Atypical Cognitive and Atypical Cognitive and Social DevelopmentSocial Development

Child Development Child Development

ObjectivesObjectives

1. Analysis of the strengths and 1. Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of theoretical weaknesses of theoretical frameworks for conceptualizing frameworks for conceptualizing atypical patterns of cognitive and atypical patterns of cognitive and Social development.Social development.

2. Familiarity with major research 2. Familiarity with major research findings regarding atypical patterns findings regarding atypical patterns of cognitive and social of cognitive and social development.development.

Kleinberg (1982) "The child faces a variety of Kleinberg (1982) "The child faces a variety of developmental tasks. These are determined by developmental tasks. These are determined by such factors as physical maturation, increasing such factors as physical maturation, increasing cognitive and communicative capacities and cognitive and communicative capacities and changing social and affective needs" (p. 23).changing social and affective needs" (p. 23).Disabling conditions interfere with ‘typical’ Disabling conditions interfere with ‘typical’ growth and development, psychologically, growth and development, psychologically, cognitively and physically. Disability can cognitively and physically. Disability can negatively effect ‘normal’ cognitive development. negatively effect ‘normal’ cognitive development. The major paradigms that have been used in The major paradigms that have been used in conceptualizing and studying atypical cognitive conceptualizing and studying atypical cognitive and social development include Constructivism, and social development include Constructivism, Information Processing, Socioculturalism, Information Processing, Socioculturalism, (Social) Learning Theory, and Bioadaptation.(Social) Learning Theory, and Bioadaptation.

Issues related to perceptual organization, Issues related to perceptual organization, memory, concepts of physical and social memory, concepts of physical and social causality, problem-solving, formation of social causality, problem-solving, formation of social relationships, self-awareness and self-relationships, self-awareness and self-regulation, and social inferencing.regulation, and social inferencing.

Empirical studies of cognitive development Empirical studies of cognitive development usually report the abilities that children display at usually report the abilities that children display at different ages. The cognitive mechanisms that different ages. The cognitive mechanisms that allow a child with a disability to move from one allow a child with a disability to move from one set of abilities to a more complex set remain set of abilities to a more complex set remain shrouded in mystery.shrouded in mystery.

Erikson’s Stage ModelErikson’s Stage Model

According to Erikson's stages of development, tasks According to Erikson's stages of development, tasks which must be mastered at each stage may be short which must be mastered at each stage may be short circuited by the intrusion of a disability.circuited by the intrusion of a disability.Lack of mastery of certain tasks at particular stages Lack of mastery of certain tasks at particular stages leads to non-mastery or the negative counterpart of each leads to non-mastery or the negative counterpart of each stage. The disabled child may suffer more from the lack stage. The disabled child may suffer more from the lack of mastery of certain tasks than from the disability itself.of mastery of certain tasks than from the disability itself.The theory can give the caregiver an idea of what The theory can give the caregiver an idea of what accomplishments a child may achieve at each level, and accomplishments a child may achieve at each level, and help support the child at each stage to reach their full help support the child at each stage to reach their full potential. potential. In comparison, the theory can support discriminatory In comparison, the theory can support discriminatory notions of disability and reinforce that disability is a notions of disability and reinforce that disability is a weakness. weakness.

PiagetPiaget

Piaget's (1970) cognitive theory is age-dependent and suggests that Piaget's (1970) cognitive theory is age-dependent and suggests that the ability to reason develops through specific age-stage periods the ability to reason develops through specific age-stage periods future skills depending on the mastery of those before. future skills depending on the mastery of those before. A process of acquiring mental representations of increasing A process of acquiring mental representations of increasing complexity: assimilation, accommodation and equilibration.complexity: assimilation, accommodation and equilibration.Running throughout Piaget's theory is the need for an individual to Running throughout Piaget's theory is the need for an individual to move, explore, master, construct through play and movement and move, explore, master, construct through play and movement and the use of language to recall or categorize what has been learned the use of language to recall or categorize what has been learned (Anastasiow, 1986). (Anastasiow, 1986). Theory stresses individual's need to interact with the environment. If Theory stresses individual's need to interact with the environment. If the environment is safe then normal cognitive development can take the environment is safe then normal cognitive development can take place along with normal psychosocial development. Therefore, place along with normal psychosocial development. Therefore, disability can effect the psychosocial development, which, in turn, disability can effect the psychosocial development, which, in turn, can greatly effect the cognitive growth of the individual at every can greatly effect the cognitive growth of the individual at every stage. stage.

Theory has been used as a diagnostic tool. Theory has been used as a diagnostic tool. Assert that children with intellectual disabilities Assert that children with intellectual disabilities pass through the same stages of maturation but pass through the same stages of maturation but at a slower stage. Some individuals do not reach at a slower stage. Some individuals do not reach the higher level of formal operational thinking.the higher level of formal operational thinking.

Westwood (1989) School age children with Westwood (1989) School age children with moderate learning difficulties tend to function at moderate learning difficulties tend to function at the ‘concrete operational’ stage.the ‘concrete operational’ stage.

Whereas youngsters who live with severe Whereas youngsters who live with severe learning disabilities ‘sensori-motor’ or ‘pre-learning disabilities ‘sensori-motor’ or ‘pre-operational’ operational’

Commonsense methods for children with special educational needs. Commonsense methods for children with special educational needs. Westwood (1989)Westwood (1989)

Research findings in learning disabilities based on Research findings in learning disabilities based on Piaget's theory were reviewed by Fakouri (1991) . Piaget's theory were reviewed by Fakouri (1991) . Superimposing the findings of research on Piagetian Superimposing the findings of research on Piagetian stages of cognitive development, it appears that during stages of cognitive development, it appears that during the sensorimotor stage the diagnosis of learning the sensorimotor stage the diagnosis of learning disabilities is difficult. The research findings suggest that disabilities is difficult. The research findings suggest that there is a delay in cognitive development of learning-there is a delay in cognitive development of learning-disabled children during elementary school years, which disabled children during elementary school years, which corresponds to preoperational, concrete operational, and corresponds to preoperational, concrete operational, and transition to formal operational stages. From a genetic transition to formal operational stages. From a genetic epistemological perspective, research evidence supports epistemological perspective, research evidence supports a developmental lag approach to learning disabilities.a developmental lag approach to learning disabilities.This research has Implications for assessment, This research has Implications for assessment, curriculum planning, and education provision. curriculum planning, and education provision.

M. E. Fakouri Psychology in the Schools. Volume 28, Issue 1 , Pages70 - 76. Copyright © 1991 Wiley M. E. Fakouri Psychology in the Schools. Volume 28, Issue 1 , Pages70 - 76. Copyright © 1991 Wiley

Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley CompanyPeriodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company

Research has supported the idea that Piagetian teaching methods Research has supported the idea that Piagetian teaching methods can improve cognitive abilities of children who experience can improve cognitive abilities of children who experience impairment.impairment.

Williams (Journal of intellectual disability research, 1996) used a Williams (Journal of intellectual disability research, 1996) used a simplified version of Piaget's sensorimotor levels was employed to simplified version of Piaget's sensorimotor levels was employed to teach a group of 25 extremely impaired individuals who live in a teach a group of 25 extremely impaired individuals who live in a large residential home. Using this tool, an average of 13% of large residential home. Using this tool, an average of 13% of individuals from the common population pool increased their scores individuals from the common population pool increased their scores over a 6-year time period. All of the individuals who received training over a 6-year time period. All of the individuals who received training within the experimental group demonstrated increased scores. within the experimental group demonstrated increased scores. Scores increased such that an average gain of nearly I month in Scores increased such that an average gain of nearly I month in overall age equivalency per individual per year was realized. A overall age equivalency per individual per year was realized. A matched group comparison, a prediction test for like sensorimotor matched group comparison, a prediction test for like sensorimotor skill attainment (the primary distinction of this curriculum skill attainment (the primary distinction of this curriculum methodology), and an historical review of subject skill training, all methodology), and an historical review of subject skill training, all support the cognitively geared methodology as being primarily support the cognitively geared methodology as being primarily responsible for this accelerated progress. responsible for this accelerated progress.

Vygotsky & Social Constructionist Vygotsky & Social Constructionist TheoriesTheories

Dynamic nature of disability: constant changes in the structure and Dynamic nature of disability: constant changes in the structure and content of a disability take place during development and under the content of a disability take place during development and under the influence of Social factors. influence of Social factors. Human development is a socio-genetic process carried out in social Human development is a socio-genetic process carried out in social activities. activities. Education "leads" development which is the result of social learning Education "leads" development which is the result of social learning through the internalization of culture and social relationships. through the internalization of culture and social relationships. Development is not a straight path of quantitative gains and Development is not a straight path of quantitative gains and accumulations, but a series of qualitative, dialectic transformations, accumulations, but a series of qualitative, dialectic transformations, a complex process of integration and disintegration. Vygotsky a complex process of integration and disintegration. Vygotsky considered disability as a “considered disability as a “social aberrationsocial aberration” (1993: p 66), informed ” (1993: p 66), informed from children’s changing social, environmental relations. from children’s changing social, environmental relations. Introduced a practice-oriented paradigm for the education of Introduced a practice-oriented paradigm for the education of children with special needs -children with special needs - Dysontogenesis Dysontogenesis (TD) (Karpov (TD) (Karpov 2005:10).2005:10).

Concept of Concept of primary defects (organic defects)primary defects (organic defects), , secondary defects secondary defects ((“cultural consequences of primary defects”), and their interaction - “cultural consequences of primary defects”), and their interaction - a disability-specific ‘Zone of proximal development’. Disability is a disability-specific ‘Zone of proximal development’. Disability is considered as a considered as a socio-cultural developmental phenomenon socio-cultural developmental phenomenon where where compensation will have to come from socialization and cultural compensation will have to come from socialization and cultural support.support.Vygotsky claimed that the most efficient compensation for the loss Vygotsky claimed that the most efficient compensation for the loss or weakness of natural functions can be achieved through the or weakness of natural functions can be achieved through the development of the higher mental functions - implementation of a development of the higher mental functions - implementation of a ““positive differential approachpositive differential approach”.”.The development of the individual with a disability is not "slowed-The development of the individual with a disability is not "slowed-down" or "missing" variations of normal development. "A child down" or "missing" variations of normal development. "A child whose development is impeded by a disability is not simply a child whose development is impeded by a disability is not simply a child less developed than his peers; rather, he has developed differently." less developed than his peers; rather, he has developed differently." (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 96). (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 96). Theory implies a favourable societal view on children with Theory implies a favourable societal view on children with disabilities, directing the focus point not on weaknesses and disabilities, directing the focus point not on weaknesses and disorders, but on the strengthening and empowerment of individual disorders, but on the strengthening and empowerment of individual skills.skills.

Biomedical ApproachesBiomedical ApproachesSheridan – developmental progress using concrete Sheridan – developmental progress using concrete cognitive, social and physical norms.cognitive, social and physical norms.Traditionally, a child with a disability has been considered Traditionally, a child with a disability has been considered to be either "underdeveloped/developmentally delayed“.to be either "underdeveloped/developmentally delayed“.According to this model, disability is identified with illness According to this model, disability is identified with illness or impairment. From this perspective, in order to or impairment. From this perspective, in order to understand a disability, the background and health understand a disability, the background and health conditions must be understood as the disability is part of conditions must be understood as the disability is part of what is 'wrong' with the person. Under this definition, this what is 'wrong' with the person. Under this definition, this medical condition resides entirely with the individual and medical condition resides entirely with the individual and is considered unchanging across cultures. is considered unchanging across cultures. The difference between a child with a disability and The difference between a child with a disability and his/her non-disabled peer is only quantitative.his/her non-disabled peer is only quantitative.

Critique of TheoriesCritique of Theories

Theories of development as normative frameworks.Theories of development as normative frameworks.Societal expectations regarding 'typicality' and normality Societal expectations regarding 'typicality' and normality which have an impact on how professionals identify and which have an impact on how professionals identify and respond to atypical developmental patterns.respond to atypical developmental patterns.Identified boundaries of deviation from developmental Identified boundaries of deviation from developmental norms – different and ‘sub-normal’.norms – different and ‘sub-normal’.Lubeck (1996) Over-simplification fails to deal with the Lubeck (1996) Over-simplification fails to deal with the diversity of children’s development. Pecheux (1999) diversity of children’s development. Pecheux (1999) predictive ‘developmental timescales’ are too inequitable predictive ‘developmental timescales’ are too inequitable and can not be applied to minority groups.and can not be applied to minority groups.Hauser-Cram (2001) Social diversity of human Hauser-Cram (2001) Social diversity of human development rather than biological universality. development rather than biological universality.

Children as ‘incomplete-adults’. The perceived Children as ‘incomplete-adults’. The perceived cognitive norms and competences of adulthood cognitive norms and competences of adulthood define the norms of child development. Supports define the norms of child development. Supports notion that children with disabilities are ‘failing’ to notion that children with disabilities are ‘failing’ to be autonomous adult citizens that modern be autonomous adult citizens that modern society requires in the workforce.society requires in the workforce.Labelling theory – Learning difficulties, Labelling theory – Learning difficulties, developmental disability – incomplete people.developmental disability – incomplete people.Correction of biological and cognitive Correction of biological and cognitive characteristics of children. The Social Model characteristics of children. The Social Model encourages us to improve Social structures and encourages us to improve Social structures and institutions this ‘dis-able’ the individual.institutions this ‘dis-able’ the individual.Social responses to childhood in contemporary Social responses to childhood in contemporary society need to be more flexible to the diversity society need to be more flexible to the diversity of human development (Preistly, 2003).of human development (Preistly, 2003).

Moving to an Ecological approach Moving to an Ecological approach in Cognitive Development.in Cognitive Development.

This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment.Bronfenbrenner’s theory defines complex “layers” of environment, each having an effect on a child’s development. “Bioecological systems theory” to emphasize that a child’s own biology is a primary environment fuelling her development. The interaction between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

Ecological ModelEcological Model

Existentialism and DevelopmentExistentialism and Development

Existentialism – focuses on the whole Existentialism – focuses on the whole structure of personal and inter-personal structure of personal and inter-personal being and the necessity to encourage being and the necessity to encourage freedom and responsibility.freedom and responsibility.

Potential for growth.Potential for growth.

Uniqueness of the individualUniqueness of the individual

Maslow, RogersMaslow, Rogers

Final ThoughtsFinal Thoughts

Ecological and Existential approaches to development incorporate Ecological and Existential approaches to development incorporate the concepts of the Social Model of Disability - the concepts of the Social Model of Disability - “It is society that disables us, not our impairments.” The social model of disability represents a challenge to traditional thinking about social and cognitive development. It has the potential to transform policies and practice as well as the lives of people who live with a disability. However, too-easy acceptance of the new disability paradigm may even be counterproductive: by being so easy it runs the risk of ignoring how negative assumptions and attitudes about disability (held by both disabled and non-disabled people) are so deeply ingrained and continually reinforced. Require a genuine awareness of the unequal power relationships that define developmental understanding and theory, and its relationship with disability, gender and ethnicity.