and and Richard Steele wrote the trend-setting plays of the early Augustan wrote the trend-setting plays of the early Augustan period. Lillo's plays consciously turned from heroes and kings toward shopkeepers period. Lillo's plays consciously turned from heroes and kings toward shopkeepers and apprentices. They emphasized drama on a household scale rather than a and apprentices. They emphasized drama on a household scale rather than a national scale. The plots are resolved with Christian forgiveness and national scale. The plots are resolved with Christian forgiveness and repentance. . Instead of amusing or inspiring the audience, they sought to instruct the audience Instead of amusing or inspiring the audience, they sought to instruct the audience and ennoble it. Further, the plays were popular precisely because they seemed to and ennoble it. Further, the plays were popular precisely because they seemed to reflect the audience's own lives and concerns.reflect the audience's own lives and concerns.

Joseph Addison also wrote a play entitled Cato in 1713, but it did not inspire also wrote a play entitled Cato in 1713, but it did not inspire followers. Cato concerned the followers. Cato concerned the Roman statesman who opposed who opposed Julius Caesar. The . The play is unique, for play is unique, for Queen Anne was seriously ill at the time, and both the was seriously ill at the time, and both the Tory ministry of the day and the Whig opposition (already led by ministry of the day and the Whig opposition (already led by Robert Walpole) were ) were concerned about the succession. Both groups were in contact with Anne's exiled concerned about the succession. Both groups were in contact with Anne's exiled brother brother James Francis Edward Stuart. Londoners sensed this anxiety, for Anne had . Londoners sensed this anxiety, for Anne had no surviving children; all of the closest successors in the no surviving children; all of the closest successors in the Stuart family were were Roman Catholic. Therefore, the figure of Cato was a transparent symbol of Roman . Therefore, the figure of Cato was a transparent symbol of Roman integrity.integrity.

SPECTACLE AND SPECTACLE AND PANTOMIMEPANTOMIME

As during the Restoration, economic reality drove the stage during As during the Restoration, economic reality drove the stage during the Augustan period. Under the Augustan period. Under Charles II court patronage meant court patronage meant economic success, and therefore the Restoration stage featured economic success, and therefore the Restoration stage featured plays that would suit the monarch and/or court. Charles II was a plays that would suit the monarch and/or court. Charles II was a philanderer, and so Restoration comedy featured a highly sexualized philanderer, and so Restoration comedy featured a highly sexualized set of plays. However, after the reign of set of plays. However, after the reign of William and Mary, the court , the court and crown stopped taking a great interest in the playhouse. Theaters and crown stopped taking a great interest in the playhouse. Theaters had to get their money from the audience of city dwellers, therefore, had to get their money from the audience of city dwellers, therefore, and consequently plays that reflected city anxieties and celebrated and consequently plays that reflected city anxieties and celebrated the lives of citizens were the ones to draw crowds. The aristocratic the lives of citizens were the ones to draw crowds. The aristocratic material from the Restoration continued to be mounted, and material from the Restoration continued to be mounted, and adaptations of adaptations of Tudor plays were made and ran, but the new plays plays were made and ran, but the new plays that were authored and staged were the domestic- and middle-class that were authored and staged were the domestic- and middle-class dramas. The other dramatic innovation was "dramas. The other dramatic innovation was "spectacle": plays that ": plays that had little or no text, but which emphasized novel special effects.had little or no text, but which emphasized novel special effects.

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The public attended when they saw their lives represented on the stage, but The public attended when they saw their lives represented on the stage, but also attended when there was a sight that would impress them. If costumes also attended when there was a sight that would impress them. If costumes were lavish, the sets impressive or the actresses alluring, audiences would were lavish, the sets impressive or the actresses alluring, audiences would attend.attend.

JJohn Rich and and Colley Cibber dueled over special theatrical effects. They put on dueled over special theatrical effects. They put on plays that were actually just spectacles, where the text of the play was almost plays that were actually just spectacles, where the text of the play was almost an afterthought. Dragons, whirlwinds, thunder, ocean waves, and even actual an afterthought. Dragons, whirlwinds, thunder, ocean waves, and even actual elephants were on stage. Battles, explosions, and horses were put on the elephants were on stage. Battles, explosions, and horses were put on the boards (Cibber). boards (Cibber).

Rich specialized in Rich specialized in pantomime and was famous as the character "Lun" in and was famous as the character "Lun" in harlequin presentations. The playwrights of these works were hired men, not presentations. The playwrights of these works were hired men, not dramatists.dramatists.

A pantomime, after all, required very little in the way of a playwright and A pantomime, after all, required very little in the way of a playwright and much more in the way of a director.much more in the way of a director.

The plays put on in this manner are not generally preserved or studied, but The plays put on in this manner are not generally preserved or studied, but their near monopoly on the theaters, particularly in the 1720s, infuriated their near monopoly on the theaters, particularly in the 1720s, infuriated established literary authors.established literary authors.

OperaOpera

If vacant, sub literary spectacles were not enough of a threat to If vacant, sub literary spectacles were not enough of a threat to dramatists, dramatists, opera, which had crossed over to England in the , which had crossed over to England in the Restoration, experienced an enormous surge in popularity with Italian , experienced an enormous surge in popularity with Italian grand opera in England in the 1710s and 1720s.grand opera in England in the 1710s and 1720s.

Opera combined singing with acting, it was a mixed genre, and its Opera combined singing with acting, it was a mixed genre, and its violation of neoclassical strictures had made it a controversial form violation of neoclassical strictures had made it a controversial form from the start.from the start.

This type of opera not only took up theatrical rehearsal time and space, This type of opera not only took up theatrical rehearsal time and space, it also took away dramatic subject matter. Playwrights were at a loss.it also took away dramatic subject matter. Playwrights were at a loss.

High melodies would cover the singers' expressions of grief or joy, High melodies would cover the singers' expressions of grief or joy, conflating all emotion and sense under a tune that might be entirely conflating all emotion and sense under a tune that might be entirely unrelated.unrelated.

It was not merely the fact that such operas drove out original drama, It was not merely the fact that such operas drove out original drama, but also that the antics and vogue for the singers took away all else, but also that the antics and vogue for the singers took away all else, seemingly, that infuriated English authors.seemingly, that infuriated English authors.

LICENSING ACT 1737LICENSING ACT 1737

Toward the end of the 1720s, the behavior of opera stars, the absurdity of Toward the end of the 1720s, the behavior of opera stars, the absurdity of spectacle productions, and an escalation of political warfare between the two spectacle productions, and an escalation of political warfare between the two parties led to a reclamation of the stage by political dramatists.parties led to a reclamation of the stage by political dramatists.

The Licensing Act required all plays to go to a censor before staging, and only The Licensing Act required all plays to go to a censor before staging, and only those plays passed by the censor were allowed to be performed. Therefore, plays those plays passed by the censor were allowed to be performed. Therefore, plays were judged by potential criticism of the ministry and not just by reaction or were judged by potential criticism of the ministry and not just by reaction or performance.performance.

Therefore, the playhouses had little choice but to present old plays and pantomime Therefore, the playhouses had little choice but to present old plays and pantomime and plays that had no conceivable political content.and plays that had no conceivable political content.

William Shakespeare's reputation grew enormously as his plays saw a quadrupling William Shakespeare's reputation grew enormously as his plays saw a quadrupling of performances, and sentimental comedy and melodrama were the only "safe" of performances, and sentimental comedy and melodrama were the only "safe" choices for new drama. Dramatists themselves had to turn to prose or to less choices for new drama. Dramatists themselves had to turn to prose or to less obvious forms of criticism.obvious forms of criticism.

In comedy, one effect of the Licensing Act was that playwrights began to develop a In comedy, one effect of the Licensing Act was that playwrights began to develop a comedy of sentiment. This comedy was critically labeled as "high" comedy, in that comedy of sentiment. This comedy was critically labeled as "high" comedy, in that it was intended to be entertaining rather than actually funny, and brought about its it was intended to be entertaining rather than actually funny, and brought about its entertainment by elevating the sentiments of the viewer. The plots also relied entertainment by elevating the sentiments of the viewer. The plots also relied upon characters being in or out of sympathy with each other.upon characters being in or out of sympathy with each other.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

Augustan drama has a reputation as an era of decline. Augustan drama has a reputation as an era of decline. There were few dominant figures of the Augustan stage. There were few dominant figures of the Augustan stage. Instead of a single genius, a number of playwrights worked Instead of a single genius, a number of playwrights worked

steadily to find subject matter that would appeal to a new steadily to find subject matter that would appeal to a new audience.audience.

When the public did tire of anonymously authored, low-When the public did tire of anonymously authored, low-content plays and a new generation of wits made the stage content plays and a new generation of wits made the stage political and aggressive again, the Whig ministry stepped in political and aggressive again, the Whig ministry stepped in and began official censorship that put an end to daring and and began official censorship that put an end to daring and innovative content. innovative content.

This conspired with the public's taste for special effects to This conspired with the public's taste for special effects to reduce theatrical output and promote the novel. reduce theatrical output and promote the novel.

NOVEL AND PROSENOVEL AND PROSE

NOVELNOVELThe English novel was truly begun as a The English novel was truly begun as a serious artform.serious artform.

The ground for the novel had been laid The ground for the novel had been laid by journalism. It had also been laid by by journalism. It had also been laid by drama and by satire.drama and by satire.

Long prose satires like Swift's Gulliver's Long prose satires like Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) had a central character Travels (1726) had a central character who goes through adventures and may who goes through adventures and may (or may not) learn lessons. However, the (or may not) learn lessons. However, the most important single satirical source most important single satirical source for the writing of novels came from for the writing of novels came from Cervantes's Don Quixote (1605, 1615). Cervantes's Don Quixote (1605, 1615). In general, one can see these three In general, one can see these three axes, drama, journalism, and satire, as axes, drama, journalism, and satire, as blending in and giving rise to three blending in and giving rise to three different types of novel.different types of novel.

One of the names usually associated One of the names usually associated with the novel is the most prominent in with the novel is the most prominent in Puritan writing: Daniel Defoe.Puritan writing: Daniel Defoe.

Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) was the first major novel of the new was the first major novel of the new century and was published in more century and was published in more editions than any other works besides editions than any other works besides Gulliver's Travels (Mullan 252). Defoe Gulliver's Travels (Mullan 252). Defoe had written political and religious had written political and religious polemics prior to Robinson Crusoe, and polemics prior to Robinson Crusoe, and he worked as a journalist during and he worked as a journalist during and after its composition.after its composition.

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Defoe took the actual life and, from that, generated a fictional life.Defoe took the actual life and, from that, generated a fictional life. In the 1720's, Defoe wrote "Lives" of criminals for Applebee's In the 1720's, Defoe wrote "Lives" of criminals for Applebee's

Journal. He interviewed famed criminals and produced accounts of Journal. He interviewed famed criminals and produced accounts of their lives.their lives.

here were other novels and novelistic works in the interim, Samuel here were other novels and novelistic works in the interim, Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) is the next Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) is the next landmark development in the English novel.landmark development in the English novel.

Thematically, Defoe's works are consistently Puritan. They all Thematically, Defoe's works are consistently Puritan. They all involve a fall, a degradation of the spirit, a conversion, and an involve a fall, a degradation of the spirit, a conversion, and an ecstatic elevation. This religious structure necessarily involved a ecstatic elevation. This religious structure necessarily involved a bildungsroman, for each character had to learn a lesson about him bildungsroman, for each character had to learn a lesson about him or herself and emerge the wiser.or herself and emerge the wiser.

Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or, Virtue Rewarded (1740) is the Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or, Virtue Rewarded (1740) is the next landmark development in the English novel.next landmark development in the English novel.

PROSEPROSE

The essay, satire, and dialogue (in philosophy and religion) thrived in the age.The essay, satire, and dialogue (in philosophy and religion) thrived in the age. Literacy in the early 18th century passed into the working classes, as well as Literacy in the early 18th century passed into the working classes, as well as

the middle and upper classes (Thompson, Class).the middle and upper classes (Thompson, Class). Literacy was not confined to men, though rates of female literacy are very Literacy was not confined to men, though rates of female literacy are very

difficult to establish.difficult to establish. Libraries were open to all, but they were mainly associated with female Libraries were open to all, but they were mainly associated with female

patronage and novel reading.patronage and novel reading. ESSAY/JOURNALISM:ESSAY/JOURNALISM: Periodical literature grew between 1692 and 1712. Periodical literature grew between 1692 and 1712. Periodicals were inexpensive to produce, quick to read, and a viable way of Periodicals were inexpensive to produce, quick to read, and a viable way of

influencing public opinion, and consequently there were many broadsheet influencing public opinion, and consequently there were many broadsheet periodicals headed by a single author and staffed by hirelings (so-called "Grub periodicals headed by a single author and staffed by hirelings (so-called "Grub Street" authors).Street" authors).

One periodical outsold and dominated all others, however, and that was The One periodical outsold and dominated all others, however, and that was The Spectator, written by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele (with occasional Spectator, written by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele (with occasional contributions from their friends).contributions from their friends).

PHILOSOPHY AND PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGIOUS WRITINGRELIGIOUS WRITING

Philosophy in England was fully dominated by John Locke, the 18th Philosophy in England was fully dominated by John Locke, the 18th century had a vigorous competition among followers of Locke.century had a vigorous competition among followers of Locke.

Bishop Berkeley extended Locke's emphasis on perception to argue Bishop Berkeley extended Locke's emphasis on perception to argue that perception entirely solves the Cartesian problem of subjective that perception entirely solves the Cartesian problem of subjective and objective knowledge by saying "to be is to be perceived." Only, and objective knowledge by saying "to be is to be perceived." Only, Berkeley argued, those things that are perceived by a consciousness Berkeley argued, those things that are perceived by a consciousness are real.are real.

David Hume, on the other hand, took empiricist skepticism to its David Hume, on the other hand, took empiricist skepticism to its extremes, and he was the most radically empiricist philosopher of extremes, and he was the most radically empiricist philosopher of the period.the period.

Hume doggedly refused to enter into questions of his personal faith Hume doggedly refused to enter into questions of his personal faith in the divine, but his assault on the logic and assumptions of in the divine, but his assault on the logic and assumptions of theodicy and cosmogeny was devastating, and he concentrated on theodicy and cosmogeny was devastating, and he concentrated on the provable and empirical in a way that would lead to utilitarianism the provable and empirical in a way that would lead to utilitarianism and naturalism later.and naturalism later.

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