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Plato
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Bust of Plato
Plato was a very important classical Greek philosopher. He lived from 427 BC
to 348 BC. He was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. Plato
wrote about many ideas in philosophy that are still talked about today. In
fact, one modern philosopher (Alfred North Whitehead) said that all
philosophy since Plato has just been comments on his works.
Plato wrote his books in the form of dialoguespeople talking about ideas,
and sometimes disagreeing about them. This makes Plato's books more
interesting to read.
Socrates is usually the main person in Plato's dialogues. Usually, Socrates talks
with people about their ideas, and tries to see if they believe anything that is
illogical. Other people in the stories often become angry with Socrates
because of this. People who study Plato argue about whether Socrates really
said the same things that Plato makes him say, or whether Plato just used
Socrates as a character, to make the ideas he was talking about seem more
important.
Plato opposed the rhetorics of sophism and insisted true justice and equality
in his work "Gorgias" and immortality of soul in "Phaedo".
One of Plato's most famous works is The Republic (In Greek, Politeia, or 'city').
In that work, he describes Socrates's vision of an "ideal" state. The method of
questioning in this dialogue, called the Socratic method, is as important as the
content. The Republic contains ideas of Socrates: "Socrates said it, Plato
wrote it."
Plato also wrote the Laws.
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Works by Plato
There are many dialogues that were supposed to be written by Plato. But
because he was such a famous philosopher, some later philosophers said that
their works were really written by him, to make their works seem more
important.
In the list on this page, a work is marked (1) if scholars are not sure that Plato
really wrote it, and it is marked (2) if scholars generally agree that Plato did
not really write it.
Alcibiades (1)
Axiochus (2)
Apology
Charmides
Clitophon (1)
Cratylus
Critias
Crito
Definitions (2)
Demodocus (2)
Epigrams
Epinomis (2)
Eryxias (2)
Euthydemus
Euthyphro
Gorgias
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Greater Hippias (1)
Halcyon (2)
Hipparchus (2)
Ion
Laches
Laws
Lesser Hippias
Letters
Lysis
Menexenus
Meno
Minos (2)
On Justice (2)
On Virtue (2)
Parmenides
Phaedo
Phaedrus
Philebus
Protagoras
Rival Lovers (2)
The Republic
Second Alcibiades (2)
Sisyphus (2)
Sophist
Statesman
Symposium
Theaetetus
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Theages (2)
Timaeus
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Aristotle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Aristotle: marble copy of bronze by Lysippus, Louvre Museum.
Aristotle [1] (Stagira, Macedonia,[2] 384 BC Chalicis, Euboea, Greece, 7
March 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher. He was one of the most important
philosophers in the history of Western civilization.[3] It is said that Aristotle
wrote many books, but only a much smaller number survive. Aristotle was the
boyhood tutor of Alexander the Great, who later sent him plants and animals
from parts of his new empire.
Life
Aristotle's father Nicomachus, was the doctor of King Amyntas of Macedonia.
From his eighteenth to his thirty-seventh year, Aristotle lived in Athens, as a
metic and student of Plato.[4]
At about the age of eighteen, he went to Athens to continue his education at
Plato's Academy. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years,
not leaving until after Plato's death in 347 BC. He then traveled with
Xenocrates to Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus
to the island of Lesbos, where they researched the botany and zoology of the
island. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of
Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander the Great in 343 B.C.[5]
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During
that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future
kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward
eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was ethnocentric.[6] In one
famous example, he advises Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a
despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and
relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.[7]p58
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By 335 BC he had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there
known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next
twelve years. It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 when Aristotle
is believed to have composed many of his works.[5] Aristotle wrote many
dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are
in fairly rough form. They are generally thought to be lecture notes for his
students.[8]
Aristotle's combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek
knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person
to know everything there was to be known in his own time.[9]
Near the end of Alexander's life, he began to suspect plots, and threatened
Aristotle in letters. Aristotle made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's
pretense of divinity, and the king executed Aristotle's grandnephew
Callisthenes as a traitor. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 without ever having
returned to his native land. Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian
sentiment in Athens once again flared up, and Aristotle fled the city.
However, he died in Euboea of natural causes within the year, 322 BC.
Philosophy
The three greatest ancient Greek philosophers were Aristotle, Plato, and
Socrates. Socrates taught Plato, then Plato taught Aristotle. These three
thinkers turned early Greek philosophy into the beginnings of Western
philosophy as it is today.[10] Aristotle taught Alexander the Great, who later
conquered the entire Middle East.
Plato's main ideas were that knowledge from the senses was always confused
and not pure. True knowledge can be gotten from the thinking soul that turns
away from the world. Only the soul can have knowledge of "Forms", the real
way things are. The world is only a copy of these "Forms" and is not perfect.
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Aristotle thought differently. He thought that knowledge from the senses was
more important. These thoughts became some of the roots of the scientific
method after hundreds of years.[11] Most of the things Aristotle wrote that
we still have today are notes from his speaking and teaching. Some of his
important writings are Physics, Metaphysics, (Nicomachean) Ethics, Politics,
De Anima (On the Soul), and Poetics.
He also had problems with the atomic theory. He did not believe in
Democritus' theories about the atomic theory. He believed that all matter
was continuous whereas Democritus stated the all matter was made up of
tiny indivisible things called "atoms". Democritus was proved right by
physicist John Dalton in 1804.
Logic
Aristotle created a form of logic. His logic is called sentential logic because it
uses sentences for the syllogism.
Aristotle's logic influenced the history of Western thought. It was Aristotle's
logic which was copied and used in the Arabic and Latin mediaeval traditions.
It was dominant for two and a half thousand years, until the late 19th
century.[12] Then modern logic was started by Gottlob Frege, Charles Sanders
Peirce and others.[13]
Biology
Octopus swimming
Torpedo fuscomaculata
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Leopard shark
Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some
detail. He certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the
surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works History of Animals,
Generation of Animals and Parts of Animals have observations and
interpretations, along with some myths and mistakes.
The most striking passages are about the sea-life round Lesbos. As well as live
observation, he got specimens from the catches of fishermen. His
observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed.
His writing on cephalopods such as Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper
nautilus (Argonauta argo) are accurate. His description of the hectocotyl arm,
used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in
the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew
that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selach
(Selachimorpha).[14]
Another good example of his methods comes from the Generation of Animals
in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals
to observe when visible organs were generated.
He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' four-chambered fore-stomachs,
and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark
Mustelus mustelus.[15]
The works
The works are traditionally listed in this sequence:
Logic
Categories (terms)
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On Interpretation (propositions, truth)
Prior Analytics (syllogistic logic)
Posterior Analytics (scientific method)
Topics (rules for argument and debate)
On Sophistical Refutations (fallacies)
Science and nature
Physics (change, motion, void, time)
On the Heavens (structure of heaven, earth, elements)
On Generation and Corruption
Meteorology (origin of comets, weather, disasters)
The Parva Naturalia (psychological works)
Sense and sensibilia (faculties, senses, mind, imagination)
On Memory,
Sleep, Dreams, and Prophesy
Length of life
Works on natural history
History of Animals
On the parts of Animals
On the Movement of Animals
On the Progression of Animals
On the Generation of Animals
Problems
Philosophical works
Metaphysics (substance, cause, form, potentiality)
Nicomachean Ethics (soul, happiness, virtue, friendship)
Eudemian Ethics, virtues & vices
Politics (best states, utopias)
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Rhetoric (debate)
Poetics (tragedy, epic poetry)
The Constitution of the Athenians
Fragments
Influence of Aristotle's work
Aristotle is still one of the most influential people who ever lived. He
contributed to almost every kind of knowledge in his day, and he started
many new fields.
"It is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he
did".[16]
Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,[3]p156 pioneered the study of
zoology, and helped to develop scientific method.[17][18]p92
Despite these achievements, Aristotle's errors are thought by some, such as
Peter Medawar,[19] to have held back science considerably. Bertrand Russell
notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an
attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's Ethics
as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic
astronomy". Russell says these errors make it difficult to do historical justice
to Aristotle, until one remembers what an advance he made on his
predecessors.[5]
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into
the Peripatetic school of philosophers. Aristotle's influence over Alexander
the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him, on his expedition, biologists
and researchers.
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Horace
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
No photographs or paintings exist from when Horace was alive. This is how
Anton von Werner imagined he would look.
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (December 8, 65 BC - November 27, 8 BC), known to
English speakers as Horace, was a famous poet in the Roman Empire.
Horace was born in the small Italian town of Venusia. His father used to be a
slave, but was known as a freedman because his master had freed him. They
moved to Rome a short time later. Horace's father had a job taking items
from the seller to the buyer. He received money from these sales. His father
became richer and was able to send Horace to the best schools in Rome. He
was also able to send him to Athens (Greece) to study the Greek language
and philosophy. Horace's native language was Latin. Horace was incredibly
proud of his father, and said he felt no shame in being the son of a freedman.
In his early adult life, Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, was killed. War was
declared against the people who killed him. Horace joined the army. When
the war was over, Horace returned to Italy to find that other people were
living in his apartment. His father was also gone. Horace became very poor.
Eventually, he found a job in the treasury. This involved sorting the country's
money.
His friends, Lucius Varius Rufus and Virgil, who were also writers, introduced
him to Maecenas. Maecenas was a close friend of Augustus, the emperor of
Rome. Horace lived in Tivoli, an area of Rome. When he died, he gave the
land he owned to Augustus, to increase the land the state owned. Today,
other writers visit the land to remember him.
Quotes
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Horace wrote many famous quotes in his poems. These lines are still spoken
today, by speakers of every language, in the original Latin.
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori - It is sweet and fitting to die for one's
country.
Carpe diem - Pluck the day (Seize the day is the common translation, though
it is incorrect in terms of translation and usage).
Poetry
Some of Horace's poems are difficult to translate because of their syntax,
grammar and structure, which is sometimes very different to modern
languages.
Horace is viewed by many people, including experts, to be one of the best
Latin poets.
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Longinus (literature)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Longinus (/lndans/; Ancient Greek: Longnos) is the
conventional name of the author of the treatise On the Sublime (
Per hpsous), a work which focuses on the effect of good writing.[1]
Longinus, sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Longinus because his real name is
unknown, was a Greek teacher of rhetoric or a literary critic who may have
lived in the 1st or 3rd century AD. Longinus is known only for On the Sublime.
Longinus was greatly influenced by the large amount of traveling he
completed in his youth. He journeyed to countless cities such as Athens,
Rome and Alexandria. While on these trips, he attended lectures about
philosophy, undoubtedly shaping his own beliefs. One of Longinus favorite
philosophers was Plato.[2]
Contents
1 Authorship of On the Sublime
1.1 Dionysius of Halicarnassus
1.2 Cassius Longinus
2 The treatise On the Sublime
2.1 The Sublime
2.2 The decay of rhetoric
2.3 Misleading translations and lost data
2.4 Limitations of the writing
2.5 Writing style and rhetoric
2.6 Influences
3 Historical criticism and use of On the Sublime
4 Notes
5 Further reading
6 External links
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Authorship of On the Sublime
The author is unknown. In the reference manuscript (Parisinus Graecus 2036),
the heading reports Dionysius or Longinus," an ascription by the medieval
copyist that was misread as "by Dionysius Longinus." When the manuscript
was being prepared for printed publication, the work was initially attributed
to Cassius Longinus (c. 213273 AD). Since the correct translation includes the
possibility of an author named "Dionysius," some have attributed the work to
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a writer of the 1st century AD.[3] There remains
the possibility that the work belongs to neither Cassius Longinus nor
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, but, rather, some unknown author writing under
the Roman Empire, likely in the 1st century. The error does imply that when
the codex was written, the trails of the real author were already lost. Neither
author can be accepted as the actual writer of the treatise. The former
maintained ideas which are absolutely opposite to those written in the
treatise; about the latter, there are problems with chronology.
Among further names proposed, are Hermagoras (a rhetorician who lived in
Rome during the 1st century AD), Aelius Theon (author of a work which had
many ideas in common with those of On the Sublime), and Pompeius
Geminus (who was in epistolary conversation with Dionysius).
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote under Augustus, publishing a number of
works. Dionysius is generally dismissed as the potential author of On the
Sublime, since the writing officially attributed to Dionysius differs from the
work On the Sublime in style and thought.[1]
Cassius Longinus
Accredited with writing a number of literary works, this disciple of Plotinus
was "the most distinguished scholar of his day." Cassius received his
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education at Alexandria and became a teacher himself. First teaching at
Athens, Cassius later moved to Asia Minor, where he achieved the position of
advisor to the queen of Palmyra, Zenobia.[1] Cassius is also a dubious
possibility for author of the treatise, since it is notable that no literature later
than the 1st century AD is mentioned (the latest is Cicero, dead in 43 BC), and
the work is now usually dated to the early 1st century AD. The work ends with
a dissertation on the decay of oratory, a typical subject of the period in which
authors such as Tacitus, Petronius and Quintilian, who also dealt with the
subject, were still alive. Longinus he was the minister of Queen Zenobia of
Palmyra.[4] He was executed by Aurelian, the Roman emperor who
conquered Palmyra.[2] The reason for his execution in 273 AD, were on
charges of conspiring against the Roman state. This was most likely because
of what Longinus had written for Queen Zenobia of Palmyra while she was
still in power.[2] Longinus is reported to have written answers for the Queen,
which were used in response to Aurelian, the man who would soon rise to
power as the Roman emperor.[2]
The treatise On the Sublime
On the Sublime is both a treatise on aesthetics and a work of literary criticism.
It is written in an epistolary form and the final part, possibly dealing with
public speaking, has been lost.
The treatise is dedicated to Posthumius Terentianus, a cultured Roman and
public figure, though little else is known of him. On the Sublime is a
compendium of literary exemplars, with about 50 authors spanning 1,000
years mentioned or quoted.[5] Along with the expected examples from
Homer and other figures of Greek culture, Longinus refers to a passage from
Genesis, which is quite unusual for the 1st century:
A similar effect was achieved by the lawgiver of the Jewsno mean genius,
for he both understood and gave expression to the power of the divinity as it
deservedwhen he wrote at the very beginning of his laws, and I quote his
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words: "God said,"what was it?"Let there be light, and there was. Let
there be earth, and there was."
On the Sublime 9.9
Given his positive reference to Genesis, Longinus has been assumed to be
either a Hellenized Jew or readily familiar with the Jewish culture.[6] As such,
Longinus emphasizes that, to be a truly great writer, authors must have
"moral excellence".[1] In fact, critics speculate that Longinus avoided
publication in the ancient world "either by modesty or by prudential
motives".[5] Moreover, Longinus stresses that transgressive writers are not
necessarily shameless fools, even if they take literary risks that seem "bold,
lawless, and original".[1] As for social subjectivity, Longinus acknowledges
that complete liberty promotes spirit and hope; according to Longinus, "never
did a slave become an orator".[7] On the other hand, too much luxury and
wealth leads to a decay in eloquenceeloquence being the goal of the
sublime writer.[5]
The Sublime
Longinus critically applauds and condemns certain literary works as examples
of good or bad styles of writing.[5] Longinus ultimately promotes an
"elevation of style"[5] and an essence of "simplicity".[8] To quote this famous
author, "the first and most important source of sublimity [is] the power of
forming great conceptions."[8] The concept of the sublime is generally
accepted to refer to a style of writing that elevates itself "above the
ordinary". Finally, Longinus sets out five sources of sublimity: "great thoughts,
strong emotions, certain figures of thought and speech, noble diction, and
dignified word arrangement".[6]
The effects of the Sublime are: loss of rationality, an alienation leading to
identification with the creative process of the artist and a deep emotion
mixed in pleasure and exaltation. An example of sublime (which the author
quotes in the work) is a poem by Sappho, the so-called Ode to Jealousy,
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defined as a "Sublime ode". A writer's goal is not so much to express empty
feelings, but to arouse emotion in his audience.[8]
In the treatise, the author asserts that "the Sublime leads the listeners not to
persuasion, but to ecstasy: for what is wonderful always goes together with a
sense of dismay, and prevails over what is only convincing or delightful, since
persuasion, as a rule, is within everyone's grasp: whereas, the Sublime, giving
to speech an invincible power and [an invincible] strength, rises above every
listener".[9]
According to this statement, one could think that the sublime, for Longinus,
was only a moment of evasion from reality. But on the contrary, he thought
that literature could model a soul, and that a soul could pour itself out into a
work of art. In this way the treatise becomes not only a text of literary inquiry,
but also one of ethical dissertation, since the Sublime becomes the product of
a great soul ( , megalophrosuns apchma). The
sources of the Sublime are of two kinds: inborn sources ("aspiration to
vigorous concepts" and "strong and enthusiastic passion") and acquirable
sources (rhetorical devices, choice of the right lexicon, and "dignified and high
composition").[8]
The ethical aspect and attention to the "great soul" broaden the dimension of
the work; begun in order to disprove the arguments of a pamphlet of literary
criticism, it ends by creating a new idea within the entire framework of
aesthetics. The sublime, in fact, is a denominator of the greatness of the one
who approaches to it, both the author's and the viewer's (or reader's).
Between them an empathetic bond must arise. Then, the Sublime is a
mechanism of recognition (arising from the impact of the work of art) of the
greatness of a spirit, of the depth of an idea, of the power of speech. This
recognition has its roots in the belief that everyone is aware of the existence
of the Sublime, and that the striving towards greatness is rooted in human
nature. In the wake of these considerations, the literary genre and the
subject-matter chosen by the poet assume a minor importance for Longinus,
who affirms that "sublimity" might be found in any or every literary work. He
proves to be a very clever critic, for he excels the Apollodoreans by speaking
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of the critic as a form of positive "channeling" of the Genius. He passes
beyond the rigid rules of the literary critics of his time, according to which
only a regular (or "second-rate", as Longinus says) style could be defined as
perfect.
On the other hand he admires the boldness of the Genius, which always
succeeds in reaching the zenith, even if at the expense of forgivable lapses in
style. Thus among examples of the Sublime may be rated (not in any order)
Homer, the tragedians, Sappho, Plato, even the Bible, and a playwright like
Aristophanes (since the author maintained that laughter is a jocose pathos
and therefore, "sublime", being "an emotion of pleasure"). He admires
Hellenistic poets like Apollonius of Rhodes and Theocritus for their
sophistication, but ranks them below authors of the classical age because
they did not take risks and fought shy of the "brave disorder" without which
one could not hope to attain the sublime. "Would you prefer to be Homer or
Apollonius?... No sane person would give just one tragedy, the Oedipus Rex,
in exchange for all Ion's dramas."[10]
The Sublime, moreover, does not manifest itself only in what is simply
beautiful, but also in what is sufficiently distressing to cause bewilderment
(, ekplxis), wonder ( , to thaumaston) and even fear
(, phobos). It could be said that Helen of Troy may certainly have been
the most beautiful woman in the world, but she was never sublime in Greek
literature: however Edmund Burke cites the scene of the old men looking at
Helen's "terrible" beauty on the ramparts of Troyhe regards it as an
instance of the beautiful, but his imagination is captured by its sublimity.
Hecuba in Euripides's The Trojan Women is certainly sublime when she
expresses her endless sorrow for the terrible destiny of her children.
The decay of rhetoric
The author speaks also about the decay of oratory, as arising not only from
absence of personal freedom but also from the corruption of morals, which
together destroy that high spirit which generates the Sublime. Thus the
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treatise is clearly centred in the burning controversy which raged in the 1st
century AD in Latin literature. If Petronius pointed out excess of rhetoric and
the pompous, unnatural techniques of the schools of eloquence as the causes
of decay, Tacitus was nearer to Longinus in thinking[3] that the root of this
decadence was the establishment of Princedom, or Empire, which, though it
brought stability and peace, also gave rise to censorship and brought an end
to freedom of speech. Thus oratory became merely an exercise in style.
Misleading translations and lost data
Translators have been unable to clearly interpret the text, including the title
itself. The "sublime" in the title has been translated in various ways, to
include senses of elevation and excellent style. The word sublime, argues
Rhys Roberts, is misleading, since Longinus' objective broadly concerns "the
essentials of a noble and impressive style" than anything more narrow and
specific. Moreover, about one-third of the treatise is missing;[5] Longinus'
segment on similes, for instance, has only a few words remaining.[1] Matters
are further complicated in realizing that ancient writers, Longinus'
contemporaries, do not quote or mention the treatise in any way.[5]
Limitations of the writing
Despite Longinus' critical acclaim, his writing is far from perfect. Longinus'
occasional enthusiasm becomes "carried away" and creates some confusion
as to the meaning of his text. Furthermore, 18th-century critic Edward
Burnaby Greene finds Longinus, at times, to be "too refined".[11] Greene also
claims that Longinus' focus on hyperbolical descriptions is "particularly weak,
and misapplied."[3] Occasionally, Longinus also falls into a sort of
"tediousness" in treating his subjects.[5] The treatise is also limited in its
concentration on spiritual transcendence and lack of focus on the way in
which language structures determine the feelings and thoughts of writers.[6]
Finally, Longinus' treatise is difficult to explain in an academic setting, given
the difficulty of the text and lack of "practical rules of a teachable kind."[1]
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Writing style and rhetoric
Despite its faults, the treatise remains critically successful because of its
"noble tone," "apt precepts," "judicious attitude," and "historical
interests".[5] One of the reasons why it is so unlikely that known ancient
critics wrote On the Sublime is because the treatise is composed so differently
from any other literary work. Since Longinus' rhetorical formula avoids
dominating his work, the literature remains "personal and fresh," unique in its
originality. Longinus rebels against the popular rhetoric of the time by
implicitly attacking ancient theory in its focus on a detailed criticism of words,
metaphors, and figures. More explicitly, in refusing to judge tropes as entities
unto themselves, Longinus promotes the appreciation of literary devices as
they relate to passages as a whole.[3] Essentially, Longinus, rare for a critic of
his time, focuses more on "greatness of style" than "technical rules."[5]
Despite his criticism of ancient texts, Longinus remains a "master of candor
and good-nature".[11] Moreover, the author invents striking images and
metaphors, writing almost lyrically at times.[3] In general, Longinus
appreciates, and makes use of, simple diction and bold images.[1]
As far as the language is concerned, the work is certainly an "unicum"
because it is a blend of expressions of the Hellenistic Koine Greek to which
are added elevated constructions, technical expressions, metaphors, classic
and rare forms which produce a literary pastiche at the borders of linguistic
experimentation.
Influences
In reading On the Sublime, critics have determined that the ancient
philosopher and writer Plato is a "great hero" to Longinus.[1] Not only does
Longinus come to Plato's defense, but he also attempts to raise his literary
standing in opposition to current criticisms. Another influence on the treatise
can be found in Longinus' rhetorical figures, which draw from theories by a
1st-century BC writer, Caecilius of Calacte.[5]
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Historical criticism and use of On the Sublime
10th century - The original treatise, before translation, is copied into a
medieval manuscript and attributed to "Dionysius or Longinus."[6]
13th century - A Byzantine rhetorician makes obscure references to what may
be Longinus' text.[3]
16th century - The treatise is ignored by scholars until it is published by
Francis Robortello in Basel, in 1554, and Niccol da Falgano, in 1560.[6] The
original work is attributed to "Dionysius Longinus" and most European
countries receive translations of the treatise.[5]
17th century - Sublime effects become a desired end of much Baroque art
and literature, and the rediscovered work of "Longinus" goes through half a
dozen editions in the 17th century. It is Boileau's 1674 translation of the
treatise into French that really starts its career in the history of criticism.
Despite its popularity, some critics claim that the treatise was too "primitive"
to be truly understood by a "too civilized" 17th-century audience.
18th century - William Smith's 1739 translation of Longinus on the Sublime
established the translator and once more brought the work into prominence.
Longinus' text reaches its height in popularity.[3] In England, critics esteem
Longinus' principles of composition and balance second only to Aristotle's
Poetics. Edmund Burke's A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas
of the Sublime and Beautiful and Immanuel Kant's Critique of the Power of
Judgment[12] owe a debt to Longinus' concept of the sublime, and the
category passes into intellectual discourse. As "Longinus" says, "The effect of
elevated language upon an audience is not persuasion but transport," a fitting
sentiment for Romantic thinkers and writers who reach beyond logic, to the
wellsprings of the Sublime. At the same time, the Romantics gain some
contempt for Longinus, given his association with the "rules" of classical
poets. Such contempt is ironic, given the widespread influence of Longinus on
the shaping of 18th-century criticism.[1]
19th century - Early in the 19th century, doubts arise to the authorship of the
treatise. Thanks to Italian scholar Amati, Cassius Longinus is no longer
assumed to be the writer of On the Sublime.[5] Simultaneously, the critical
popularity of Longinus' work diminishes greatly; though the work is still in use
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22
by scholars, it is rarely quoted. Despite the lack of public enthusiasm, editions
and translations of On the Sublime are published at the end of the century.[3]
20th century - Although the text is still little quoted, it maintains its status,
apart from Aristotle's Poetics, as "the most delightful of all the critical works
of classical antiquity."[3] Also see Neil Hertz's essay on Longinus in his book,
The End of the Line. Hertz is in part responding to Thomas Weiskel's book The
Romantic Sublime, probably the most influential recent account of British and
German Romantic attitudes towards the Sublime of both Burke and
Longinus.[13][14] Laura Quinney treats the attractions grim demystification in
analyzes of Longinus, particularly Weiskel's.[15] Jonathan Culler has an
appreciation of Hertz on Longinus in "The Hertzian Sublime."[16] Anne Carson
and Louis Marin have occasion to discuss Longinus as well and Harold Bloom
and William J. Kennedy have significant accounts of his work. William Carlos
Williams also uses three lines from the work as an epigraph to the Prologue to
Kora in Hell.[17][18][19]
German film director Werner Herzog claims to have an affinity with the work
of Longinus, in a talk entitled "On the Absolute, the Sublime and Ecstatic
Truth", presented in Milan. Herzog says that he thinks of Longinus as a good
friend and considers that Longinus's notions of illumination has a parallel in
some moments in his films. He quotes from Longinus: "For our soul is raised
out of nature through the truly sublime, sways with high spirits, and is filled
with proud joy, as if itself had created what it hears."