ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

The Social Self

Tom Farsides:

25/09/03

Tom Farsides:

25/09/03

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Lecture contents

Introspection How useful are self-reports?

Self-perception Can others’ behaviours change who we are?

Self-esteem & Self-enhancement How is depression possible?

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

The self-concept

The self-concept is the sum total of a person’s beliefs (i.e., cognitions) about their own personal attributes.

These beliefs can be about affect, behaviour, (other) cognitions, motives, etc.

Sometimes evaluations of these beliefs (i.e., self-esteem) is considered part of the self-concept.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

The development of self-awareness and identity

• ‘Subjective’ self-awareness

• ‘Objective’ self awareness

• Symbolic self-awareness

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Self-assessment: The perils of introspection

Nisbett & Wilson (1977) People often cannot explain the causes and correlates of their own

behaviour.

Wilson (1985) Analysing the reasons for our preferences and actions (e.g.,

choosing a painting) may make us reach decisions we later come to regret.

Wilson & Schooler (1991) Analysing the reasons for our preferences and actions (e.g.,

ranking jams) may make us reach objectively bad decisions.

Wilson & Kraft (1993) Analysing the reasons why we are in romantic relationships can

reduce our satisfaction with them.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Benefits of introspection

Millar & Tesser (1989)Need to match introspection ‘type’ (i.e., of feelings, of

thoughts) with behaviour type (i.e., relationships, decision-making).

There may be other benefits to be derived from introspection, even if is not always accompanied by ‘genuine’ self-knowledge, e.g., in health (Pennebaker, 1997).

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Trafimow et al. (1997)

“Students who took the test in English focused more on personal traits, while those who took the test in Chinese were more focused on group affiliations” (Brehm et al., 2002, p. 67)

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory

To the extent that (i) people’s internal states are weak or difficult

to interpret, and (ii) they believe their behaviour to be

unconstrained (e.g., by promise of reward or threat of punishment),

then people will infer their attitudes (beliefs and feelings) from their behaviour.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Self-perception research

Rhodewalt & Agustsdottir (1986) People subtly induced to describe themselves in positive terms

scored higher on a subsequent self-esteem test than people who were not so induced.

Swann & Ely (1984) People subtly induced (by leading questions) to describe

themselves as either introverted or extroverted subsequently defined themselves as such, but only when not previously certain about their level of dispositional introversion/extraversion.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Self-perception of motivation

The over-justification effect

Providing extrinsic reasons (rewards, punishments) for behaviour formally engaged in for intrinsic reasons (enjoyment, duty) results in reduction of intrinsic motivation to engage in those behaviours (and thus in spontaneous expression of such behaviours).

This is the ‘paradoxical effect of reward on motivation’.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Lepper et al. (1973)Making play into work

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Self-perception and performance quality

Eisenberger & Cameron (1996)Post-performance rewards for quality of performance

can enhance intrinsic motivation as long as such rewards were not guaranteed in advance for completion of the performance.

Amabile (1996)Overjustification decreases performance quality as well

as intrinsic motivation.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Self-esteem: Self-perception of self-value

Self-esteem is the result of the self’s evaluations of the self-concept.

Self can be evaluated in part (‘specific’) or whole (‘summary’).

Evaluations can be positive, negative, neutral, ambiguous, and ambivalent.

‘State’ and ‘trait’ self-esteem.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

How self-esteem affects us

High self-esteem has all sorts of benefits.

Conversely, low self-esteem predicts an altogether poorer life experience.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Self-enhancement

Four mechanisms to improve self-esteem

• Self-serving cognitions

• Self-handicapping

• Basking in reflected glory

• Downward social comparison

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Self-serving cognitions

Schlenker et al. (1990)People tend to take credit for their own successes and

distance themselves from failure.

Weinstein (1980)Unrealistic optimism.Often ‘explained’ by reference to the person’s particular

characteristics (Kunda, 1987).

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Self-handicapping

If we (i) are unsure of our success on a task we value and (ii) feel we should do well, we may claim or create a handicap to our own performance.

We do this in order to (i) build an advance excuse for possible future failure that might otherwise damage our self-esteem and/or (ii) be able to claim additional credit should we nevertheless succeed.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

BIRGing

Basking in reflected glory

Enhancing self-esteem by identifying or claiming affiliation with a successful group.

Cialdini et al. (1976) BIRGing and CORFing Used most after threats to individual self-esteem

Hirt et al. (1992) Sometimes, we cannot CORF This affects out individual functioning

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

Downward social comparisons

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). In the absence of objective criteria, people may evaluate

themselves relative to similar others.

People can use this phenomenon proactively (Wills, 1981).Low or threatened self-esteem motivated downward social comparison relatively positive evaluation of self improved or secured self-esteem

This works by demonstrating that: I am better (off) than someone else. I am better (off) than I could be.

ATP 2: Social Psychology 2: The social self

A sequence of self-biases

Self-relevantinformation

Automaticemotional

assessment

Reflectivecognitive

assessment

Verify overridesenhance,

if necessary