ATTITUDES OF ESL STUDENTS TOWARD THE USE OF

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING

(CALL) IN A UNIVERSITY IN CHINA

by

SHIKUN ZHANG

Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School Texas A&M University-Commerce

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION May 2011

UMI Number: 3467974

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ATTITUDES OF ESL STUDENTS TOWARD THE USE OF

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING

(CALL) IN A UNIVERSITY IN CHINA

Approved:

lfoujj*}o ( y f e j£pQ&nj Adviser

/TUii^^^v^

Dean of the College ofJEducation and Human Services

Dean of Graduate Studies and Research

ii

Copyright ©2011

Shikun Zhang

in

ABSTRACT

ATTITUDES OF ESL STUDENTS TOWARD THE USE OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING

(CALL) IN A UNIVERSITY IN CHINA

Shikun Zhang, EdD Texas A&M University-Commerce, 2011

Adviser: Jason Davis, PhD

With the development of educational technology, it is important to determine ESL

students' attitudes toward the effectiveness of technology used in the ESL classes in a

university in Central Eastern China. Students' attitudes can reflect the reality of

utilization of computer technology-based ESL courses. The findings can help educators

to effectively use computer technology.

This study utilized two instruments: A demographic survey and a separate Scale

of Attitudes toward Computer-Assisted Language Learning (SACALL). The research

questionnaires were administered to 208 participants. Statistical methods including t-

tests, correlation coefficient tests, and a one-way ANOVA were used to analyze the data.

iv

V

The study findings indicate that Chinese ESL learners had positive attitudes

toward CALL. The r-test findings showed that female ESL learners in the university had

more positive attitudes toward CALL than their male counterparts. The r-test also found

that undergraduate learners had more positive attitudes toward CALL than did graduate

learners. The ANOVA findings confirmed that students expressed different attitudes

toward CALL based on the previous number of CALL courses taken and the frequency of

the students' computer usage. The results of the Pearson's r correlation indicated that

five out of six correlations were statistically significant among the following variables:

(a) students' perceived abilities in computer use, (b) students' number of CALL-based

ESL courses, (c) students' frequency of computer usage, and (d) students' attitudes

toward CALL.

In the ESL field, this study found that students' attitudes toward CALL were a

key factor for predicting the success of computer assisted learning. The findings of this

study should be useful for both administrators and faculty who use CALL in their ESL

courses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my major advisor and chair of

my doctoral degree committee, Dr. Jason Davis, for his patience, understanding,

kindness, and support. My appreciation also extends to my other committee members:

Dr. Madeline Justice and Dr. Chris Green for their encouragement and constructive

suggestions.

Special thanks are extended to Dr. Fang Chuanyu for his assistance in the process

of data collection in China. I would like to express my appreciation to Bob and Jerry

Titus. They are like grandparents who took care of me while I lived in Commerce.

Thanks are also expressed to all my friends, classmates, and co-workers who supported

and assisted me when I had any kind of problem.

Most of all, my deepest gratitude is expressed to my parents in China. They gave

me all kinds of support, especially emotionally. They also trusted and encouraged me,

even when I almost lost my confidence. Without all their help, I could not have

completed this study.

VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES x

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem 6

Purpose of the Study 7

Research Questions 8

Hypotheses 9

Significance of the Study 10

Method of Procedure 17

Human Subjects Committee Approval 18

Development of Survey Instrument 18

Selection of Subjects 20

Collection of Data 20

Treatment of Data 21

Definitions of Terms 21

Limitations 22

Delimitations 22

Assumptions 23

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 24

Utilization of Computer Technology in ESL Education 25

The Application of CALL 27

vii

viii

The Advantages of Using Computer Technology in ESL Education ... 31

The Concerns of Using Computer Technology in ESL Education 37

Future Trends in Using Computer Technology in ESL

Education 40

The Current Situation of Using CALL in Universities in China 42

Attitudes toward Using Computers in Language Learning 49

3. METHOD OF PROCEDURE 52

Development of Survey Instrument 53

Part One: Demographic Data 53

Part Two: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL) 54

Validation of Survey Instruments 55

Translation of Survey Instruments 57

Reliability of Survey Instruments 58

Selection of Subjects 58

Collection of Data 66

Treatment of Data 68

4. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA 69

Research Question 1 69

Research Question 2 70

Research Question 3 71

Research Question 4 72

Research Question 5 72

Research Question 6 73

ix

Research Question 7 76

Research Question 8 77

Research Question 9 78

5. SUMMARY, FINDINGS & DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS 80

Summary 80

Findings & Discussion 82

Conclusions 85

Recommendations 86

Recommendations for Further Study 89

REFERENCES 91

APPENDICES 107

Appendix A: Faculty Informed Consent Letter 108

Appendix B: Faculty Informed Consent Letter (Chinese Version) 110

Appendix C: Student Informed Consent Letter 112

Appendix D: Student Informed Consent Letter (Chinese Version) 114

Appendix E: Permission for Using Instrument 116

Appendix F: Survey Questionnaire 119

Appendix G: Survey Questionnaire (Chinese Version) 124

VITA 129

LIST OF TABLES

Table

1: Participants by Gender 59

2: Participants by Degree 60

3: Participants by Self-perceived Computer Ability 60

4: Participants by Major 61

5: Participants by Access to a Computer 62

6: Participants by Course Preference 63

7: Participants by Attitudes toward Helpfulness of CALL in ESL Course 63

8: Participants by Frequency of Using Computer 64

9: Participants by Number of Received CALL-Based ESL Course 65

10: Participants by Places of Receiving CALL-Based ESL Course 65

11: General Attitudes toward CALL 70

12: Gender and Attitudes toward CALL 71

13: Degree of Pursuing and Attitudes toward CALL 72

14: Major and Attitudes toward CALL 73

15: Accessibility to a Computer and Attitudes toward CALL 74

16: Number of Classes Taken and Attitudes toward CALL 75

17: Frequency of Computer Usage and Attitudes toward CALL 77

18: Setting of Receiving CALL-Based ESL Courses and Attitudes toward CALL 78

19: Comparison of Four Factors 79

x

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The computer is an inevitable technology that is widespread in daily life.

Combined changes in computer technology, the economy and social structure have

propelled technology into the 21st century. Braul (2006) stated that "certain sectors of

society have developed an increasing reliance on computers to carry out jobs, maintain

and establish lines of communication, as well as to meet needs of leisure" (p. 7).

Muffoletto and Knupfer (1993) also found that the influence of the computer on

education, business and entertainment is not only situated within the social world, but

also has affected the social world.

Education is an area with varied degrees of success. Muffoletto and Knupfer

(1993) said that the computer is the motif of academic excellence and quality education.

Technology has helped engage students in meaningful learning that enhances their

abilities in critical thinking skills, problem solving skills and cooperation skills

(Monsakul, 2005).

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) refers to the use of the computer as a tool to

facilitate and improve instruction (Sharp, 2005). The term CAI came into being in the

early 1960's when computers were first used in education (Zhao, 1996). Sharp said the

invention of the microcomputer has led to the development of computer technology in the

education field. Also, Sharp stated that there are five different types of CAI that can

facilitate students learning through various methods including: (1) tutorial, (2) simulation,

(3) drill and practice, (4) problem solving and (5) instructional games.

1

2

Bruess (2003) described the current situation of computer technology usage in

universities by stating that "the ever-growing use of computer technology in the

classroom is being realized in the universities" (p. 1) and that there has been an increase

in the use of instructional technology in higher education classrooms. Integrating

computer technology into education can maintain students' interest as well as engage

them in the classroom (Pemberton, Borrego, & Cohen, 2006). Zaremba and Dunn (2004)

summarized in their report that "students have greater enjoyment of classes using active

learning techniques like using computer technology in the classroom" (p. 192). As

technological developments accelerate in educational settings, integrating computer

technology into academic learning provides students with more opportunities to gain

interest in exploring learning content (Wright, 2008).

Orshalick (1982) wrote a chapter entitled Instructional Computing at the

University Level in the book Computer Support for Education. Orshalick listed the

advantages of computer usage at the university level, which include: "it frees the

instructor of repetitive tasks, it provides individualized instruction, it's more accurate, it's

more patient, and it lets the student progress at his own pace" (p. 22).

Computer technologies bring some problems and challenges that may keep

educators from achieving the full potential of the computer. Simonson and Thompson

(1997) found three problems with using computers effectively in the classroom: (1)

inadequate teacher training, (2) lack of integration into the curriculum and (3) the

dynamic nature of computing. Computers have also become a valuable component in

language programs. Jonassen (1996) indicated that current computer technologies offer

many advantages for second language learning. According to Dhaif (1983) the

3

introduction of the computer as an aid in the language classroom was the most significant

milestone in recent language teaching. Teachers of contemporary language education are

currently discovering new and innovative ways to use computers to assist in the

acquisition of second languages (Braul, 2006).

"The computer and its attached language learning programs could provide second

language learners more independence from classrooms and allow learners the option to

work on their learning material at any time of the day" (Lai & Kritsonis, 2006, p. 2). It

can be expected that, according to Lai and Kritsonis,

the cost for computer technology is considerably lower than for face-to-

face classroom teaching under the condition that it is implemented, and

when used in conjunction with traditional second language classroom

study, students can study more independently, leaving the teacher more

time to concentrate effort on those parts of second language teaching that

are still hard or impossible by the computer, such as pronunciation, work

on spoken dialogue, training for essay writing and presentation, (p.2)

Lee (2000) further stated that the reason why computers should be applied

technology in second language instruction is that with the computer and its attached

language learning programs, the technology can (a) improve practices for students

through experiential learning, (b) motivate students to learn more, (c) enhance student

achievement, (d) increase authentic materials for study, (e) encourage greater interaction

between teachers and students and students and peers, (f) emphasize individual needs, (g)

escape from a single source of information and, (h) enlarge global understanding. Taylor

4

(1980) also expressed that computer assisted language learning programs can be a

wonderful stimulus for second language learning.

As a specialized term for second language computer-assisted learning, Computer-

Assisted Language Learning (CALL) was adopted at the 1983 Teachers of English to

Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) conference in Toronto, Canada to refer to the

applications of computer technologies to second language acquisition (Chapelle, 2001).

The development and innovation of CALL'S development and innovation illuminated

more possibilities for language teachers and learners. Braul (2006) summarized CALL'S

advantages in second language teaching in the dissertation ESL Teacher perceptions and

attitudes toward using CALL as being "individualized instruction, exposure to more

authentic materials and communicative opportunities, self-paced instruction, feedback,

lower anxiety levels, student positive perceptions of CALL, and experiential learning and

interaction" (p. 26 - 27).

Some scholars, however, have negative viewpoints about CAI. Olsen (1980)

found that some faculty thought CAI was a waste of time, energy, and money and feared

it would dehumanize language learning. To be more specific, Gips, DiMattia, and Gips

(2004) indicated that the first disadvantage of the computer and its attached language

learning programs is that they would increase educational costs and cause educational

inequity. To illustrate this point, expensive hardware and software can become major

obligations for schools and parents.

Second, it is necessary that both teachers and learners should have basic

technology knowledge before they use computer technologies to assist in second

language teaching and learning. Students do not have the ability to utilize the computer if

5

they lack training in basic computer literacy skills. Unfortunately, most teachers have not

received technological training to guide their students in exploring computers and in

using them for language learning. As a result, the benefits of computer technology for

those students who are not familiar with the computer can be missed (Roblyer, 2003).

Third, the software programs that are used for computer-assisted language

learning programs are far from perfect. Current computer technology deals the most with

reading, listening and writing skills. Programs for improving speech skills, which are the

most useful skills for foreign language learners in order to communicate with native

speakers, are still underdeveloped. Even though some speaking programs have been

developed recently, their functions are still limited. Warschauer (2004) indicated that an

ideal speaking skills improvement program should be able to understand a user's 'spoken'

input and evaluate it, not just for correctness, but also for 'appropriateness'. In addition, it

should be able to diagnose a student's problems with pronunciation, syntax or usage and

then intelligently decide among a range of options.

Fourth, computers are still machines. They do not have the ability to deal with

unexpected situations. Second language learners' learning situations are varied and ever

changing. Due to the limitations of artificial intelligence, computer technology is unable

to deal with learners' unexpected learning problems or to respond to learners' questions

immediately as teachers do. The reasons for the computer's inability to interact

effectively can be traced back to a fundamental difference in the way humans and

computers utilize information (Dent, 2001). Blin (1999) also expressed that computer

technology with a degree of intelligence does not yet exist and is not expected to exist for

quite a long time. In summary, today's computer technology and its attached language

6

learning programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive. More effort is

needed in developing and improving computer technology in order to assist second

language learners.

Despite the frustration and barriers confronted by some faculty, the field of

English as a Second Language (ESL) can be enhanced through the use of computer

technology (Zhao, 1996). Ybarra and Green (2003) included computer technologies in

their classroom and concluded that computers can play an integral part in providing

English language learners with valuable language experiences as they acquire a new

language. Warschauer (2004) addressed how ESL teaching and learning was promoted by

incorporating technology into instruction. Claybourne (1999) listed two advantages of

CAI-based ESL courses which include: creation of a safe and interactive teaching and

learning environment and language learning software programs that can stimulate the

interest of students.

With the development of the computer and its related software industry,

integrating language arts computer programs into the curriculum is easier than other types

of programs (Sharp, 2005). However, the field has not been studied very much (Zhao,

1996). Students' attitudes toward CAI-based ESL classes is a topic that deserves

researchers' attention.

Statement of the Problem

The information revolution has challenged the traditional means of knowledge

processing and is driving higher education's response to it. With the advancement of

computer technology in the field of education, English as Second Language (ESL)

teachers in the universities of China, influenced by scholars in western countries, started

7

to use computer-assisted instruction (CAI), especially computer-assisted language

learning (CALL), in their classrooms. Researchers in the past have questioned the

effectiveness of CAI for language learners (Al-Shammari, 2007).

Understanding why people accept or reject information technology has proven to

be one of the most important and challenging issues in educational research (Davis,

Bagozzi, & Warsaw, 1989). Also Horvat, Petric, and Mikrut (2004) said that no matter

how sophisticated and how capable the technology, its effective implementation depends

upon users having a positive attitude. There are many studies focused on the effectiveness

of CAI and CALL on teachers' attitudes toward computer usage in the language arts

classroom. Only a few studies pay attention to students' attitudes about computer usage

in the classroom, especially in the ESL classroom. The success of efforts to integrate

technology with education is largely affected by students' attitudes toward technology

(Pektas & Erkip, 2006). The problem for this study is the attitudes of ESL students

regarding the computer and its application in ESL programs in a university in Central

Eastern China.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to determine the attitudes of ESL students toward

CALL and to describe the demographic characteristics of students in a university in

Central Eastern China. The specific purposes are as follows:

1. To examine the attitudes of students toward computer usage in ESL courses

based on gender, academic level, major, access to a computer, self-perception

of computer ability, prior experience in a course utilizing CALL, frequency of

8

computer usage, and the kinds of lab settings in which the ESL course is

received.

2. To discover the relationship among the following variables: (a) students'

perceived ability in computer use, (b) students' number of CALL-based ESL

courses, (c) students' frequency of computer usage and (d) students' attitudes

toward CALL.

Research Questions

The following research questions will direct this study:

1. What are the ESL students' attitudes toward CALL in general at the university

as indicated by the SACALL instrument?

2. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between male and female ESL students?

3. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between undergraduate and graduate level ESL students?

4. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between students with majors in Arts and those with majors in Sciences?

5. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between ESL students who have access to a computer and those who do not?

6. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL among

ESL students who have taken a different number of CALL courses?

7. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between ESL students based on frequency in computer usage?

9

8. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between ESL students based on the laboratory setting: computer lab and

language lab?

9. What is the difference in the relationships among the following variables: (a)

students' perceived ability in computer use, (b) students' number of CALL-

based ESL courses, (c) students' frequency of computer usage, and (d)

students' attitudes toward CALL?

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be tested and reported at the .05 level of

significance.

1. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between male and female ESL students.

2. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between undergraduate and graduate level ESL students.

3. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between ESL students majoring in Arts and Science.

4. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CAI

between ESL students who have access to a computer and those who do not.

5. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CAI

between ESL students based on the number of CALL courses taken.

6. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CAI

between ESL students based on frequency of computer use.

10

7. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CAI

between ESL students based on the laboratory setting: computer lab and

language lab.

8. There is no significant difference in the relationships among the following

variables: (a) students' perceived ability in computer use, (b) students'

number of CALL-based ESL courses, (c) students' frequency of computer

usage, (d) students' attitudes toward CALL.

Significance of the Study

"Computers have become important tools in today's society and have proven

beneficial in the field of education" (Morton, 1996, p. 416). Educational institutions rely

increasingly on computers to modify the teaching and learning process (Mitra &

Steffensmeier, 2000). Computer technology brings a new way of teaching to teachers.

Calero (2001) said that after experiencing teaching English as a second language with 50

students "the use of the computer in the classroom was proposed as an ideal solution to

make up for the limitation of the traditional classroom" (p. 6). Research showed that

students learn more using a computer than other students receiving traditional instruction

(Murray, 1999). Sharp (2005) also said that,

Because of the multitude of good language art programs, it is often easier

to integrate language arts programs into the curriculum than any other

types of programs. Language arts programs are subdivided into many

categories: writing, spelling, grammar, reading, and more. (p. 299)

Forcier (1996) wrote in his book that the computer is a valuable tool in teaching

written and spoken communication to students who are culturally and linguistically

11

different in bilingual/ESL education. Otlowski (1998) conducted research on ESL

students and found that computers encourage students to write. Huang (2006)

summarized from research that Chinese students generally have weaknesses in college

level English learning in terms of communication including speaking and listening. In

this area, numerous studies have compared the achievement scores of students using

CAI/CALL with the achievement scores of students receiving regular instruction.

Generally, the results indicate that CAI/CALL produces equal or greater achievement

(Bayraktar, 2002). The research over the potential of CAI/CALL in the field of the

foreign language acquisition has indicated that computer technology has the potential to

play a major role in foreign language learning and instruction (Gillespie & McKee, 1999;

Levy, 1997).

At the same time, Haugen (2000) observed that "learning environments based on

new technology impose new challenges on the teachers" (p. 26). Cameron (1999a) also

wondered about the effectiveness of the computer and said the efficiency of computers in

learning is being questioned. Under the condition of the acceptance of computer

technology, teachers have to adapt themselves to correspond with the classroom

integrated with computer technology. Calero (2001) said that the presence of the

computer in the classroom would require significant changes in the teacher's role from

Transferor of knowledge to facilitator;

authority to consultant and facilitator;

director of learning to facilitator of learning;

sage of the stage to guide on the side;

transmitter of knowledge to coach, mentor, manager of the learning;

12

expert on learning psychology, technical expert;

someone in charge of telling to someone in charge of facilitating learning.

(p. 7).

In addition, teachers are reluctant to express their willingness to integrate computer

technology into their courses because they are afraid of being replaced by machines.

Moreover, teachers with less professional training in computer technology insist

on not using computer technology. In a National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)

survey in 2000, only one-third of regular public-school teachers reported that they were

well prepared or very well prepared to use computers and the Internet in classroom

instruction (National Center for Education Statistics, 2000). Jones (2001) reported that

most teachers said they need more help because they had not received the technology

training necessary for them to incorporate technology into their classrooms. In order to

solve this problem, many teacher education programs are beginning to integrate

technology training into a professional education course (Abbott & Faris, 2000).

In the field of CAI, computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is well known in

the field of foreign language teaching and learning process. CALL classes represent new

ways of language learning in highly institutionalized and examination-based education

systems (Holmes, 1998). The definition of CALL is defined as the search for and study of

applications of the computer in language teaching and learning (Levy, 1997). CALL has

followed technological advances closely, starting with text-based software, which later

became augmented with multimedia applications and additions and presently with the

ever increasing network of the World Wide Web in order to stimulate user interaction

(Cameron, 1999b). CALL can be regarded as a useful tool, a subject and a way of

13

focusing student perceptions of language education. Students, after taking CALL-based

courses, will begin to think critically about the way technology influences how they study

language and their educations in general (Holmes, 1998).

English as a second language (ESL) education is required for both undergraduate

and graduate level students in China. Students that graduate with a satisfactory ESL GPA

can receive an official diploma. Vice Minister of Education in China Wu (2005) said that

the reform of a higher educational level ESL education is necessary to improve the

students' ability to implement English as a communication tool in their daily life. The

Requirement for College Level English Teaching Handbook was introduced to college

ESL teachers after the college ESL teaching and learning revolution had been in place for

a year. The handbook emphasized the computer as a powerful educational technology

and its application in the teaching and learning of ESL.

China, as one of the leading countries which advocates the importance of

education, requires more scholars to do research in computer technology in order to

discover the best way to use it effectively. In China, computer technology used in the

field of education has lagged behind compared with other countries. Cai and Guo (2006)

said that "compared to the advanced industrial countries, the use of information

technology in Chinese higher education came relatively late" (p. 353).

In 2005, Wu pointed out that educational technology will have a profound impact

on the reform of the country's educational concepts and educational process; it is the

command post of educational and teaching reform. Zhang, Dong, and Chen (2005) stated

that the situation of using computer technology in China is a productive force which can

grant educators a tool to facilitate their teaching. Cai and Guo (2006) also said that

14

"recent Chinese practices have achieved significant progress in the country's efforts to

bridge the digital divide" (p. 353). One of the most successful and distinguished leaders

in computer-enhanced education is Yuanchun Chi, a professor at Tshinghua University,

Beijing, China.

A survey of CAI development and application in various engineering colleges and

universities in China in 1994 by Lang (1999) showed that

There were a total of 142 pieces of software developed and used in the

colleges and universities of arts, 125 in science, 123 in engineering, and

102 in medical sciences. Among them, 346 were course software,

including 27 for foreign languages. As shown by recent data, 30% of the

engineering colleges and universities have established their own CAI labs

and 20% of them have used a computer network as support for CAI in

education, (p. 400)

Lang summarized from the study that CAI has been widely applied in basic courses in

higher educational institutions, although the level of development and the extent of

application varies greatly among colleges and universities in China.

The college English syllabus has been revised several times. The latest revised

version in 2003 listed the new requirements for the students in their English courses

which aimed to develop their abilities in listening, speaking, writing, and translation. For

listening, it requires students to understand the key points in conversation and speech at a

speed of 150-170 words per minute. After listening, students should make the right

judgment about a speaker's attitude and opinion. For speaking, it requires students to

have the ability to carry on a conversation with others about everyday life. For writing, it

15

requires students to write about a topic, abstract or summary of about 150-180 words in

half an hour with correct grammar and spelling. For translation, it requires students to

translate between Chinese and English with the consultation of the dictionary under the

condition of 300 words per hour.

In order to fulfill the requirements of the college English syllabus, school

administrators pay more attention to the ESL teaching and learning process. For non-

English major students, they will have more than 4 hours of English courses per week,

more than 70 hours per semester, and more than 280 hours total for four continuous

semesters in their freshmen and sophomore years. In addition, all the English courses are

mandatory for every major in college.

There are eight questions and challenges mentioned as well in the college English

syllabus in China. One of the major issues that deserves time and patience in ESL

teaching is the integration of the modern and latest technology into the teaching process.

The revised syllabus (2003) states that technology initialization in English as a second

language teaching techniques should be taught through audio, video, film, TV, Internet

and multimedia projects. The suggestion is that faculty members, curriculum designers,

and technology staff should cooperate in order to learn the appropriate way to deliver the

ESL college level courses utilizing technology, especially computer technology.

The consequences of the college English syllabus reformation are obvious. Yu

(2007) said, "with the technology, the lecturing method of teaching is being replaced by

the teacher-assisted teaching method gradually" (p. 22). In addition, he said the interests

of students during the learning process are important. The usage of technology can have a

positive impact for students by encouraging them to accept knowledge in an easy way.

16

Some negative results are also listed as a result of computer usage in ESL course teaching.

One major problem is that students with different backgrounds in computer technology

show different learning capabilities during their computer-based ESL courses, which

causes the teacher a lot of trouble when deciding whether or not to integrate the new

technology into the learning process.

Simonson and Thompson (1997) listed the findings of several researchers on

computers in education that deserve further attention. Attitude is a factor that needs

further research. Attitude toward technology is a popular research topic among the

scholars. In terms of the teachers' attitudes toward computer technology utilization,

Davies and Crowther (1995) summarized that "if there was a lack of motivation or an

unfavorable attitude on the part of the teacher, this attitude would be directly transmitted

to the student and the system would fail" (p. 4). Fernandez (2001) did a field study about

English faculty's attitudes toward the introduction of multimedia in the classroom in

Spain. The result showed that the average ESL teacher would be in favor of the

introduction of the computer into the classroom.

In terms of students' attitudes toward computer technology utilization, Brownell

(1992) said that the attitudes of students toward technology may need to be challenged

and explored. This controversial topic has been studied by several researchers. The effect

of experience on the development of positive attitudes has been identified in several

studies (Mergendoller & Sacks, 1994), though some have found that the attitudes affect

the nature of a computer experience, with negative attitudes contributing to the

experience as well (Rosen & Weil, 1995).

17

Student attitudes toward computers can be related to their computer use and,

ultimately, the benefits they can reap from computer use (Mitra & Steffensmeier, 2000).

According to Clement (1981), "students' attitudes toward computer-based education have

been positive at all levels — elementary school, junior high school, high school and

college" (p. 29). Pektas and Erkip (2006) summarized that the success of efforts to

integrate technology with education is largely affected by the attitudes of students toward

technology.

However, Al-Shammari (2007) said that only a few studies focused specifically

on student attitudes toward CALL in ESL learning. In his research, he studied English as

foreign language learners' attitudes toward computer-assisted language learning in Saudi

Arabia for 1500 students on four campuses. The results indicated the ESL learners had

positive attitudes toward CALL and software in their ESL courses.

The usage of computer technology in college level ESL education in China is a

major component in the ESL teaching and learning process. The attitude of ESL students

toward the utilization of CALL technology was recommended by the above researchers

to be studied because of the positive/negative correlations between students' attitudes and

the effectiveness of the usage of the computer technology.

Method of Procedure

The purpose of this study was to investigate (a) the attitudes of ESL students in a

university in China toward the use of computer-assisted language learning (CALL),

(b)the demographic characteristics of students who are taking ESL courses in a university

in China, (c) the relationship of some of the demographic characteristics with ESL

18

students' attitudes in China and (d) the demographic factors which can predict the

students' attitudes toward CALL. The specific procedures included:

1. Human Subjects Committee Approval

2. Development of Survey Instrument

a. Survey Instrument: ESL student demographics and their attitudes toward

CAI in ESL courses

i. Part One: Demographic

ii. Part Two: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)

b. Validation of Survey Instrument

c. Translation of Survey Instrument

d. Reliability of Survey Instrument

3. Selection of Subjects

4. Collection of Data

5. Treatment of Data

Human Subjects Committee Approval

Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the University's Internal

Review Board (IRB) in order to protect the rights of participants. The study was

conducted after receiving the permission from the IRB.

Development of Survey Instrument

The survey instrument used for this study consists of two parts. Part one gathered

demographic and background information concerning students who participated in this

survey in the university in China. Part two, Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)

19

survey, was employed to examine students' attitudes toward computer usage in ESL

courses.

Validation of Survey Instrument

A panel of three experts who are in the fields of both educational technology and

English literature were asked to judge the validation of the combined survey instrument.

The panel made suggestions for improvement and then approved the modified instrument.

Translation of Survey Instrument

After validation of the survey instrument was completed, the survey instrument

was translated into the home language of the participants (Mandarin) by the researcher in

order to eliminate the possibility of students' confusion about the survey questions in

English. A panel of two experts, who have PhDs in English literature were asked to

critique the translated Chinese version of the instrument. They gave positive comments

on the translation because the essential meanings were matched. Panel members

recommended some better ways to translate specific words in part two which were more

appropriate to the survey.

Reliability of Survey Instrument

In order to ensure that the survey instrument achieved reliability, the researcher

used Cronbach's coefficient alpha to compare with the coefficient alpha in Al-

Shammari's SACALL instrument. The coefficient alpha of .89 used in the SACALL

instrument is higher than a standard reliability level of .80, which is referenced in several

literature reviews in chapter two.

20

Selection of Subjects

This study focused on students' attitudes toward the utilizing of CALL in their

ESL courses in a university in China. This comprehensive university was chosen because

it is representative of more than 200 four-year universities in China in terms of size,

location, ranking and program setting. The university was one of the key comprehensive

provincial institutions in Middle Eastern China. It is now a well-developed higher

education institution supported by the government under the State 211 project the

ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China initiated in Key universities and

colleges in 1995 to help them move into the 21st century. The project aimed at cultivating

high-level elite universities for national economic and social development. The university

where the study was done consists of approximately 20 schools and 40 departments,

including undergraduate, masters, and PhD programs. The university has a staff of

approximately 2,400 among which are about 200 professors and 500 associate professors.

The student population totals about 30,000. The subjects of this study were students who

took undergraduate level or graduate level ESL courses in the university during the

spring semester 2010, but were not English majors.

The total number of participations at the university was 320 students in April

2010. The participation included all students, excluding English majors. 214 students

responded to the survey. Among the 214 returned surveys, 208 were considered valid

surveys for this study.

Collection of Data

The researcher received oral permission to conduct the survey from the vice

president in curriculum at the Chinese university in October 2009. The instructors who

21

administered the survey received the survey package including a cover letter and the

survey materials.

The instructors printed out and brought the survey questions to the classroom.

According to the instructions from the cover letter, students who were willing to do the

survey signed the consent form and then finished the survey. For students who could

access the Internet, they were given the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) which is an

address for a particular webpage to the survey website after signing the consent form.

Treatment of Data

Descriptive statistics were used to examine part two of the survey which was the

students' attitudes toward the using of CALL in their college level ESL courses. T-test,

ANOVA and correlation coefficient, were used for the demographic factors toward the

attitude to CALL courses.

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the

data from the survey. The .05 alpha level of significance was used to test all hypotheses

in the study.

Definitions of Terms

The following terms are defined according to their use in this study:

CAT. Computer-assisted instruction, which refers to the use of the computer as a

tool to facilitate and improve instruction (Sharp, 2005).

CALL: Computer-assisted Language Learning, which is the use of computers to

assist in second - or foreign -language instructional activities (Merrill et al., 1986).

Educational technology: Educational technology which includes any technologies

that facilitate and enhance classroom instruction and students' learning. Educational

22

technology includes relatively new electronic media and devices such as computers,

peripheral hardware and software, and basic equipment such as video, overhead, and

projectors. Educational technology can be employed in various ways, such as use in the

classroom setting, use to support personal productivity, etc. (McCampbell, 2002;

Mehlinger & Powers, 2002). The primary concern in this study was the use of computer

technology in a classroom setting.

ESL: English as a second language, that is the field of teaching Standard English

as used in the United States to persons who have a different native language (Hawes &

Hawes, 1982). Hu (2007) mentioned that Chinese students who take English courses can

also be called ESL students.

TESOL: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.

Limitations

The study is limited by the following:

1. The study was limited to the completed surveys returned.

2. The study was limited to the faculty members who were willing to participate.

3. The study was limited to the ESL courses taught in the university in China.

Delimitations

The study is delimited by the following:

1. The study was delimited to students who were enrolled in the ESL courses in the

university in spring 2010.

2. Only one major comprehensive provincial university in China in the city of Hefei in

Anhui province was selected.

3. All students who returned the survey were not English majors.

23

Assumptions

The basic assumptions for the study included:

1. Every student was to complete only one survey questionnaire.

2. The students reported demographic and background information accurately.

3. The students self reports were accurate in their assessments about their computer

ability.

4. Students were honest in answering the survey about their attitudes toward CALL.

5. All the survey instruments used in the study were valid and reliable.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The development of civilization is influenced by the evolution of technology

(McGinn, 1991). The emergence of new technologies injects new ideas and various

changes into life in various domains. One of technology's major contributions has been to

education. From the introduction of the concept of technology-integrated education, the

development of technology brings educators new tools which can facilitate their delivery

of knowledge. Among the educational technologies which were used in the past and in

recent years, the computer and its associated applications (software, the Internet,

networks, servers) is regarded as a major step toward enhancement of learning. Currently,

educational technology is not a new term that is feared by educators. Norton and Wiburg

(2003) said education in modern days has sustained a long-term interest in the use of

electronic technology as a remedy for educational problems. In 1996, Chickering and

Ehrmann updated the famous Seven Principles of Good Practice by Chickering and

Gamson (1987). In the articles, the authors introduced the principles of the Good Practice

philosophy with regard to technology. More educators agreed on the important roles that

educational technology plays.

The successful implementation of educational technology settles controversies

about the effectiveness of using technology in teaching and learning. Both educators and

learners gave positive feedback about the effectiveness of technology in assisting

lecturing (Brothen, 1998). The areas of ESL teaching and learning are not an exception.

This chapter summarizes the results of a thorough review of literature pertaining

to educational technology in ESL education. The related background information,

24

25

including the current situation of CALL application in universities in China is also

presented. In addition, the second part of this chapter will focus on attitudes. The specific

areas that have been addressed include:

1. Utilization of computer technology in ESL education ,

2. The application of CALL,

3. The advantages of using computer technology in ESL education ,

4. The concerns about using computer technology in ESL education ,

5. Future trends in using computer technology in ESL education,

6. The current situation of using CALL in universities in China,

7. Attitudes toward using computers in language learning.

The literature review provides the reader with a clear idea about the theoretical

foundation for the study.

Utilization of Computer Technology in ESL Education

Historically, Deal (2002) said teaching and learning were confined to classroom

settings with few instructional strategies including lecture, discussions, and field trips to

stimulate the learning process. This method of knowledge delivery has been used for

many years. The classroom today is similar to even Aristotle's in his age. With the social,

economic, and technology changes and some critical programs that relate to education in

recent years, educators are thinking of new ways to deliver knowledge.

Computer technology as a tool was introduced for use in the transformation of

education. Computer technology is appropriate to use for various fields in education (Abu

Bakar, Tarmizi, & Ayub, 2010). Bruess (2003) said "the use of technology in ESL

settings is not a new application and has sparked keen interest among researchers and

26

practitioners since 1970, when computers were used to support second and foreign

language learning" (p. 12-13). Because English is one of the most important languages

used to communicate internationally, especially in business, people around the world are

eager to learn English. Beckett et al. (2006) said effective education and computer

literacy skills for English language learners have gained increasing importance in several

areas of the United States including Arizona, California, and Massachusetts.

During the 1960s and 1970s, the most prominent technological device for second

language instruction was the language learning laboratory, which used a series of audio

devices (Angelis, 1973). In the 1980s, the application of technology in language

classrooms included the use of film, radio, television, language labs with audio and

videotapes, computers and interactive video (Cunningham, 1998). During the 1980s,

various types of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) also became commonplace

(Iandoli, 1990). Into the mid 1990s, the use of hypermedia, multimedia, the Internet, and

various forms of distance learning became widespread (Macy & Flache, 2002). Presently,

the analysis by Song (2006) showed the rapid growth and development of the web has

become an important issue in recent computer-assisted language learning (CALL)

research and practice. Coniam (2004) said if CALL can be integrated into teaching in a

worthwhile manner, it can impact teaching and learning in a good way.

The precise definition of CALL is an issue that has been debated since the field's

birth because CALL is a relatively new field in language learning. After the first

appearance as the specific term 'CALL' at the TESOL conference in Toronto in 1983,

controversy has existed in defining "CALL". Al-Shammari (2007) said "researchers have

set broad definitions that consider the current situation of the field and approximately try

27

to cover all technology use in language learning" (p. 20). Davies (2007) defines CALL as

the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and

learning. Beatty (2003) defines CALL as "any process in which a learner uses a computer

and, as a result, improves his or her language" (p. 7). Levy (1997) defines CALL as "the

research for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning"

(p. 1). All three definitions encompass three main words of the term CALL: "computer",

"language", and "learning". In this study, CALL refers to the integration of the computer

into college level ESL learning in a university in China.

The Application of CALL

Computers can be used in different ways in the field of education. In terms of

CALL, Jia (2007) summarized "it can be a cover term to include Computer-Aided

Instruction (CAI), Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL), Computer-Assisted Language

Instruction (CALI), Computer-Assisted Language Teaching (CALT) or even other

teaching media involving high technology by means of the computer"(p. 60). Warschauer

(1996) divided CALL typology and applications in language learning into three parts:

computer as tutor, computer as stimulus, and computer as tool. Computers as a tutor

mean that the computer offers tutoring to students. For example, the computer provides

learning material, gets the responses from students, assesses those responses, and then

decides what to present next based on the learners' responses (Taylor, 1980). Computers

as a stimulus means that the computer is used to help learners generate discussions,

synthesize information, critical thinking, and discussion. Computers as a tool mean that

students seek help from computers. For example, grammar checking, word processing,

reference, collaborative writing, Internet, and authoring programs are typical uses.

28

Beatty (2003) provided a wider range of CALL applications that meet different

learner needs in language skills. These applications are found in nearly all the recent

CALL labs:

1. Microsoft Office package: Word processing is one of the most useful software

in the Microsoft Office package. It comes under the category of the computer used as a

tool. The usage of word processing is one of the basic applications of CALL. It can

enhance learners' motivations toward writing. With the help of word processing software,

students are willing to spend more time practicing.

2. Games: The purpose of using games for pedagogical purpose in second

language learning is to make learners unaware of the objectives, which means that

learning is regarded as an activity that is peripheral to play (Beatty, 2003). Azriel, Erthal,

and Star, (2005) said that games give learners a creative environment which helps them

to work with their peers, solve problems, and also communicate with each other. As a

result, learners become involved in an active way in the learning process that improves

their motivation.

Jones (1997) recognized two types of games in ESL including strategy games and

twitch games. Strategy games require higher-order thinking skills and problem-solving

skills for successful completion. In this type of game, they require users to perceive the

larger problems and to plan strategies to solve them. Alessi and Trollip (1991) classified

under strategy games, (1) adventure and role-playing games, (2) board games, and (3)

logic games. Twitch games require users to react quickly to stimuli. Felix (2002) said the

advantage of these games is that movement is quick and feedback is immediate. Alessi

29

and Trollip (1991) identified as twitch games: (1) arcade games, (2) gambling games, (3)

combat games, and (4) psychomotor games.

3. Corpus linguistics: Corpus linguistics refers to the study of the body of texts

(Beatty, 2003). It is the study of the language as expressed in samples (corpora) or "real

world" text. Chapelle (2001) said "corpus linguistics tends to focus on the result that can

be obtained through observation of a large database comprised of text"(p.36). Originally

done by hand, corpora are now largely derived by an automated process. The first

computerized corpus of transcribed spoken language was constructed in 1971 by the

Montreal French Project, which contained one million words (Sankoff & Sankoff, 1973).

The purpose of corpus linguistics is to understand the models of authentic

language use through actual usage analysis (Krieger, 2003). The application of corpus

linguistics helps teachers develop their learning material by offering learners an analysis

of their systematic errors (Beatty, 2003). Chapelle (2001) considered corpora as a central

area for computer applications in second language acquisition that helps learners create

their own profile of words, meanings, and uses. For the benefit of students, they could

also be given a window to use authentic language that is derived from real contexts rather

than constructed for pedagogical purposes (Krieger).

4. Computer mediated communication (CMC): Warschauer (1996) said CMC is

seen as one of the computer applications that has the greatest potential impact on the field

of language learning. McQuail (2005) defined CMC as any communicative transaction

that occurs through using two or more networked computers. To be more specific, the

term refers to those communications that occur via computer-mediated formats (e.g.

30

instant messages, emails, and chat rooms) and also refers to other applied forms of text-

based interaction such as text messages (Thurlow, Lengel, & Tomic, 2004).

There are two kinds of CMS, synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous CMC

means that the interaction is taking place in real time. The best example is the online chat

room via Internet. Smith, Alvarez-Torres, and Zhao, (2003) said "Internet Relay Chat

(IRC) exemplifies synchronous communication" (p. 705). Asynchronous communication

is the opposite of synchronous and means that interactions do not take place in real time.

This type of CMS gives a learner the opportunity to receive instant feedback from

teachers. Smith, et al. (2003) said Bulletin Board System (BBS) and email are good

examples of asynchronous communication. One advantage of this type is to give learners

the time to think carefully about the language they will use because, for the second

language learner, it is necessary to spend time in checking the writing before sending.

Another advantage for BBS boards or forums is that everyone in the group can share

information. The feedback from peers sometimes is more helpful than that from teachers.

CMC is widely discussed in language learning because CMC provides opportunities for

language learners to practice their language (Abrams, 2006). Peterson (1997) stated that

email and asynchronous conferencing are the most common applications of CMC that are

found in the language classroom. Gillespie and McKee (1999) said there was strong

acceptance of email, which is used to communicate with tutors, instructors, and other

class members, and it became the means of social communication within the class. For

example, Warschauer (1998) conducted several case studies on using email or discussion

boards in different language classes. The claim was that information and communications

technology bridge the historic division between speech and writing. As a result,

31

considerable concern has arisen over reading and writing research in second language (L2)

due to the booming of the Internet (Warschauer, 2006).

5. World Wide Web (WWW) resources: Silc (1998) said "the World Wide Web is

an immense library of authentic materials for the language learning classroom." (p.5).

Compared with traditional ESL learning with textbooks, Mosquera (2001) also said that

the language that students can learn through the WWW is more real and authentic.

Students found great enjoyment in using the World Wide Web, both during and outside

class (Gillespie & McKee, 1999). To be more specific, Yang and Chen (2007) illustrated

that through the WWW platform, learners are able to learn and practice all language

skills including reading, listening, and writing.

The Advantages of Using Computer Technology in ESL Education

The advantages of using computer technology in ESL education were mentioned

by researchers in their reports. Administrators, teachers, and students can benefit from

different advantages as describing in the following detailed analysis.

From the perspective of school administrators, Kearsley (1990) said educational

administrators were responsible for managing their schools or school systems. To

perform their duty as administrators, they needed information and facts upon which

decisions and actions can be based.

One of the most important ways that the computer can improve school

productivity is to make information more available, faster to obtain, or

easier to understand. Over the past two decades, a large number of

computer programs have been developed and used for a variety of school

functions including accounting, scheduling, attendance, grading, inventory,

32

student information systems, library use, guidance, transportation

management, food service, energy monitoring, and decision support

systems. (Kearsley, 1990, P.52)

From a teacher's perspective, computer technology can improve the teaching

effectiveness during class delivery. Waters (2007) concluded that teachers are broadening

their ESL programs with the one tool that translates into all dialects as computer

technology.

Computer technology, like the Internet, facilitates ESL teaching. Hirvela (2006)

said it is safe to say that the advent of the personal computer and the Internet in the 1990s

revolutionized language teaching. Eastment (2007) in her website review said there is a

wealth of video-based material which can be used for language teaching purposes.

The teacher's responsibility is to create an effective learning environment which

can facilitate students in their learning process. Hirvela (2006) said real life situations are

as good as we expected for improving language learning. He implied it is not always easy

to achieve this goal in a conventional classroom setting, where learning is confined to the

time allotted for class sessions and is dependent upon the willing, active involvement of

students under circumstances not always conductive to full participation. Educational

technology is a tool that can be utilized by teachers to approach this goal of connecting

language learning to real life situations. Nunan (1999) said technology can help teachers

make links between the decontextualized knowledge of the textbook and the realities of

one's work situation.

Another advantage for a faculty member helped by educational technology is that

it gives a chance for faculty members to collaborate with each other. Kamhi-Stein (2000)

33

found that technology allowed teachers to develop knowledge as a social, rather than an

individual, activity. He also pointed out in the same article that it has the potential to

promote cooperation among teachers-in-preparation and to reduce the isolation felt by

novice teachers. Kamhi-Stein's research proved that new teachers can have more benefits

if computer technology is introduced into ESL program design.

Some computer software can facilitate teaching during the teaching process.

Hincks (2003) said in her book that one of the problems that a non-native English speaker

always encountered is pronunciation. She said even the teacher sometimes cannot give

correct guidance to students about accurate pronunciation. Some ESL computer software,

for example, ELLIS (English Language Learning Information Software) which is one of

the most respected language learning software programs, can help teachers correct

students' pronunciation as they learn English. Mansoor (1993) also mentioned using the

computer to teach ESL and literacy. He said there was software on the market that can

enable a teacher to customize it for their own K-12 ESL courses. Such programs allowed

a teacher to create crossword puzzles, cloze exercises, vocabulary drills, and even

pronunciation exercises. Maurer and Davidson (1998) found the learning benefits

included attitudes of excitement and a boosting of self-esteem for students who take an

ESL writing class which incorporates using Microsoft Word.

From the perspective of students, Claybourne (1999) said computer technology is

the ideal tool to help students learn English as a second language. First, Claybourne said

that because of the Internet, students can learn ESL from students around the globe.

Research showed that students can learn best when they use the language in context and

not just through role repetitions of the language. The Internet gives an ESL learner a great

34

opportunity to keep in touch with native speakers via email and voice chatting. Hirvela

(2006) also emphasized computer networks and their influence on ESL learning.

Computer networks were allowing students to transcend boundaries of classroom walls

and to learn in new ways. Moreover, he said learners are no longer confined to the

traditional types of classroom-based activities and interaction with their peers that they

may find unappealing and counterproductive in the 'wired' realm of the 21st century. Son

(2007) also mentioned the usefulness of the Internet as a database around the world. His

research demonstrated that the web is a useful tool and a supplementary resource for

learning ESL. In ESL learning, the Internet also creates an environment that students can

use to visualize their partners in other places. CMC (computer-mediated communication)

is a concept that is widely accepted by the foreign language learner in their language

learning process, especially for the oral practice. Jerram (1995) predicted that the future

of video conferencing would increase, especially as equipment and line costs became

cheaper and resources got easier to use. His predications have come true through the use

of free text-based and audio chat supported by webcam visuals.

Second, Claybourne (1999) also mentioned that computer software gives students

another approach to learning language skills. Waters (2007) pointed out that ESL

software provides privacy to English language learners. In other words, the software

gives students a safe and non-threatening environment for learning without interruption

from others. Some audio and video clips on DVD or online can provide students with real

life examples of conversation among native speakers. Some pictures can give visual

learners the opportunity to more easily acquire the knowledge that they need.

35

Third, according to personality theory (Rodgers, 1951), Simon (2008) did a study

about individual personalities. In her report, she said that different persons should be

treated in different ways in the learning process. Computer technology, if used

appropriately, not only can motivate, but also can include both introverted and

extroverted students.

In terms of motivation, a student with a different personality should be taught in

different ways which can be realized with technology. Introverted students in an ESL

class feel nervous and uncomfortable if they are assigned to do a presentation or do

public speaking in front of the whole class. Graziadei (1996) pointed out the computer

seemed to minimize the risks involved in communication in a foreign language. In his

research, he found in a networked environment students will 'say' things to a computer

terminal that they will not say in the classroom environment. The student performance in

computer technology courses shows introverted students can be motivated as well when it

is hard for them to succeed in a face-to-face classroom. Kamhi-Stein (2000) also found

educational technology, especially communication technologies in ESL programs, can

reduce anxiety, in particular among non-native-English-speaking students. Payne and

Whitney (2002) noted one of the three primary themes in the research about technology

in the classroom was that participation increased online with 'quieter' students

participating as much or even more than those individuals who normally dominate

classroom discussion.

In terms of cooperation, Steinberg (1992) expressed his thought that by

integrating technology into ESL teaching, the technology can enhance interpersonal and

communication skills. Johnson, Johnson, and Stanne (1986) and Schlechter (1990) added

36

that technology provides opportunities for cooperative learning which not only increase

instructional effectiveness and efficiency, but also promote positive social interactions.

Fourth, based on a survey on students' perspectives on attending a computer

technology-based classroom, it is said that the majority of students feel the technology

can motivate their learning. Son (2007) said that student engagement in the suggested

activities was observed and their attitudes toward the activities were found to be positive.

Meskill, Mossop, and Bates (1998) did a research study on English as second language

learners. They found integration of technology into instruction can enhance motivation.

To be more specific, Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk (2000) also mentioned

computer technology and its power to motivate students to engage in drill and practice

activities. They said many students refused to do the practice they need on paper, either

because they failed so much that the whole idea is abhorrent, they had poor handwriting

skills, or they simply dislike writing. In these cases, computer-based practice may

motivate students to do the practice they need. Computers did not get impatient or give

disgusted looks when a student gave a wrong answer.

Fifth, John Dewey's philosophy in pragmatism portrayed the student as the center

of education (Hickman, 1992). In the field of foreign language learning, Bailey, Daley,

and Onwuegbuzie (1999) suggested benefits in considering a move toward more learner-

centered approaches to language learning. In a computer-based foreign language

environment, students can find their own approaches to learning the content with

facilitation from the instructors. Beckett et al., (2006) proved the concept that

technology-based activities can transform the classroom into a rich learning environment.

37

Sixth, a computer technology-based classroom gives students the opportunity to

follow their own paths of learning which is more appropriate for individuals who are not

comfortable with the setting of a face-to-face class. Hirvela (2006) concluded after his

research that in the "anytime, anywhere" configuration of a computer-based learning

environment, students have more time and space to think in a deeper way. His research

showed that students take more time and ponder carefully what they want to say so as to

make a genuine contribution to the negotiation of common understandings and feel

empowered in the process.

Finally, Daud and Husin (2004) found that the students' critical thinking abilities

are improved in computer aided ESL reading classes. Critical thinking is one of the core

purposes for student success as well as in other subjects like English and mathematics.

The Concerns about Using Computer Technology in ESL Education

The concerns about using computer technology in ESL teaching as well as its

advantages are considered by researchers. Hirvela (2006) said specifically for his

research on computer use in an ESL course that it is not without flaws. Gillespie and

McKee (1999) said "it is not surprising that the effective integration of CALL into the

languages curriculum is a question which is being addressed by many teachers and

institutions at the present time" (p.442).

Chinese educators should be concerned about flaws in the process of using

technology in high school ESL courses. First, there is a lack of hard evidence on the

effectiveness of utilizing computer technologies in ESL courses. Although Al-Musawi

(2007) found by his studies that there is a modest but positive relationship between

technology and achievement at all level of education and subject areas, Roblyer et al.,

38

(2000) said it is difficult to propose expensive technology with hypothetical rather than

proven benefits.

The next concern is the cost of initial implementation and the cost of a sustained

commitment of resources (Mansoor, 1993). Remarkably general agreement exists that

adequate funding can determine the success or failure of even the best technology plans

(Bullough & Beatty, 1991). Maughan (2001) summarized the major expenses for

building the infrastructure of computer technology in schools which included capital

expenses and operating expenses. Operating expenses include personnel, bandwidth,

expendable equipment, equipment maintenance and repair, software licensing and

maintenance, research and development, and finally college and university administrative

overhead.

Kearsley (1990) made a sample annual computer technology budget for a school.

According to the price back in 1990, the total budget based on Kearsley's template was

$ 182,400. Pliss (2008), who is the department director of information & instructional

technology in the Ithaca City school district in Ithaca, New York, made a presentation

about the Information & Instructional Technology (IIT) budget. In the budget trend detail

chart, it showed the grand total budget per year for technology in the school was about 2

million dollars, with an increasing rate of about 10 percent per year. According to the

school proposed budget, which is approved by the Board of Education, the total budget

was 90 million dollars. The cost of educational technology was a major portion of the

total budget, which has a tendency to increase. Pliss (2008) said it was always a tough

decision to decide to invest in technology because one must consider the cost of not only

the technology equipment, but also of the follow up expenses. Roblyer et al., (2000) said

39

there was both a high initial cost and the cost of keeping current with technology.

Educators often were surprised at how quickly their equipment became out-of-date, its

lack of incompatibility with newer models, and how quickly the perspective on "best

applications" changed. This is the predominant reason that universities in China hesitate

to introduce computer technology into the classroom.

The university studied in this dissertation is one of the biggest and most famous

universities in China, with approximately 2,400 staff including administrators and faculty

members and about 30,000 students. The fiscal budget for the school is less than 100

million dollars which is less than the budget for the Ithaca city school district which has

12 schools, 5,506 students, and 506 teachers. Even investing the same percentage of the

total budget in the university in China on technology, which is considered to be ideal,

would not make teachers and students feel satisfied.

Mansoor (1993) said another concern is to evaluate the learning especially in an

online class. He said that unfortunately the software, which can monitor the learner's

activities "online," was not widely available for ESL educational programs. The creation

of comprehensive ESL software with the capability to evaluate students might be more

difficult than we would expect. However, with the increased university enrollment in

China, state funding for higher education has increased sharply. The funding increased

from four billion in 1999 to over 10 billion in 2003 (Wu, 2005).

A shortage of time, role changes, and lack of training for teachers to adjust

themselves to classrooms facilitated with technology are other problems in implementing

computer technology effectively. Jin (2004) assumed that some teachers in China may

not be comfortable with high technology, since unlike so many of their students, they

40

have not grown up with computers. Knupfer (1993) also said many teachers have refused

even free training, due to lack of time. Moreover, specific challenges that teachers face

include not only technical training, but also a shift in attitude. Kunpfer found reasons that

teachers were reluctant to accept technology in their classrooms included fear of changes

in the existing pedagogy and in their roles as teachers, and a lack of confidence in their

abilities to master the technology. Time and effort are required to persuade a majority of

teachers to use the technology they have in the teaching process.

For foreign language teachers, the challenges in utilizing computer technology in

a classroom setting were also addressed by Tedick and Walker (1996). They stated that

the emphasis on technology for foreign language learning and teaching requires teachers

to stay informed about new technologies and their instructional uses.

Last but not least, students' technical problems are a constraint when integrating

technology in education. Because of financial reasons, a majority of university students

nowadays are not acquainted with technology in their lives. Also, computer literacy

training for students in China is underevalued by educators. To initiate a computer

technology-based classroom for which students are not prepared is not reasonable.

Future Trends in Using Computer Technology in ESL Education

The future of computer technology and its impact on the field of education is

difficult to predict. Limited research exists on trends in computer technology in ESL

education especially in China because there is only a short history of acceptance and

development for this concept. Akkoyunlu (2002) predicted the future is ambiguous for

today's student in a rapidly changing world. The speed and uncertainty of this change

makes it impossible to predict with any precision what skills students will need to

41

function as adults. The need for students to be able to cope with daily problems in a

dynamic world has led many educators to conclude that technology integration into

education will enrich the learning environment in schools.

It is obvious that technology has brought widespread and fundamental changes in

education. Therefore, major developments in the use of technology must take place in

schools. Newby, Stepich, Lehman, and Russell (2000) envisioned a future of education

where teachers and learners embrace and integrate instructional technology and use it to

improve both teaching and learning. They even said without instructional technology, it

would be difficult for educators to achieve their goals.

Maurer and Davidson (1998) said that educational technology in the future will

continue to get easier for the average person to understand and operate, and their

capabilities will continue to increase concerning emerging technologies. Norton and

Sprague (2001) said there are technologies that will continue to emerge and develop.

Educational technology in the future is a question that is mentioned by some

educators in different areas and disciplines. In terms of areas that are related to foreign

language teaching and learning, Charp (1994) listed wireless communication and the

information highway. Roblyer et al., (2000) focused on three technologies: personal

digital assistants (PDAs), artificial intelligence, and virtual reality. As a result, digital

natives, who come from Generation X and Y (also known as the Millennial Generation),

would feel familiar with educational technology and easily accept using it in their

classrooms.

Computer technology will play an important role in education based on research

about ESL as one of the major subjects. The potential of the impact from computer

42

technology is difficult to predict, but the fact is that there will be more and more

computer technologies that can facilitate both teachers in their teaching and students in

their learning.

The Current Situation of Using CALL in Universities in China

There are limited research articles about educational technology, especially

computer technology in ESL education in China, although there have been over 40 years

of systematic ESL education from elementary to university level. The importance of

English learning was emphasized by educators as well as politicians.

In China, the mainstream of higher education carries aspects both of the United

States and the United Kingdom systems with a stronger affiliation to the US system

(Brandenburg & Zhu, 2007). To be more specific, Brandenburg and Zhu said:

Two- and three-year colleges which are referred to as short-cycle colleges,

typically awarding associate degrees, exist next to typical four-year

colleges and universities which offer academic as well as vocational

courses leading to bachelor degree or higher. Master's degrees and PhDs

are offered by universities and research institutions which are accredited

by the State Council, (p. 18)

There are some major reasons for ESL teaching and learning in China. First and

foremost, Brandenburg and Zhu (2007) said "students should pass the National College

Entrance Examination (NCEE) and then be admitted to study at a higher education

institution, if the results fit the requirement of the institution" (p.7). ESL, Chinese, and

math are the three core courses in the NCEE.

43

As far as learning English as a foreign language, a job seeker with English

communication abilities has more opportunities than one without English skills. The

employee who understands English usually is paid at a different rate, which is usually ten

percent more than normal. Also, the student who is fluent in English can choose to study

abroad in some advanced countries like the United States or England where the native

language is English. Teaching English as a foreign language provides students with the

ability to open their minds and broaden their knowledge through Internet searching, as 90%

of the information online is written in English. China currently is not the most powerful

and prosperous country in the world. The best way to empower itself is to learn from the

strongest countries including the United States and European countries in which most are

native English-speaking countries in terms of business, education, marketing, and other

activities.

Beckett et al. (2006), in staff development said that students need opportunities to

develop computer literacy and information technology skills. Unfortunately computer

literacy learning in China was emphasized by Chairman Deng 30 years ago, but not

implemented. He said we should give all children the opportunity to learn computer

technology because it will become an important tool that everyone should have in the

near future. The growth of computer literacy learning among children did not meet his

expectations. The reasons for this are: First, the personal computer (PC) was introduced

to China at the beginning of 1990 which means the students who are now in higher

educational institutions including universities and vocational academies lacked basic

computer literacy education during their childhood. As a result, they feel embarrassed or

at least uncomfortable in the learning processes associated with computer technologies.

44

Second, the price of the personal computer was so expensive that the common Chinese

customer could not afford it. Third, there are no computer literacy courses in elementary,

junior high, high school, or even the university. In other words, for a student, it is not an

academic requirement to be educated in computer literacy from the beginning to the end

of his or her schooling. Last, computer ability is not emphasized by educators in the

classroom. As complete obedience of students is one of the classroom rules in China,

students are confined to learning what teachers are interested in teaching or what appears

on the test. Because computer literacy is not a core or even an elective course, this subject

is not considered important.

The concept of using educational technology, especially computer technology,

was introduced and applied in educational institutions in China at the end of 1990s,

which was far behind countries like the United States and European countries. Like every

new idea in the field of education, the effectiveness of educational technology in

classroom and curriculum design was questioned by educators. The effectiveness and

questioning about whether educational technology can be adapted by the Chinese

educational system was discussed among educators. The lecture teaching method usually

does not co-exist well with educational technology.

More time and effort is required in China than other countries to implement

educational technologies in a classroom setting. Cai and Guo (2006) said that compared

to the advanced industrial countries, the use of technology in Chinese education came

relatively late. The first real usage of technology was in universities. Universities with

financial support adopted the ideas from administrators and faculty members who had the

experience of studying abroad or had the knowledge after investigating the success of

45

some real life examples. The addition of educational technology made governors, school

administrators, faculty members, parents, and students feel that it was important. As a

result, governors from the educational bureau gave more financial support to different

levels of schools for equipment purchasing and faculty training. School administrators

paid more attention to technology enforcement on campus and also gave opportunities to

faculty members to be trained by experts in the field of educational technology. Faculty

members spent time developing their skills in educational technology. Parents decided to

purchase laptops for students because they believed the computer could facilitate their

children in the learning process. Students were given a core course in educational

technology, which would be used by teachers in the classroom. During the past decade in

China, CALL has increased dramatically. "As a new resource to help promote, enhance

and facilitate learning, the computer has fostered high expectations of a more effective,

more motivating and more innovative new learning experience." (p. 61)

Research by Chinese educators can prove the possibility of using computer

technology successfully in the college level ESL classroom. Liang (2001) did research

about the benefits for Chinese students in the ESL classroom, which was integrated with

computer technology. He pointed out the recent pedagogy for ESL teaching in Chinese

universities emphasizes language itself like vocabulary and grammar. The computer-

based class can be designed to explore the potential of the right brain, and the

development of students in learning ESL through the stimulation of video, audio, and

pictures delivered by computer technology.

Professor Hu (1997) said in his book "R^MM^, , M ^ ^ ^ i I W W l * l S ^ ¥

^2?^I4n &5". Translated in a simple way, it means it is impossible to learn a foreign

46

language without understanding the culture. American linguist Sapir (1949) said

language was born in the environment with culture, tradition, and faith. Chinese linguist

Hu (2004) said " ^ - # i f = , #S!l^*H3££ij^~&7]c¥ , MffrmtfteW^g-

#£ito -$&* , &¥?in=ftmwmj)tetit&, ^itmm^mmm^w&®0

MM^ttlWiA , £ffcS^A<I^HRl£®3fejffiHJ3S" (p. 1). This means it is important to

understand the influence of culture on foreign language learning.

Fan (2004) in a speech about using technology in college level ESL classes said

computer and Internet technology has the power to connect culture to language in ESL

teaching and learning. "^IJffiiimftTR , SsfflqT&fc '&£' ^ & ± ^ D / f H B I t A $ l $ l

^ J ^ J n " (p. 1). He used an example of watching a video clip on a computer of the T have

a dream' speech by Martin Luther King which can give students a better idea about this

speech than does traditional reading. Teachers can also analyze their own teaching

method to illustrate King's ideas better.

Fan (2004) also said "ffl|*l ^ M f c f c ^ l i m ^ t t t e ^ S S S T i & ^ l l M S t o

47

#"(p. 1). His idea was that the root of the problems of Chinese students in ESL learning

is that there is no English learning environment in China. Computer technology can

create an English learning environment in the classroom, something which has been

desired by several generations of ESL educators for Chinese students.

Xue (2006) summarized his applications of computer technology in ESL courses.

He said the revolution of ESL education was associated with the development of

computer technology in terms of four abilities that are necessary for ESL learning

including listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The result proved that students

showed improvement in all aspects of ESL learning.

Some problems also occurred in computer assisted ESL programs. Xie (2004)

found some problems in computer assisted university ESL classes in China after

observing computer assisted ESL classrooms for several years.

Incorrect and out-dated concepts: In some teachers' minds, the more computer

technologies were used in class, the more effectively students learned.

48

fljl¥f£?#^Fi!> , ^I'JpJf^'ff PS. Less concentration on key points in teaching:

Some teachers only used technology to attract students through various audio

and video effects. Students could not learn what the syllabus required.

• %Lm^4L®k%.m&±.to&%Lo wte CALL T^mmi^^^mmmi mm,

mmp^-^&mmfcR , m%-im&Enterma n^xmmmftK*

was no communication between teacher and students. In a CALL class, some

teachers regarded themselves as clickers who only needed to click the mouse to

run the computer.

• cAisffl^nSo &mmm%® cAmfts&m^mnxm , ^^^mmp,

Pftm , EtiMft. , i®fcSE¥Cm-M^n* , # - | t f £ T Sherlock Holmes

49

& £ $ Noises in The Nighto •S^JsU&HJgjSaSftttJSfcft , S^JJ , M * £

^BWRig&^#J#to3£*I-J*ffl-ifia*TT£ , WmR^M^m®

^ / S AJJiff ftlo Using CAI in an inflexible way: Some teachers used the

existing CAI software or video clips without selecting those which were more

appropriate for their class. This lead to the result that students at different levels

lost their interest. Also, self-designed courseware by teachers was sometimes

unsatisfactory for students because teachers were not qualified to design

courseware.

£ # J £ , m%^±m%%m&^Ammi£®jfmm$i®L^0 Less time

and energy to think of using computers in education: Teachers always

complained about the pressure to guarantee academic success at the university.

Some teachers thought it was a waste of time to research how to use computer

technologies in a classroom setting.

During the development of educational technology, with the availability of more

powerful computers at lower less cost, more and more universities facilitated

technologies in their classroom. According to Xue's survey, an ESL class is the one

which has the most frequent usage of the technology because of the advantages referred

to in the survey.

Attitudes toward Using Computers in Language Learning

The word "attitude" is a term with different meanings in different fields. Mantle-

Bromley (1995) and other experts in psychology said attitude consists of three

components in general: (1) affect: which refers to that degree of like the person has; (2)

cognition: which refers to the person's knowledge about the attitudinal object; and (3)

behavior: which is related to reactions and intentions regarding the object.

Bruess (2003) said attitudes toward technology play an important role in the

adoption of instructional technology and the likelihood of influencing students' learning

in the classroom. Attitude is considered one of the affective variables that have a major

role in the second or foreign language learning process. In terms of factors that affect

attitudes toward computer use, computer anxiety, computer knowledge and gender are

the top three important ones (Al-Shammari, 2007).

Al-Shammari (2007) said students' attitudes toward using technology in the

classroom are of high importance in the success of implementing technology. Several

51

studies have been conducted to research students' attitudes toward using computers in the

ESL learning process. Ayres (2002) researched students' attitudes toward CALL in their

study at UNITEC Institute of Technology in Australia. The results showed that students

have positive attitudes toward using computers in their learning process. In addition, it

showed that 80% of the students believed that CALL is relevant to their needs, 77% of

the students agreed that CALL gives useful information, and 66% of the students thought

that more CALL should be used in their learning. Jabir and Omar (2000) investigated the

attitudes of learners in the Southern area of Jordan. The findings showed that learners

hold positive attitudes toward computer use and look forward to making more use of

computers in their classrooms.

For Chinese ESL students, several studies were done to investigate their attitudes

toward CALL and found there was a positive relationship between the students' attitudes

toward CALL and academic achievement. Chen (2004) did a study in order to investigate

the attitudes of ESL learners in National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan toward the

use of the computer in an ESL class. The participants in this study expressed their

positive attitudes toward the integration of the computer into their ESL study. Liu (1997)

conducted a study on Chinese students at the University of Tennessee on their preference

of selecting either a face-to-face or an online class. Chinese students in this study showed

positive attitudes toward the use of online class in their university studies.

CHAPTER 3

METHOD OF PROCEDURE

This study examined attitudes of ESL students toward the use of computer-

assisted language learning (CALL) in a university in China. Specifically, this study was

to investigate (a) the attitudes of ESL students in a university in China toward the use of

computer-assisted language learning (CALL), (b) the demographic characteristics of

students who are taking ESL courses at a university in China, (c) the relationship of some

of the demographic characteristics with ESL students' attitudes in China, and (d) the

demographic factors which can predict students' attitudes toward CALL. The specific

procedure included:

1. Development of the Survey Instrument

1.1 Survey Instrument: ESL student demographics and attitudes toward CAI

in ESL courses

1.1.1 Part One: Demographics

1.1.2 Part Two: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)

1.2 Validation of the Survey Instrument

1.3 Translation of the Survey Instrument

1.4 Reliability of the Survey Instrument

2. Selection of the Subjects

3. Collection of the Data

4. Treatment of the Data

52

53

Development of Survey Instrument

The survey instrument used for this study consisted of two parts. The items in part

one were developed by Tang (1995) in his dissertation Whole Language Instruction in the

CAI Setting. The items in part two were developed by Al-Shammari (2007) in his

dissertation Saudi English as Foreign Language Learners' Attitudes toward Computer-

Assisted Language Learning. The instrument was used to measure participants' attitudes

toward CALL. It included 30 statements to which participants provided answers by

circling a number indicating their level of agreement.

Part One: Demographic Data

The demographic survey was originally created by Tang in 1995. The survey had

13 items concerning the demographic background of each student who participated in the

research. The demographic survey asked the participants their gender, age, home country,

native language, class level, first time of being in the United States, their reason for being

in the United States, preference of using a computer, possession of a personal computer,

frequency of using a computer, and the most useful occasion for using a computer. The

participants for Tang's questionnaire were forty-eight international students attending the

intensive English as a Second Language Program (CESL) at Southern Illinois University

at Carbondale. The results provided support for demographic toward CAI as a practical

measure. Tang completed a pilot study to prove the reliability and validity for this

instrument. The reliability for the version with controlled sentences and vocabulary

was .67. The reliability for the version with controlled sentences and vocabulary pattern

was .85.

54

Tang's survey was modified by deleting and adding questions because the target

population was different. The instrument for the research gathered demographic data

from students who were enrolled in a college level ESL course with the integration of

CALL in a university in Middle Eastern China. The collected information included

gender, academic level, major in Arts or Science, access to computers, self-perception of

computer ability, prior experience in a course utilizing CALL, and frequency of computer

usage, all of which were used to test the null hypothesis.

Part Two: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)

Al-Shammari (2007) designed this attitude questionnaire by using a 5 - point

Likert scale (SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, U = Uncertain, D = Disagree, SD =

Strongly Disagree) in order to determine participants' perception toward language

instruction with CAI for learning ESL. The instrument designed for this section was a

questionnaire consisting of 30 questions. The questions asked for participants' opinions

about the efficacy of CAI in the process of learning ESL. The researcher translated the 5 -

Point Likert scales responses in the following way: Strongly Agree = 5, Agree = 4,

Uncertain = 3, Disagree = 2 and Strongly Disagree = 1. The higher the score, the more

positive attitudes the learner had toward CALL. Based on the translation method, a score

of 5 and 4 indicate positive attitudes, a score of 3 indicates a neutral attitude, and scores

of 2 and 1 indicate negative attitudes.

The participants for Al-Shammari's questionnaire were 1500 ESL learners on four

campuses in Saudi Arabia. SACALL consists of 30 items designed to measure the

learners' attitude toward CALL. These items were divided into three subscales. The first

two subscales focused on attitudes toward computers in general and the use of a computer

55

in language instruction (20 items). The last subscale concentrated on the attitudes toward

the CALL lab. The instrument adopted by Al-Shammari was based on two well-known

computer attitudes scales: the Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS) (Loyd & Gressard, 1984)

and the Scale of Educational Technology Attitude (SETA) (Chen, 2004). Respectively,

the CAS scale reported Cronbach-alpha reliability coefficients of .90, .89 and .82 for

subscales and .95 for the total (Loyd & Loyd, 1985), and the SETA reported Cronbach-

alpha reliability coefficients of .89 (Chen).

Validation of Survey Instruments

The combined survey was validated for the purpose of testing the instrument's

reliability. The demographic portion was previously validated by Tang with some

changes. The SACALL portion was previously validated by Al-Shammari with no

change. To ensure the validity of the combined instrument, a panel of three experts with

an established reputation in the fields of English and Educational Technology were

consulted. One expert worked in the secondary and higher education field and

specialized in using technology in the field of education at a state university in Louisiana.

This expert also held an EdD in secondary and higher education. The other two experts

worked in the English department in top universities in China and held their PhD's in

English literature and linguistics. The three experts each had at least 20 years experience

of teaching or researching ESL courses at the university level in China.

The survey validation package included a cover letter to explain the purpose of

this study, the importance of the survey to this study, demographic information, the

attitudes survey toward CAI in ESL courses (SACALL), and the form for those experts to

sign for the validation. The package was distributed to the three experts for them to judge

56

the clarity and the appropriateness of the survey questionnaire. Along with the validation

forms, instructions for grading each of the items in the two questionnaires were attached.

The panel of experts followed the instructions to evaluate each item in three

questionnaires by circling Yes or No for clarity and Definitely Yes, Somewhat Yes, No

opinion, somewhat No, and Definitely No for the appropriateness and importance of the

items. From the returned validation forms from the panel of experts, the items with two

or three of the panel experts rated Yes or Somewhat Yes for clarity and appropriateness

were retained. The items with one or two ratings of No or Somewhat No were modified

according to suggestions and recommendations provided in terms of grammar, structure,

tense, and the possibility for research. The items with three ratings of No or Somewhat No

were discarded without any modification. The modified questionnaire was sent to the

panel of experts again in order to ensure all the modifications reflected their corrections.

The results showed that all the items in the survey were understood by the panel

of experts. However, some items needed modification because the participants in Tang's

survey were international students who took CAI-based ESL courses in the United States.

In this study, the participants were Chinese students who took ESL courses in a

university in Middle Eastern China. The demographic items were modified according to

the research questions. The survey was revised based on some of the items

recommended by the panel members in order to be suitable for this research. For part one,

survey items 3 through 9 were deleted because they were not relevant to this research.

For part two, the survey questionnaire was found to be appropriate and understandable

for this research and was retained in its entirety.

57

In summary, the original instrument included a total of 43 items in two sections. It

was validated by three panel members and was modified according to the panel's

suggestions. After modification, the instrument used for the current study included 40

items in two sections. The questions were deemed more understandable for participants

because the questions were more aligned with their experiences.

Translation of Survey Instruments

To insure all the participants who are doing the survey could completely

understand the items, the Chinese version of the survey instrument was translated by the

researcher. The Longman English to Chinese dictionary was consulted for accuracy of

the translation. For the computer terminology in the survey, the Kingsoft software which

is an online professional electronic dictionary containing terminology in different areas

including computer technology, was consulted.

The panel expert who held the Doctor of Education degree took the responsibility

of guaranteeing the accuracy and understandability of the words used in the translation.

The two experts on the panel who had Doctor of Philosophy degrees in English literature

and linguistics compared the survey translation to the English language original in order

to identify appropriate usage of spelling, grammar and sentence structure. The overall

translation was determined to be well done: however, there were a few recommendations

for modifying vocabulary and sentence structure. The translation was sent to the panel

after revising the identified flaws in the translation. The three panel members responded

that this translation was of high quality, in both accuracy and understanding.

58

Reliability of Survey Instruments

Cronbach's Alpha was used as a statistical measure to judge the reliability of the

instrument. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 16.0) software was

used to determine the reliability coefficient of the survey questions. Experts had different

opinions about the satisfactory reliability score. Charter (2008) summarized that, in

general, more experts had recommended that reliabilities be at least .90 and ideally .95 or

higher. Nunnally and Bernstein (1994) believed that a reliability of .80 was adequate for

research purposes. The researcher chose a reliability of .80 as acceptable for this study. If

the actual reliability was lower than the hypothesized reliability, Charter suggested

adding more participants in the hope that the new coefficient would be higher than the

hypothesized reliability. Al-Shammari (2007) quoted in his dissertation that the Cronbach

reliability coefficient of the SCALL instrument was .89 which is higher than the

researcher expected.

Selection of Subjects

This study focused on students' attitudes toward the utilizing of CALL in their

ESL courses in a university in China. Participants for this study included 320 students. Of

320 surveys distributed, 214 copies were returned. Only 208 surveys were used for this

research as 6 were returned incomplete.

Demographic and background information were collected from each participant:

gender, degree, self-perceived computer ability, major, accessibility to computer,

preference toward the CALL-based ESL course, frequency of computer usage, usefulness

of the CALL-based ESL course, and number of received CAL- based ESL courses

attended. Table 1 presents the participants by gender. Male students were 47.1% and

59

Table 1

Participants by Gender

Sex Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Male 98 47.1 47.1

Female 110 52.9 100.0

Total 208 100.0

female students were 52.9% of the 208 valid respondents. From this survey, females had

a higher response rate when compared to male students.

Table 2 lists the degrees that all the participants pursued. Students who

participated in this study were in both undergraduate and graduate programs at a

university in Middle Eastern China. Table 2 indicates that approximately 80% of the

sample populations were undergraduates with barely 20% being graduate students.

Table 3 summarizes the participants by self-perceived computer ability. In this

chart, with numbers ranging from 1 to 5, 1 means "absolutely no ability" and 5 means

"highly proficient". More than half of the participants (58.7%) chose 3 as their rank. Of

the other half, 27.9% participants chose 2. The remaining participants gave their rank as 1,

4 and 5. Respectively, 7.7% chose 1, 3.8% chose 4 and 1.9% chose 5. Only 20% of the

participants were confident about their computer ability.

Table 2

Participants by degree

60

Degree Frequency Percent

Table 3

Participants by self-perceived computer ability

Cumulative Percent

Undergraduate

Graduate

Total

166

42

208

79.8

20.2

100.0

79.8

100.0

Computer Ability Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

1

2

3

4

5

Total

16

58

122

8

4

208

7.7

27.9

58.7

3.8

1.9

100.0

7.7

35.6

94.2

98.1

100.0

100.0

Table 4 shows the academic major of the respondents. The number of science students

who responded to the survey is slightly larger than those majoring in the arts.

Table 4

Participants by major

Major Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Sciences 110 52.9 52.9

Arts 98 47.1 100.0

Total 208 100.0

There were 110 students in science (52.9%) and 98 students in arts (47.1).

Students in science majors had greater interest in computer technology in the classroom.

During the survey, students in arts were more willing to participate. Those students who

returned the invalid survey were all science majors.

Table 5 summarizes the number of students in terms of their ability to access a

computer. From the returned responses, 182 (87.5%) had the ability to access a computer

while 26 (12.5%) did not. With the popularity of computers in China, there were a lot of

ways for students to access to the computer. In the university for example, computers can

be found in computer labs, the library, the language lab, and student centers. Students can

log on to any one of them with their student ID number and password. But, there were

still more than 10% of students who could not access computers. That 10% of students

were largely commuters. They could not make use of the resources on campus as readily

as compared with those who lived on campus.

62

Table 5

Participants by access to a computer

Access to Computer Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Yes 182 87.5 87.5

No 26 12.5 100.0

Total 208 100.0

Table 6 presents the preference of participants on CALL-based ESL courses.

Based on the responses, a majority of respondents (69.7%) preferred to register in a

CALL-based ESL course. However, 30.3% of the participants preferred a traditional

face-to-face ESL course. Approximately 70% of the students were willing to be in a

CAL- based ESL course. From this larger group, nearly everyone had taken at least one

CALL-based ESL course. From the rest of the 30%, a large percent of them had no

experience in a CAL- based ESL course. It was estimated that the percentage of those

willing to register for a CALL-based ESL course would increase.

Table 7 shows the students' attitudes toward the helpfulness of CALL in an ESL

course. The data indicated that the majority of participants (88.9%) confirmed the

helpfulness of CALL in an ESL course, while the remaining respondents (11.5%) thought

CALL would not be helpful.

63

Table 6

Participants by course preference

Course preference Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Computer integrated 145 69.7 69.7

Not computer integrated 63 30.3 100.0

Total 208 100.0

Table 7

Participants by attitudes toward helpfulness of CALL in ESL course

Helpfulness of CALL Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

CALL is useful 184 88.5 88.5

CALL is not useful 24 11.5 100.0

Total 208 100.0

The frequencies that participants used a computer are presented in Table 8. The

data ranged from less than once a week to daily and is categorized into 4 groups: group

one, less than once a week (1.9%); group two, 1-3 times per week (17.3%); group three,

4-6 times per week (26.9); and group four, daily (53.8%). The average frequency for

64

Table 8

Participants by frequency of using computer

Frequency of computer usage Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Less than once a week

1-3 times a week

4-6 times a week

Daily

Total

4

36

56

112

208

1.9

17.3

26.9

53.8

100.0

1.9

19.2

46.2

100.0

students in this university to use the computer was more than 4-6 times per week. Table

9 summarizes the number of CALL-based ESL courses attended by participants. Among

the students who returned the survey, 66 (37.1%) took no class, 65 (31.2%) took one

class, 13 (6.2%) took two classes, and 64 (30.8) took three or more classes. Because all

the students are from different grades and majors, the possibility for them to take the

same number of CALL-based ESL courses should be the same. Overall, more than 60%

of students had taken at least one CALL-based ESL course.

Table 10 presents the participants by the location in which they took their CALL-

based ESL course. Except for 66 students who had no experience in either a computer lab

or language lab, 75 (52.8%) of students had experience in a computer lab and 67 (47.2%)

students had experience in a language lab. Computer lab and language lab were the two

65

Table 9

Participants by number of received CALL-based ESL course

Number of Courses Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

No course 66 31.7 31.7

1 course 65 31.2 63.0

2 courses 13 6.2 69.2

3 courses and more 64 30.8 100.0

Total 208 100.0

Table 10

Participants by places of receiving CALL-based ESL course

Location Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Computer Lab 75 36.1 52.8

Language Lab 67 32.2 100.0

Total 142 68.3

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labs used for CALL-based ESL courses. The directors of both labs took charge of

scheduling the classes for all the instructors who requested a lab course. Usually, English

major courses had the priority to reserve the lab for the whole semester. The remainders

of courses were assigned randomly by directors.

Collection of Data

After getting verbal permission from the vice president of curriculum at the

university, two instructors were contacted who agreed to administer the survey. As there

is no Institutional Review Board (IRB) in universities in China, generally, studies may be

conducted if verbal permission from the vice president of curriculum and the instructors

are obtained. During the spring semester of 2010, there were 20 instructors with a

maximum of 40 students for each class that used computer assisted instruction English

courses in either the computer lab in the library or the language lab in the College English

Studies department. After personally contacting the 20 instructors in the department of

College English Studies by phone, two instructors were willing to administer the survey.

Based on the schedule, each instructor taught four classes per semester, with an average

class size of 40.

The instructors who were willing to administer the survey received the cover

letter and the survey materials by both e-mail and postal mail. The survey package

included survey questionnaires, informed consent forms, and the letter of thanks. The

cover letter presented the instructions for instructors who supervised the survey. The

cover letter indicated (a) Instructors will choose ten minutes before one of their classes to

do the survey, (b) Instructors will give every participant the informed consent forms

before the survey, (c) For those who are willing to do the survey and sign the consent

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form, instructors will give the survey questionnaires, (d) Instructors will give the letter of

thanks to all the students who are willing to participate when they return the survey, (e)

After the students gave the survey questionnaire back, instructors returned the forms to

the same packet.

A week after sending the first e-mail, a second e-mail was sent to two instructors

for two purposes. One was to thank the instructors for their cooperation. The other was to

remind one of the instructors who did not complete the administration of the survey in

their classes to complete it. Two weeks after the second e-mail, 214 of the 320 students

responded to the survey. The third email was sent to thank them for their cooperation.

After completing the data collection, instructors returned those packets to the researcher

by mail.

An online survey website was registered for those participants who had Internet

access. After completing the consent form from the instructor, the students were given

the URL for the survey website. All the survey questions were exactly the same. From

the total 214 responses, 60 participants completed the survey online and 154 participants

completed the printed form in the classroom. Data from both the online and the printed

survey forms were entered into SPSS 16.0.

Treatment of Data

The demographic characteristics of the students who took CALL-based ESL

courses were described using frequencies and percentages. One-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) was used to analyze the demographic characteristics in the survey part one in

order to answer hypotheses 2 through 8.

68

Pearson's r correlation coefficient was applied to determine the correlation among

the following variables, (a) the students' perceived ability in computer use, (b) the

students' number of CALL-based ESL courses, (c) the students' frequency of computer

usage, and (d) the students' attitudes toward CALL. The correlation coefficient test was

used to determine the relationship between four variables.

Descriptive statistics were employed to examine survey part two which is the

students' attitudes toward the use of CALL in their college level ESL courses. The mean

value and standard deviation were calculated. Therefore, no null hypotheses were set for

research question 1.

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the

data from the survey. SPSS is among the most widely used program for statistical

analysis in social science. It is used by market researchers, health researchers, survey

companies, government, education researchers, marketing organizations and others.

The .05 alpha level of significance was used to test all hypotheses in the study.

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

The purpose of this study was to determine the attitudes of ESL students toward

CALL and to describe the demographic characteristics of the students in a university in

Middle Eastern China. Also, seven demographic variables that related to the students'

attitudes toward CALL were studied. The data were analyzed using the SPSS 16.0

program.

The sample for this study consisted of 320 non-English major students who were

asked to participate. Of these 320, 214 responded to the survey by either hardcopy or

online. There were six surveys invalidated because of incompletion. Thus, 208 usable

responses were included in the analysis.

Research Question 1

Question one asked for ESL students' attitudes toward CALL in general at the

university as indicated by the SACALL instrument. Descriptive statistics were used to

analyze this question. The mean and standard deviation for students' attitudes toward

CALL were measured based on the result of the survey part two. In the survey, each

participant gave their response to each of the questions on a 5-point Likert scale, 5 =

Strongly Agree, 4 = Agree, 3 = Uncertain, 2 = Disagree, and 1 = Strongly Disagree. The

higher the score, the more positive attitude the student had toward CALL.

From Table 11, the minimum and maximum value of ESL students' attitudes

toward CALL at the university in China was 2.53 and 4.50. The mean was 3.339 and the

standard deviation was 0.341. The mean value represented a positive attitude toward

CALL from the 208 participants surveyed at this university.

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70

Table 11

General attitudes toward CALL

Attitudes toward CALL Mean

3.339

Minimum

2.53

Maximum

4.50

SD

.341

N

208

Research Question 2

Question two asked what differences existed between male and female ESL

students' attitudes toward CALL at the university as indicated by the SACALL

instrument.

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the

receiving of CALL between male and female ESL students.

In order to find the answer for this question, a t-tcsi through SPSS was utilized.

The/? value (.000) is less than .05 as indicated in table 12. There was a significant

difference by gender toward CALL. The result shown in table 12 indicated that female

students had a more positive attitude than did male students. Hypothesis 1 was rejected.

Gender was determined to be a factor in the attitude of ESL learners toward CALL at the

university.

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Table 12

Gender and attitudes toward CALL

Gender Mean SD F p

Male 3.309 .341

Female 3.480 .319

X2 1.093 .000

Research Question 3

Question three asked what differences existed between undergraduate and

graduate ESL students' attitudes toward CALL at the university as indicated by the

SACALL instrument.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the

receiving of CALL between undergraduate and graduate level ESL students.

A Z-test through SPSS was used for testing this hypothesis. As shown in Table 13,

the/? value (.031) is less than .05. Therefore a significant difference existed toward

CALL. The result showed that the undergraduate students had a more positive attitude

than the graduate students. Hypothesis 2 was rejected. Academic level was determined to

be a factor in the attitude that ESL learners had toward CALL at the university.

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Table 13

Degree of pursuing and attitudes toward CALL

Degree Mean SD F p

Undergraduate 3.425 .331

Graduate 3.298 .363

X2 .268 .031

Research Question 4

Question four asked what differences existed between Arts and Science ESL

students' attitudes toward CALL at the university as indicated by the SACALL

instrument.

Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the

receiving of CALL between Arts and Sciences ESL students.

The /-test through SPSS was used for testing this hypothesis. As shown in Table

14, the p value (.506) is greater than .05. Therefore significant differences did not exist

by majors toward CALL. Hypothesis 3 was retained. There was no significant difference

between attitudes of majors in Arts and in Sciences regarding the receiving of CALL.

Research Question 5

Question five asked what differences existed between the attitudes of students

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Table 14

Major and attitudes toward CALL

Degree Mean SD F p

Sciences 3.414 .362

Arts 3.383 .315

X2 .618 .506

who had access to a computer and those who did not toward CALL at the university as

indicated by the SACALL instrument.

Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the

receiving of CALL between ESL students who have access to a computer and those who

do not.

The /-test through SPSS was used for testing this hypothesis. As indicated in

Table 15, the/? value (.150) was greater than .05. Therefore, a significant difference did

not exist in attitudes toward CALL, as determined by accessibility to computers.

Hypothesis 4 was retained. There was no significant different between attitudes of

students who could access a computer and those who could not regarding the receiving of

CALL.

Research Question 6

Question six asked what differences existed among ESL students' attitudes who

74

Table 15

Accessibility to a computer and attitudes toward CALL

Access to computer Mean SD F p

Yes 3.412 .333

No 3.309 .382

X2 1.689 .150

took a different number of CALL courses at the university, as indicated by the SACALL

instrument.

Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the

receiving of CALL among ESL students who have taken a different number of CALL

courses.

An ANOVA analysis was utilized using SPSS to test this hypothesis. Data were

collected based on the number of students who took CALL-based ESL courses: (1) no

class, (2) one class, (3) two classes, and (4) three classes or above. Table 16 displays the

mean and standard deviation of students' receiving of numbers of CALL-based ESL

courses. The results showed that there was a significant difference in the four group

means, F (3, 204) = 2.1 Al, p < .05. Therefore the null hypothesis 5 was rejected. The

effect size according to G*Power is 0.29 which is considered a large effect size (Cohen's

f > 0.26 is regarded as large effect size). Because the overall F test demonstrated a

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Table 16

Number of classes taken and attitudes toward CALL

Source df SS MS F p Cohen's f

Between Groups 3 0.931 .310 2.747 .044 .29

Within Groups 204 23.055 .113

Total 207 23.986

significant difference in the means, Tukey post hoc analysis was conducted to test pair-

wise differences among the group means. The results of these analyses indicated that one

of them has a significant difference and the rest have no significant difference.

Significant differences were found between students who received no CALL-based ESL

course and those students who received above three CALL-based ESL courses (p < .05).

No significant statistical differences were found between students who received no

CALL-based ESL courses and those who received one CALL-based ESL course (p > .05).

In addition, students who received no CALL-based ESL courses and those who received

above three CALL-based ESL courses (p > .05), students who received two CALL-based

ESL courses and those who received above three CALL-based ESL courses (p > .05),

students who received two CALL-based ESL courses and those who received above three

CALL-based ESL courses (p > .05), and students who received one CALL-based ESL

course and those who received above three CALL-based ESL courses (p > .05).

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Research Question 7

Question seven asked what differences existed among ESL students' attitudes

based on the frequency of the use of a computer at the university, as indicated by the

SACALL instrument.

Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the

receiving of CALL among ESL students based on frequency in the use of a computer.

An ANOVA was used through SPSS for testing this hypothesis. Data were

collected based on frequency of students who take CALL-based ESL courses (1) never,

(2) 1 - 3 times a week, (3) 4 - 6 times a week, and (4) daily. Table 17 shows the means

and standard deviation of students' frequency of CALL-based ESL courses. The result

showed that there was a significant difference in the four group means, F (3, 204) = 3.912,

p < .05. Therefore, null hypothesis 6 was rejected. The effect size according to G*Power

was 0.29 which was considered a large effect size (Cohen's f > 0.26 is regarded large

effect size).

Because the overall F test demonstrated a significant difference in the mean, a

Tukey post hoc was conducted to test pair-wise differences among the group means. The

results of these analyses indicated that three of them have significant differences, and

three of them have no significant difference. Significant differences were found between

students who never used computers and those who used computers 1-3 times a week (p

< .05), who never used computers and who used computers 4-6 times a week (p < .05),

and who never used computers and who used computers daily (p < .05). No significant

differences were found between students who used computers 1-3 times a week and those

who used computer 4 - 6 times a week (p > .05), students who used computers 1-3

77

Table 17

Frequency of computer usage and attitudes toward CALL

Source df SS MS F p Cohen's f

Between Groups 3 1.305 .435 3.912 .010 .29

Within Groups 204 22.682 .111

Total 207 23.986

times a week and those who used computers daily (p > .05), students who used

computers 4-6 times a week and those who used computers daily (p > .05).

Research Question 8

Question eight asked what differences existed between ESL students' attitudes

toward CALL-based on the learning setting being a computer lab or a language lab at the

university, as indicated by the SACALL instrument.

Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the

receiving of CALL between ESL students based on the lab setting: computer lab and

language lab.

The r-test was used through SPSS for testing this hypothesis. As shown in Table 18, the p

value (.387) is more than .05. It means there was no significant difference in attitude by

setting to access a computer toward CALL. The null hypothesis 7 was retained.

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Table 18

Setting of receiving CALL-based ESL courses and attitudes toward CALL

Setting Mean SD F p

Computer Lab 3.427 .292

Language Lab 3.377 .390

X2 4.766 .387

There was no different between attitudes of students who took CALL-based ESL courses

in a computer lab and in a language lab regarding the receiving of CALL.

Research Question 9

Question nine asked what differences existed in the bivariate relationships among

the following variables: (a) students ' perceived ability in computer use, (b) students '

number of CALL-based E S L courses, (c) students ' frequency of computer usage, and (d)

students ' attitudes toward CALL.

Hypothesis 8: There is no significant difference in the relationships among the

following variables: (a) students ' perceived ability in computer use, (b) students ' number

of CALL-based ESL courses, (c) s tudents ' frequency of computer usage, and (d) students '

attitudes toward CALL.

In order to find the significant differences, correlation coefficients were calculated

by SPSS. Five of the six correlations were found to be statistically significant. A

significant correlation between the students ' self-perceived computer ability and students '

79

frequency of computer usage (.001), students' self-perceived computer ability and the

number of CALL-based ESL courses taken (.026), students' frequency of computer usage

and the number of CALL-based ESL courses taken (.005), students' frequency of

computer usage and students' attitudes toward CALL (.043), and the number of CALL-

based ESL courses taken and the students' attitudes toward CALL (.005). No significant

correlation was found between students' perceived ability in computer use and students'

attitudes toward CALL. The comparison of these four factors is shown in Table 19.

Table 19

Comparison of four factors

Subscale 1 2 3 4

1. Computer Ability .001 .026 .646

2. Frequency of Computer Usage .005 .043

3. Number of Courses .005

4. Attitude toward CALL

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, FINDINGS & DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

This study examined university students' attitudes toward CALL and its

application in ESL courses. Although many research studies have shown the positive

effectiveness of including CALL in the student learning process, only a minority of them

focused on the students' attitudes toward CALL. The purpose of this study was to

investigate the college students' attitudes toward CALL-based ESL courses in a

university in China. The introduction to the research includes the purpose of the study,

research questions, hypothesis, significance of the study, and method of procedure. The

second chapter is the literature review, which presents an exhaustive examination of

information and research related to CALL and attitudes. The third chapter details the

method utilized in the study with special attention to the development of the survey

instrument, collection of the data, and treatment of the data. The fourth chapter addresses

data analysis and presentation. Specifically, nine research questions guided this study:

1. What are the ESL students' attitudes toward CALL in general at the university

in Middle Eastern China as indicated by the SACALL instrument?

2. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between male and female ESL students?

3. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between undergraduate and graduate level ESL students?

80

81

4. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between Arts and Science ESL students?

5. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between ESL students who have access to a computer and those who do not?

6. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL among

ESL students taking different numbers of CALL courses?

7. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between ESL students based on frequency of computer usage?

8. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the reception of CALL

between ESL students based on lab setting in computer lab and language lab?

9. What is the difference in the bivariate relationships among the following

variables: (a) students' perceived ability in computer use, (b) students'

number of CALL-based ESL courses, (c) students' frequency of computer

usage, and (d) students' attitudes toward CALL?

The study was conducted using quantitative methods. The designers of both the

demographic and SACALL surveys were contacted in order to obtain permission to

revise their instruments for this study. Both designers gave permission to revise the

instruments for use in this study. The final instrument consisted of two parts with a total

of 40 items. The first part, which focused on the participants' demographic issues, was

developed by Tang (1995) in the study of international students who attended the

intensive ESL program at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. The second part,

which is the scale of attitudes toward CALL, came from Al-Shammari's (2007) study

about ESL students' attitudes toward CALL in Saudi Arabia. A panel of three experts in

82

the field of English literature and educational technology assisted the researcher with

translation of the instrument into the target language which is Chinese. Moreover, the

validity and reliability of the instrument were approved by the panel.

After receiving verbal permission from the university in China, the volunteer

instructors were asked to administer the survey to the student participants to complete the

survey. A total of 320 students were asked to participate in the survey. Of those, 214

returned the survey by printed form or online. Among the returned surveys, six were

invalidated due to incompletion, resulting in 208 usable responses.

Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to answer the research

questions. Descriptive statistics were used to examine the mean and standard deviation

for question 1. A r-test was conducted for questions 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8. An analysis of

variance (ANOVA) was used for questions 6 and 7. Correlation was applied for question

9. The correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the relationships among the

four variables.

Findings and Discussion

The study focused on nine research questions and eight hypotheses. A summary

of each is presented as follows.

The first research question examined the university students' attitudes toward

CALL-based ESL courses. The study found that students had a positive attitude toward

CALL (M = 3.339). The results of this study supported the findings from other studies by

Al-Shammari (2007), Ayres (2002), and Liu (1997) that students have positive attitudes

toward CALL in instruction.

83

The second research question asked whether a significant difference existed

between students' attitudes toward CALL-based on their gender. The /-test was used to

determine if there was a significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of

CALL between male and female ESL students (p < .001). Female students in the

university in Middle Eastern China had a more positive attitude toward use of CALL than

male students.

The third research question examined whether a significant difference existed

between students' attitudes toward CALL based on academic level. The /-test was used to

determine if there was a significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of

CALL between undergraduate and graduate ESL students (/? < .05). Undergraduate

students had more statistically significant positive attitudes than graduate students.

The fourth research question investigated whether a significance difference

existed between students' attitudes toward CALL and their major in Sciences or Arts.

The /-test showed no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL

between students who major in the Sciences and those who major in the Arts (/? > .05).

The fifth research question explored whether or not a significant difference

existed between the students' attitudes toward CALL based on their access to a computer.

The /-test showed there was no significant difference in attitudes regarded the receiving

of CALL between students who have access to a computer and those who do not (/? > .05).

The sixth research question was whether or not significant differences existed

between the students' attitudes toward CALL as a result of the number of CALL-based

courses taken in the university. Four groups were formed based on the number of CALL

courses taken. The one-way ANOVA was used to determine if there was a significant

84

statistical difference existing among the four groups (/? < .05). A follow-up Tukey post

hoc test was conducted to examine the differences among the means in four groups.

Among the four groups, a significant difference was found between students who

received no CALL-based ESL courses and those who received more than three CALL-

based ESL courses (/? < .05). Students who received more than three CALL-based ESL

courses had more statistically significant positive attitudes than students who received no

CALL-based ESL courses.

The seventh research question examined whether or not a significant difference

existed between students' attitudes toward CALL based on frequency in the use of a

computer. Four groups were formed based on the number of courses taken. The one-way

ANOVA was used to determine that there was a significant statistical difference existing

among the four groups (p < .05). A follow-up Tukey post hoc test was conducted to

examine the difference among the means in four groups. Among the four groups, the

significant differences were found between students who never use computers and those

who use computers 1- 3 times a week (/? < .05), students who never use computers and

who use computers 4 - 6 times a week (/? < .05), and students who never use computers

and those who use computers daily (p < .05). Consequently, a significant difference was

found in attitudes toward CALL based on frequency of computer use with students who

use a computer at least one time per week having a more positive attitude than those who

never use computers.

The eighth research question investigated whether or not a significant difference

existed between students' attitudes toward CALL based on the setting of the CALL-based

ESL course. The /-test showed that there was no significant difference in attitudes

85

regarded the receiving of CALL between students who took a CALL-based ESL course

in a computer lab or in a language lab (p > .05).

The ninth research question was designed to test the relationships among the

following variables: (a) the students' perceived ability in computer use, (b) the students'

number of CALL-based ESL courses, (c) the students' frequency of computer usage and

(d) the students' attitudes toward CALL. The correlation coefficient was calculated and

showed that there were four significant correlations. A statistically significant correlation

existed between the students' self-perceived computer ability and the students' frequency

of computer usage, the students' self-perceived computer ability and the number of

CALL-based ESL courses taken, the students' frequency of computer usage and students'

attitudes toward CALL students' frequency of computer usage and the number of CALL-

based ESL courses taken, and the number of CALL-based ESL courses taken and the

students' attitudes toward CALL.

Conclusions

The students' attitudes can be a key factor used to predict the success of

introduction of computer technology in the learning process. The students' attitudes

toward CALL in the ESL field are important as well. The following conclusions were

made based on the study's findings. The conclusions are limited to this study only.

1. Overall attitudes toward CALL are positive.

2. Female students have more positive attitudes toward CALL than male

students.

3. Students who are pursuing an undergraduate degree have more positive

attitudes toward CALL than those who are pursuing a graduate degree.

86

4. Students who are in different majors have no difference in their attitudes

toward CALL.

5. Students who have access to a computer and those who do not have access

have no difference in their attitudes toward CALL.

6. The numbers of CALL-based ESL courses taken has an effect on students'

attitudes toward CALL. Students who take more CALL-based ESL courses

have more confidence in CALL.

7. The frequency of using a computer has an effect on student's attitudes toward

CALL. Students who most frequently use computers have more confidence in

CALL.

8. Students have similar attitudes toward CALL whether used in a computer lab

or a language lab.

9. According to the literature reviewed, the most effective computer applications

for ESL students are Microsoft Office, the Internet, and Computer-Mediated

Communications (CMC).

Recommendations

In order for CALL instruction to be successful in the English program at the target

university, several recommendations need to be considered. The recommendations are

given in the following subsections.

Recommendations for university administrators: According to the findings of the

study, university administrators should consider the following areas:

1. Computer labs, as well as language labs, should be opened to students as

many hours as possible. For students who have little background knowledge

87

on how to use the computer, trained staff should be available to help those

students.

2. CALL software should be installed on each of the computers. This will give

students the flexibility to use CALL software at their convenience. If the

budget is insufficient, the most common software for CALL including

Microsoft Office, CMC, and the Oxford English-Chinese/Chinese-English

Dictionary should be considered first.

3. All computers in both the computer and language labs should have Internet

connectivity.

4. Computer literacy training courses should be provided for both faculty

members and students for free or at a low price. Students who have a

background of computer use demonstrate the most positive attitudes toward

CALL. The training course will motivate students as well as faculty members

in terms of integrating CALL into their ESL teaching and learning. If the

participation rate is lower than expected, the university can have mandatory

rules to force them to take the training courses.

5. The university should encourage ESL teachers to integrate more computer

technology into their teaching and curriculum design.

6. The university should encourage students to make use of the computer in their

ESL learning.

Recommendations for university faculty: According to the findings of the study,

university faculty should consider the following areas:

88

1. Undergraduate students have a more positive attitude toward CALL than

graduate students. Faculty for different degrees should have a conference each

semester to discuss an effective way to integrate CALL into their teaching.

2. Female students have a more positive attitude toward CALL than male

students. However, Imhof, Vollmeyer, and Beierlein (2007) found "male and

female students spend the same amount of time at the computer when they

work for their studies" (p. 2832). Faculty should spend time with students to

find the reason that male students tend to have a less positive attitude toward

CALL than female students.

3. The faculty should be willing to accept the idea of integrating computers into

their ESL teaching. Most teachers in the university never use CALL in their

ESL teaching because they are uncomfortable with computers and uncertain

about the consequences of using the computer in an ESL class. This study can

give confidence to faculty in terms of the successfulness of CALL in ESL.

Faculty should believe that CALL-based ESL courses can be more effective

than traditional ones. As a result, faculty should be familiar with CALL

applications and software in order to give technical support to the students.

4. Students should be encouraged to use the computers with CALL applications

as much as possible in their learning. At the same time, offer opportunities for

students to make use of the CALL applications. For example, (a) assign

students an essay to write using Microsoft Word, (b) assign students a

discussion using online communication software, or (c) assign students an

article to read by researching through the Internet about related materials.

89

5. The faculty should find the best way to integrate CALL into their ESL course

designs. It is important to understand that CALL and its applications are

useful only when the students can learn more effectively in a CALL-based

course. The computer and its applications are only tools to facilitate the

teaching and learning process.

Recommendations for Further Study

Recommendations for further study are as follows:

1. A replication of this study is desirable to do with more participation in other

universities in China. The university selected for this study was a comprehensive

university in Middle Eastern China. Xue (2006) listed types of universities in China

including "comprehensive university, normal university, polytechnic university,

specialized technical institute, medical university, and so on" (p. 4). To expand this study,

research studies in other types of universities should be done.

2. The study excluded English majors because English major students generally

spend more time in English learning. They may have a different attitude toward CALL

since they have more opportunities to take ESL courses in a language lab. To expand this

study, research including the English major students in different types of universities in

terms of their attitudes toward CALL and its application should be done.

3. Only a quantitative research method was used in this study. A qualitative

research method, such as interviews, could be used to discover more factors on

perceptions toward CALL in an ESL course.

4. In this study, much research from the United States was used as there is little

research which specifically concentrates on CALL in ESL courses in China. To expand

90

this study, a comparison and contrast of students' attitudes toward computer-assisted

language learning of students who are not majoring in English, but are engaged in

acquiring English (English language learners), should be done in institutions of higher

education in China and the United States.

REFERENCES

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

FACULTY INFORMED CONSENT LETTER

109

Faculty Informed Consent Form

Texas A&M University - Commerce

Title: Attitudes of ESL students toward the use of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in a university in China.

Purpose: The purpose of the study is to investigate (a) the attitudes of ESL students in a university in China toward the use of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), (b) demographic characteristics of non English students who are taking ESL courses in Anhui university in Middle Eastern China, (c) the relationship between specific demographic characteristics and ESL students' attitudes.

Benefits: This survey could emphasize the importance of computer technology in the English learning process. Also, English course instructors and faculty members who are working in curriculum design may consider the result of this research and rethink about how to make use of computer as an important tool in their teaching and curriculum design.

Procedures: The survey, to be administered to students in your class, will take approximately 5 to 8 minutes to complete, and it will be on two pages (front and back). The survey includes two sections: (a) Scale of Attitudes toward Computer Based ESL Learning (30 items), and (b) Demographic Survey (10 items). The faculty role consists of administering and collecting the student surveys and returning the completed instruments to the researcher.

Confidentiality: Faculty and student participation is voluntary and there are no penalties or consequences otherwise imposed for non-participation. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. The survey results will be kept confidential and will be used only one time in this doctoral dissertation project. No personal identifiable information about the participants or survey resources will be made available.

Questions: If you have any problems or have any questions regarding this study please contact the researcher, Shikun Zhang at zhangshikun 1981 @yahoo.com (personal) or szhang@leo.tamu-commerce.edu (business). Alternately, you may contact Dr. Jason Lee Davis at 903-886-5598 or Jason_Davis@tamu-commmerce.edu or the Texas A&M University - Commerce Institutional Review Board (IRB) via Dr. Tracy Henley at 903-886-5200 or Tracy_Henley@tamu-commerce.edu.

If you agree to participate, please sign below. Your participation would be greatly appreciated.

Faculty Signature Date

APPENDIX B

FACULTY INFORMED CONSENT LETTER (Chinese Version)

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SlRl: Jom^#^S>Mp]^THfi^ff^lW^lPl , UfM Shikun Zhang *,-?4|5#±_ijh zhangshikunl981@yahoo.com ($\A) or szhang@leo.tamu-commerce.edu Cifr'j*). ~&%

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commmerce.edu ^ M l t f f l ^ l A ^ - BMMfttiL frJJg^S^ Dr. Tracy

Henley 3131 903-886-5200 ^#%-7-ftPfF Tracy Henley@tamu-commerce.edu.

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112

APPENDIX C

STUDENT INFORMED CONSENT LETTER

114

Student Informed Consent Form

Texas A&M University - Commerce

Title: Attitudes of ESL students toward the use of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in a university in China.

Purpose: The purpose of the study is to investigate (a) the attitudes of ESL students in a university in China toward the use of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), (b) demographic characteristics of non English students who are taking ESL courses in Anhui university in Middle Eastern China, (c) the relationship between specific demographic characteristics and ESL students' attitudes.

Benefits: This survey could emphasize the importance of computer technology in the English learning process. Also, English course instructors and faculty members who are working in curriculum design may consider the result of this research and rethink about how to make use of computer as an important tool in their teaching and curriculum design.

Procedures: The survey will take approximately 5 to 8 minutes to complete, and it will be on two pages (front and back). The survey includes two sections: (a) Scale of Attitudes toward Computer Based ESL Learning (30 items), and (b) Demographic Survey (10 items).

Confidentiality: Participation is voluntary and there are no penalties or consequences otherwise imposed for non-participation. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. The survey results will be kept confidential and will be used only one time in this doctoral dissertation project. No personal identifiable information about the participants or survey resources will be made available.

Questions: If you have any problems or have any questions regarding your participation in the survey, you may contact the instructor who supervises the survey, or email Shikun Zhang at zhangshikunl981 @yahoo.com (personal) or szhang@leo.tamu-commerce.edu (business). Alternately, you may contact Dr. Jason Lee Davis at 903-886-5598 or Jason_Davis@tamu-commmerce.edu or the Texas A&M University - Commerce Institutional Review Board (IRB) via Dr. Tracy Henley at 903-886-5200 or Tracy_Henley@tamu-commerce.edu.

If you agree to participate, please sign below. Your participation would be greatly appreciated.

Signature Date

APPENDIX D

STUDENT INFORMED CONSENT LETTER (Chinese Version)

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APPENDIX E

PERMISSION FOR USING INSTRUMENT

119

Permission for Using Instrument

Dear Mr. Zhang,

Thank you for your inquiry about the Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL). You are permitted to use the SACALL designed by myself in your dissertation. Permission is also granted for modification of this scale. Also, you have my permission to reprint the instrument. In any publications arising from its use, please be sure to credit the author, Mishal H. Al Al-Shammari.

Should you have any question, please let me know.

Good luck with your dissertation.

Yours,

Mishal H. Al Al-Shammari, Ed.D

POBox 1455Dammam31141

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

On Tue, Apr 21, 2009 at 10:12 PM, Shikun Zhang <zhangshikun 1981 @ yahoo.com> wrote:

Mishal,

I am a doctoral candidate at Texas A&M University - Commerce. My dissertation topic is on College ESL students' attitudes toward computer integrated class in China.

I emailed to Dr Obenauf, who is your chair member in your doctoral committee about your contact information.

I found the survey in the dissertation. I found the section II which is the Scale of Attitudes toward CALL is very informative and extremely relevant to my research study. Would it be possible to use this survey instrument?

Thanks so much

120

From: dorisdale@interwrx.com To: laiharr@hotmail.com Subject: News from Doris Dale Date: Thu, 7 May 2009 15:23:45 -0700

Hi. Shikun. Dr. Dale contacted me about your dissertation. I approve your use of the survey instrument in my dissertation. Good luck to you! It's very hard work to complete a dissertation.

Lai Har

From:<dorisdale@interwrx.com>

To: "szhang" <szhang@leo.tamu-commerce.edu>

Date: 4/12/2011 4:45:06 pm

Hi, Shikun. You have my permission to reprint the instrument from LaiHar's dissertation.

Lai Har,

I have just had a letter from Shikun Zhang who is a doctoral candidate at Texas A&M University. He wants to use the survey instrument that you used in your dissertation "Whole Language Instruction in the CAI Setting." He asked for your address, but I thought it better to write to you and have you answer him. His email address is: syhang@ieo.tamu-commerce.edu

He has a second email: zhangshikun 1981 @yahoo.com

I also have his phone number if you want to call him: 337-309-2455.

I will write him and tell him that I have contacted you, and you will respond.

We have just returned from 2 weeks in Central Europe with a cruise on the Danube. It was a great trip, and we were truly pampered on the cruise.

I hope you are still enjoying your job and life in Memphis.

APPENDIX F

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

122

Survey Questionnaire

Section I: Demographic Questionnaire

1. Gender (circle one): Male Female

2. Degree that you are pursuing (circle one): Undergraduate Graduate

3. How would you rank your computer ability (from 1 - 5, where 1 = absolutely no ability and 5 = highly proficient)? (circle one) 1 2 3 4 5

4. Your major (circle one) Sciences Arts

5. Do you have access to a personal computer? Yes No

6. Give a choice, would you prefer to take ESL courses that are Computer integrated? Not computer integrated?

7. Do you think a computer based ESL class can help you in your language learning? Yes No

8. How often do you use a computer? (circle one) Less than once per week 1—3 times per week 4—6 times per week Daily

9. How many computer integrated ESL courses have you taken? (circle one) 0 1 2

123

3 or more

10. Where do you take your CALL based ESL courses? (circle one) Computer Lab Language Lab

Section II: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)

Direction: The following are 30 general statements that describe your attitudes toward technology-integrated ESL instruction. Please think about each statement and circle the number that indicates how strongly you disagree or agree with each of the statement using a rating scale of 1 to 5.

Circle "1" if you strongly disagree (SD).

Circle "2" if you disagree (D).

Circle " 3 " if you are uncertain (U).

Circle "4" if you agree (A).

Circle "5" if you strongly agree (SA).

1. Using computers to learn English does not scare me at all. 12 3 4 5

2. I use computers in many ways to learn English (the Internet, software programs,

etc). 12 3 4 5

3. It is easy to write my English assignments on the computer. 12 3 4 5

4. Learning English through computers is necessary. 12 3 4 5

5. The CALL lab has sufficient technical support. 12 3 4 5

6. I prefer the activities in the CALL lab to the activities in the regular classroom.

1 2 3 4 5

7. What I do in the CALL lab is related to classroom activities. 12 3 4 5

8. I need a firm mastery of computers for my English learning. 12 3 4 5

9. Computers make English learning much easier. 12 3 4 5

10.1 want more use of computers in my ESL classes. 12 3 4 5

11. Learning English in the CALL lab doesn't bother me. 12 3 4 5

12.1 often use computers to do my English assignments. 12 3 4 5

13.1 feel at ease learning English in the CALL lab. 12 3 4 5

14. The program used in the CALL lab helps me in learning English. 12 3 4 5

15. Writing on a computer does not make me nervous. 12 3 4 5

16. It is essential for ESL learners to master computer skills. 12 3 4 5

17.1 like to talk about computers with others. 12 3 4 5

18. A computer is a useful tool for reading English. 12 3 4 5

19. Computer-Assisted Language Learning is more interesting than traditional ESL

instruction. 12 3 4 5

20. Using computers to learn English can enhance my English proficiency. 12 3 4 5

21.1 am eager to study English through CALL. 12 3 4 5

22. A computer is a useful tool for writing English. 12 3 4 5

23. Reading English on computer does not bother me. 12 3 4 5

24. The CALL lab has sufficient technical support. 12 3 4 5

25. The teachers have sufficient knowledge of CALL lab procedures. 12 3 4 5

26.1 would spend more hours in the CALL lab if it were possible. 12 3 4 5

27.1 feel at ease working in the CALL lab. 12 3 4 5

28.1 am interested in CALL. 12 3 4 5

29. What I do in the CALL lab helps me in the regular classroom courses. 12 3 4 5

30.1 often read computer-related information. 12 3 4 5

Thank you for your participation.

APPENDIX G

SURVEY INSTRUMENT (Chinese Version)

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VITA

Shikun Zhang was born in Anhui Province, China. In September of 2000, he

started his undergraduate study. In June of 2004, he graduated from Anhui University

with B.A. majoring in English. In February, 2004, he began to teach English in Elite

Language Training College in Hefei, Anhui Province in China. He began to work as Vice

President in Curriculum and Student Success in September, 2004 in this college. In

January of 2006, he was admitted to the graduate program of Texas A&M University-

Commerce and awarded the Master of Science degree with major of Learning

Technology and Media Technology in May, 2007. In the summer of 2007, he was

admitted to the doctoral program at Texas A&M University- Commerce in Supervision,

Curriculum and Instruction-Higher Education. He was employed as a graduate assistant

in the College of Education computer lab in Texas A&M University-Commerce from

February 2005 to December 2009. Since January 2010, he worked as an adjunct faculty

in the department of Arts and Literature in Eastfield College in Mesquite, TX.

Shikun Zhang was awarded the doctorate in Supervision, Curriculum, and

Instruction-Higher Education from the department of Educational Leadership at Texas

A&M University-Commerce in May 2011.

Permanent address: 2309 Washington Street, #B11 Commerce, Texas 75428

133