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1 Plato From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Bust of Plato Plato was a very important classical Greek philosopher. He lived from 427 BC to 348 BC. He was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. Plato wrote about many ideas in philosophy that are still talked about today. In fact, one modern philosopher (Alfred North Whitehead) said that all philosophy since Plato has just been comments on his works. Plato wrote his books in the form of dialogues—people talking about ideas, and sometimes disagreeing about them. This makes Plato's books more interesting to read. Socrates is usually the main person in Plato's dialogues. Usually, Socrates talks with people about their ideas, and tries to see if they believe anything that is illogical. Other people in the stories often become angry with Socrates because of this. People who study Plato argue about whether Socrates really said the same things that Plato makes him say, or whether Plato just used Socrates as a character, to make the ideas he was talking about seem more important. Plato opposed the rhetorics of sophism and insisted true justice and equality in his work "Gorgias" and immortality of soul in "Phaedo". One of Plato's most famous works is The Republic (In Greek, Politeia, or 'city'). In that work, he describes Socrates's vision of an "ideal" state. The method of questioning in this dialogue, called the Socratic method, is as important as the content. The Republic contains ideas of Socrates: "Socrates said it, Plato wrote it." Plato also wrote the Laws.

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  • 1

    Plato

    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

    Bust of Plato

    Plato was a very important classical Greek philosopher. He lived from 427 BC

    to 348 BC. He was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. Plato

    wrote about many ideas in philosophy that are still talked about today. In

    fact, one modern philosopher (Alfred North Whitehead) said that all

    philosophy since Plato has just been comments on his works.

    Plato wrote his books in the form of dialoguespeople talking about ideas,

    and sometimes disagreeing about them. This makes Plato's books more

    interesting to read.

    Socrates is usually the main person in Plato's dialogues. Usually, Socrates talks

    with people about their ideas, and tries to see if they believe anything that is

    illogical. Other people in the stories often become angry with Socrates

    because of this. People who study Plato argue about whether Socrates really

    said the same things that Plato makes him say, or whether Plato just used

    Socrates as a character, to make the ideas he was talking about seem more

    important.

    Plato opposed the rhetorics of sophism and insisted true justice and equality

    in his work "Gorgias" and immortality of soul in "Phaedo".

    One of Plato's most famous works is The Republic (In Greek, Politeia, or 'city').

    In that work, he describes Socrates's vision of an "ideal" state. The method of

    questioning in this dialogue, called the Socratic method, is as important as the

    content. The Republic contains ideas of Socrates: "Socrates said it, Plato

    wrote it."

    Plato also wrote the Laws.

  • 2

    Works by Plato

    There are many dialogues that were supposed to be written by Plato. But

    because he was such a famous philosopher, some later philosophers said that

    their works were really written by him, to make their works seem more

    important.

    In the list on this page, a work is marked (1) if scholars are not sure that Plato

    really wrote it, and it is marked (2) if scholars generally agree that Plato did

    not really write it.

    Alcibiades (1)

    Axiochus (2)

    Apology

    Charmides

    Clitophon (1)

    Cratylus

    Critias

    Crito

    Definitions (2)

    Demodocus (2)

    Epigrams

    Epinomis (2)

    Eryxias (2)

    Euthydemus

    Euthyphro

    Gorgias

  • 3

    Greater Hippias (1)

    Halcyon (2)

    Hipparchus (2)

    Ion

    Laches

    Laws

    Lesser Hippias

    Letters

    Lysis

    Menexenus

    Meno

    Minos (2)

    On Justice (2)

    On Virtue (2)

    Parmenides

    Phaedo

    Phaedrus

    Philebus

    Protagoras

    Rival Lovers (2)

    The Republic

    Second Alcibiades (2)

    Sisyphus (2)

    Sophist

    Statesman

    Symposium

    Theaetetus

  • 4

    Theages (2)

    Timaeus

  • 5

    Aristotle

    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

    Aristotle: marble copy of bronze by Lysippus, Louvre Museum.

    Aristotle [1] (Stagira, Macedonia,[2] 384 BC Chalicis, Euboea, Greece, 7

    March 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher. He was one of the most important

    philosophers in the history of Western civilization.[3] It is said that Aristotle

    wrote many books, but only a much smaller number survive. Aristotle was the

    boyhood tutor of Alexander the Great, who later sent him plants and animals

    from parts of his new empire.

    Life

    Aristotle's father Nicomachus, was the doctor of King Amyntas of Macedonia.

    From his eighteenth to his thirty-seventh year, Aristotle lived in Athens, as a

    metic and student of Plato.[4]

    At about the age of eighteen, he went to Athens to continue his education at

    Plato's Academy. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years,

    not leaving until after Plato's death in 347 BC. He then traveled with

    Xenocrates to Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus

    to the island of Lesbos, where they researched the botany and zoology of the

    island. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of

    Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander the Great in 343 B.C.[5]

    Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During

    that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future

    kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward

    eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was ethnocentric.[6] In one

    famous example, he advises Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a

    despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and

    relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.[7]p58

  • 6

    By 335 BC he had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there

    known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next

    twelve years. It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 when Aristotle

    is believed to have composed many of his works.[5] Aristotle wrote many

    dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are

    in fairly rough form. They are generally thought to be lecture notes for his

    students.[8]

    Aristotle's combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek

    knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person

    to know everything there was to be known in his own time.[9]

    Near the end of Alexander's life, he began to suspect plots, and threatened

    Aristotle in letters. Aristotle made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's

    pretense of divinity, and the king executed Aristotle's grandnephew

    Callisthenes as a traitor. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 without ever having

    returned to his native land. Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian

    sentiment in Athens once again flared up, and Aristotle fled the city.

    However, he died in Euboea of natural causes within the year, 322 BC.

    Philosophy

    The three greatest ancient Greek philosophers were Aristotle, Plato, and

    Socrates. Socrates taught Plato, then Plato taught Aristotle. These three

    thinkers turned early Greek philosophy into the beginnings of Western

    philosophy as it is today.[10] Aristotle taught Alexander the Great, who later

    conquered the entire Middle East.

    Plato's main ideas were that knowledge from the senses was always confused

    and not pure. True knowledge can be gotten from the thinking soul that turns

    away from the world. Only the soul can have knowledge of "Forms", the real

    way things are. The world is only a copy of these "Forms" and is not perfect.

  • 7

    Aristotle thought differently. He thought that knowledge from the senses was

    more important. These thoughts became some of the roots of the scientific

    method after hundreds of years.[11] Most of the things Aristotle wrote that

    we still have today are notes from his speaking and teaching. Some of his

    important writings are Physics, Metaphysics, (Nicomachean) Ethics, Politics,

    De Anima (On the Soul), and Poetics.

    He also had problems with the atomic theory. He did not believe in

    Democritus' theories about the atomic theory. He believed that all matter

    was continuous whereas Democritus stated the all matter was made up of

    tiny indivisible things called "atoms". Democritus was proved right by

    physicist John Dalton in 1804.

    Logic

    Aristotle created a form of logic. His logic is called sentential logic because it

    uses sentences for the syllogism.

    Aristotle's logic influenced the history of Western thought. It was Aristotle's

    logic which was copied and used in the Arabic and Latin mediaeval traditions.

    It was dominant for two and a half thousand years, until the late 19th

    century.[12] Then modern logic was started by Gottlob Frege, Charles Sanders

    Peirce and others.[13]

    Biology

    Octopus swimming

    Torpedo fuscomaculata

  • 8

    Leopard shark

    Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some

    detail. He certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the

    surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works History of Animals,

    Generation of Animals and Parts of Animals have observations and

    interpretations, along with some myths and mistakes.

    The most striking passages are about the sea-life round Lesbos. As well as live

    observation, he got specimens from the catches of fishermen. His

    observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed.

    His writing on cephalopods such as Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper

    nautilus (Argonauta argo) are accurate. His description of the hectocotyl arm,

    used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in

    the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew

    that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selach

    (Selachimorpha).[14]

    Another good example of his methods comes from the Generation of Animals

    in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals

    to observe when visible organs were generated.

    He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' four-chambered fore-stomachs,

    and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark

    Mustelus mustelus.[15]

    The works

    The works are traditionally listed in this sequence:

    Logic

    Categories (terms)

  • 9

    On Interpretation (propositions, truth)

    Prior Analytics (syllogistic logic)

    Posterior Analytics (scientific method)

    Topics (rules for argument and debate)

    On Sophistical Refutations (fallacies)

    Science and nature

    Physics (change, motion, void, time)

    On the Heavens (structure of heaven, earth, elements)

    On Generation and Corruption

    Meteorology (origin of comets, weather, disasters)

    The Parva Naturalia (psychological works)

    Sense and sensibilia (faculties, senses, mind, imagination)

    On Memory,

    Sleep, Dreams, and Prophesy

    Length of life

    Works on natural history

    History of Animals

    On the parts of Animals

    On the Movement of Animals

    On the Progression of Animals

    On the Generation of Animals

    Problems

    Philosophical works

    Metaphysics (substance, cause, form, potentiality)

    Nicomachean Ethics (soul, happiness, virtue, friendship)

    Eudemian Ethics, virtues & vices

    Politics (best states, utopias)

  • 10

    Rhetoric (debate)

    Poetics (tragedy, epic poetry)

    The Constitution of the Athenians

    Fragments

    Influence of Aristotle's work

    Aristotle is still one of the most influential people who ever lived. He

    contributed to almost every kind of knowledge in his day, and he started

    many new fields.

    "It is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he

    did".[16]

    Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,[3]p156 pioneered the study of

    zoology, and helped to develop scientific method.[17][18]p92

    Despite these achievements, Aristotle's errors are thought by some, such as

    Peter Medawar,[19] to have held back science considerably. Bertrand Russell

    notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an

    attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's Ethics

    as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic

    astronomy". Russell says these errors make it difficult to do historical justice

    to Aristotle, until one remembers what an advance he made on his

    predecessors.[5]

    The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into

    the Peripatetic school of philosophers. Aristotle's influence over Alexander

    the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him, on his expedition, biologists

    and researchers.

  • 11

    Horace

    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

    No photographs or paintings exist from when Horace was alive. This is how

    Anton von Werner imagined he would look.

    Quintus Horatius Flaccus (December 8, 65 BC - November 27, 8 BC), known to

    English speakers as Horace, was a famous poet in the Roman Empire.

    Horace was born in the small Italian town of Venusia. His father used to be a

    slave, but was known as a freedman because his master had freed him. They

    moved to Rome a short time later. Horace's father had a job taking items

    from the seller to the buyer. He received money from these sales. His father

    became richer and was able to send Horace to the best schools in Rome. He

    was also able to send him to Athens (Greece) to study the Greek language

    and philosophy. Horace's native language was Latin. Horace was incredibly

    proud of his father, and said he felt no shame in being the son of a freedman.

    In his early adult life, Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, was killed. War was

    declared against the people who killed him. Horace joined the army. When

    the war was over, Horace returned to Italy to find that other people were

    living in his apartment. His father was also gone. Horace became very poor.

    Eventually, he found a job in the treasury. This involved sorting the country's

    money.

    His friends, Lucius Varius Rufus and Virgil, who were also writers, introduced

    him to Maecenas. Maecenas was a close friend of Augustus, the emperor of

    Rome. Horace lived in Tivoli, an area of Rome. When he died, he gave the

    land he owned to Augustus, to increase the land the state owned. Today,

    other writers visit the land to remember him.

    Quotes

  • 12

    Horace wrote many famous quotes in his poems. These lines are still spoken

    today, by speakers of every language, in the original Latin.

    Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori - It is sweet and fitting to die for one's

    country.

    Carpe diem - Pluck the day (Seize the day is the common translation, though

    it is incorrect in terms of translation and usage).

    Poetry

    Some of Horace's poems are difficult to translate because of their syntax,

    grammar and structure, which is sometimes very different to modern

    languages.

    Horace is viewed by many people, including experts, to be one of the best

    Latin poets.

  • 13

    Longinus (literature)

    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

    Longinus (/lndans/; Ancient Greek: Longnos) is the

    conventional name of the author of the treatise On the Sublime (

    Per hpsous), a work which focuses on the effect of good writing.[1]

    Longinus, sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Longinus because his real name is

    unknown, was a Greek teacher of rhetoric or a literary critic who may have

    lived in the 1st or 3rd century AD. Longinus is known only for On the Sublime.

    Longinus was greatly influenced by the large amount of traveling he

    completed in his youth. He journeyed to countless cities such as Athens,

    Rome and Alexandria. While on these trips, he attended lectures about

    philosophy, undoubtedly shaping his own beliefs. One of Longinus favorite

    philosophers was Plato.[2]

    Contents

    1 Authorship of On the Sublime

    1.1 Dionysius of Halicarnassus

    1.2 Cassius Longinus

    2 The treatise On the Sublime

    2.1 The Sublime

    2.2 The decay of rhetoric

    2.3 Misleading translations and lost data

    2.4 Limitations of the writing

    2.5 Writing style and rhetoric

    2.6 Influences

    3 Historical criticism and use of On the Sublime

    4 Notes

    5 Further reading

    6 External links

  • 14

    Authorship of On the Sublime

    The author is unknown. In the reference manuscript (Parisinus Graecus 2036),

    the heading reports Dionysius or Longinus," an ascription by the medieval

    copyist that was misread as "by Dionysius Longinus." When the manuscript

    was being prepared for printed publication, the work was initially attributed

    to Cassius Longinus (c. 213273 AD). Since the correct translation includes the

    possibility of an author named "Dionysius," some have attributed the work to

    Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a writer of the 1st century AD.[3] There remains

    the possibility that the work belongs to neither Cassius Longinus nor

    Dionysius of Halicarnassus, but, rather, some unknown author writing under

    the Roman Empire, likely in the 1st century. The error does imply that when

    the codex was written, the trails of the real author were already lost. Neither

    author can be accepted as the actual writer of the treatise. The former

    maintained ideas which are absolutely opposite to those written in the

    treatise; about the latter, there are problems with chronology.

    Among further names proposed, are Hermagoras (a rhetorician who lived in

    Rome during the 1st century AD), Aelius Theon (author of a work which had

    many ideas in common with those of On the Sublime), and Pompeius

    Geminus (who was in epistolary conversation with Dionysius).

    Dionysius of Halicarnassus

    Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote under Augustus, publishing a number of

    works. Dionysius is generally dismissed as the potential author of On the

    Sublime, since the writing officially attributed to Dionysius differs from the

    work On the Sublime in style and thought.[1]

    Cassius Longinus

    Accredited with writing a number of literary works, this disciple of Plotinus

    was "the most distinguished scholar of his day." Cassius received his

  • 15

    education at Alexandria and became a teacher himself. First teaching at

    Athens, Cassius later moved to Asia Minor, where he achieved the position of

    advisor to the queen of Palmyra, Zenobia.[1] Cassius is also a dubious

    possibility for author of the treatise, since it is notable that no literature later

    than the 1st century AD is mentioned (the latest is Cicero, dead in 43 BC), and

    the work is now usually dated to the early 1st century AD. The work ends with

    a dissertation on the decay of oratory, a typical subject of the period in which

    authors such as Tacitus, Petronius and Quintilian, who also dealt with the

    subject, were still alive. Longinus he was the minister of Queen Zenobia of

    Palmyra.[4] He was executed by Aurelian, the Roman emperor who

    conquered Palmyra.[2] The reason for his execution in 273 AD, were on

    charges of conspiring against the Roman state. This was most likely because

    of what Longinus had written for Queen Zenobia of Palmyra while she was

    still in power.[2] Longinus is reported to have written answers for the Queen,

    which were used in response to Aurelian, the man who would soon rise to

    power as the Roman emperor.[2]

    The treatise On the Sublime

    On the Sublime is both a treatise on aesthetics and a work of literary criticism.

    It is written in an epistolary form and the final part, possibly dealing with

    public speaking, has been lost.

    The treatise is dedicated to Posthumius Terentianus, a cultured Roman and

    public figure, though little else is known of him. On the Sublime is a

    compendium of literary exemplars, with about 50 authors spanning 1,000

    years mentioned or quoted.[5] Along with the expected examples from

    Homer and other figures of Greek culture, Longinus refers to a passage from

    Genesis, which is quite unusual for the 1st century:

    A similar effect was achieved by the lawgiver of the Jewsno mean genius,

    for he both understood and gave expression to the power of the divinity as it

    deservedwhen he wrote at the very beginning of his laws, and I quote his

  • 16

    words: "God said,"what was it?"Let there be light, and there was. Let

    there be earth, and there was."

    On the Sublime 9.9

    Given his positive reference to Genesis, Longinus has been assumed to be

    either a Hellenized Jew or readily familiar with the Jewish culture.[6] As such,

    Longinus emphasizes that, to be a truly great writer, authors must have

    "moral excellence".[1] In fact, critics speculate that Longinus avoided

    publication in the ancient world "either by modesty or by prudential

    motives".[5] Moreover, Longinus stresses that transgressive writers are not

    necessarily shameless fools, even if they take literary risks that seem "bold,

    lawless, and original".[1] As for social subjectivity, Longinus acknowledges

    that complete liberty promotes spirit and hope; according to Longinus, "never

    did a slave become an orator".[7] On the other hand, too much luxury and

    wealth leads to a decay in eloquenceeloquence being the goal of the

    sublime writer.[5]

    The Sublime

    Longinus critically applauds and condemns certain literary works as examples

    of good or bad styles of writing.[5] Longinus ultimately promotes an

    "elevation of style"[5] and an essence of "simplicity".[8] To quote this famous

    author, "the first and most important source of sublimity [is] the power of

    forming great conceptions."[8] The concept of the sublime is generally

    accepted to refer to a style of writing that elevates itself "above the

    ordinary". Finally, Longinus sets out five sources of sublimity: "great thoughts,

    strong emotions, certain figures of thought and speech, noble diction, and

    dignified word arrangement".[6]

    The effects of the Sublime are: loss of rationality, an alienation leading to

    identification with the creative process of the artist and a deep emotion

    mixed in pleasure and exaltation. An example of sublime (which the author

    quotes in the work) is a poem by Sappho, the so-called Ode to Jealousy,

  • 17

    defined as a "Sublime ode". A writer's goal is not so much to express empty

    feelings, but to arouse emotion in his audience.[8]

    In the treatise, the author asserts that "the Sublime leads the listeners not to

    persuasion, but to ecstasy: for what is wonderful always goes together with a

    sense of dismay, and prevails over what is only convincing or delightful, since

    persuasion, as a rule, is within everyone's grasp: whereas, the Sublime, giving

    to speech an invincible power and [an invincible] strength, rises above every

    listener".[9]

    According to this statement, one could think that the sublime, for Longinus,

    was only a moment of evasion from reality. But on the contrary, he thought

    that literature could model a soul, and that a soul could pour itself out into a

    work of art. In this way the treatise becomes not only a text of literary inquiry,

    but also one of ethical dissertation, since the Sublime becomes the product of

    a great soul ( , megalophrosuns apchma). The

    sources of the Sublime are of two kinds: inborn sources ("aspiration to

    vigorous concepts" and "strong and enthusiastic passion") and acquirable

    sources (rhetorical devices, choice of the right lexicon, and "dignified and high

    composition").[8]

    The ethical aspect and attention to the "great soul" broaden the dimension of

    the work; begun in order to disprove the arguments of a pamphlet of literary

    criticism, it ends by creating a new idea within the entire framework of

    aesthetics. The sublime, in fact, is a denominator of the greatness of the one

    who approaches to it, both the author's and the viewer's (or reader's).

    Between them an empathetic bond must arise. Then, the Sublime is a

    mechanism of recognition (arising from the impact of the work of art) of the

    greatness of a spirit, of the depth of an idea, of the power of speech. This

    recognition has its roots in the belief that everyone is aware of the existence

    of the Sublime, and that the striving towards greatness is rooted in human

    nature. In the wake of these considerations, the literary genre and the

    subject-matter chosen by the poet assume a minor importance for Longinus,

    who affirms that "sublimity" might be found in any or every literary work. He

    proves to be a very clever critic, for he excels the Apollodoreans by speaking

  • 18

    of the critic as a form of positive "channeling" of the Genius. He passes

    beyond the rigid rules of the literary critics of his time, according to which

    only a regular (or "second-rate", as Longinus says) style could be defined as

    perfect.

    On the other hand he admires the boldness of the Genius, which always

    succeeds in reaching the zenith, even if at the expense of forgivable lapses in

    style. Thus among examples of the Sublime may be rated (not in any order)

    Homer, the tragedians, Sappho, Plato, even the Bible, and a playwright like

    Aristophanes (since the author maintained that laughter is a jocose pathos

    and therefore, "sublime", being "an emotion of pleasure"). He admires

    Hellenistic poets like Apollonius of Rhodes and Theocritus for their

    sophistication, but ranks them below authors of the classical age because

    they did not take risks and fought shy of the "brave disorder" without which

    one could not hope to attain the sublime. "Would you prefer to be Homer or

    Apollonius?... No sane person would give just one tragedy, the Oedipus Rex,

    in exchange for all Ion's dramas."[10]

    The Sublime, moreover, does not manifest itself only in what is simply

    beautiful, but also in what is sufficiently distressing to cause bewilderment

    (, ekplxis), wonder ( , to thaumaston) and even fear

    (, phobos). It could be said that Helen of Troy may certainly have been

    the most beautiful woman in the world, but she was never sublime in Greek

    literature: however Edmund Burke cites the scene of the old men looking at

    Helen's "terrible" beauty on the ramparts of Troyhe regards it as an

    instance of the beautiful, but his imagination is captured by its sublimity.

    Hecuba in Euripides's The Trojan Women is certainly sublime when she

    expresses her endless sorrow for the terrible destiny of her children.

    The decay of rhetoric

    The author speaks also about the decay of oratory, as arising not only from

    absence of personal freedom but also from the corruption of morals, which

    together destroy that high spirit which generates the Sublime. Thus the

  • 19

    treatise is clearly centred in the burning controversy which raged in the 1st

    century AD in Latin literature. If Petronius pointed out excess of rhetoric and

    the pompous, unnatural techniques of the schools of eloquence as the causes

    of decay, Tacitus was nearer to Longinus in thinking[3] that the root of this

    decadence was the establishment of Princedom, or Empire, which, though it

    brought stability and peace, also gave rise to censorship and brought an end

    to freedom of speech. Thus oratory became merely an exercise in style.

    Misleading translations and lost data

    Translators have been unable to clearly interpret the text, including the title

    itself. The "sublime" in the title has been translated in various ways, to

    include senses of elevation and excellent style. The word sublime, argues

    Rhys Roberts, is misleading, since Longinus' objective broadly concerns "the

    essentials of a noble and impressive style" than anything more narrow and

    specific. Moreover, about one-third of the treatise is missing;[5] Longinus'

    segment on similes, for instance, has only a few words remaining.[1] Matters

    are further complicated in realizing that ancient writers, Longinus'

    contemporaries, do not quote or mention the treatise in any way.[5]

    Limitations of the writing

    Despite Longinus' critical acclaim, his writing is far from perfect. Longinus'

    occasional enthusiasm becomes "carried away" and creates some confusion

    as to the meaning of his text. Furthermore, 18th-century critic Edward

    Burnaby Greene finds Longinus, at times, to be "too refined".[11] Greene also

    claims that Longinus' focus on hyperbolical descriptions is "particularly weak,

    and misapplied."[3] Occasionally, Longinus also falls into a sort of

    "tediousness" in treating his subjects.[5] The treatise is also limited in its

    concentration on spiritual transcendence and lack of focus on the way in

    which language structures determine the feelings and thoughts of writers.[6]

    Finally, Longinus' treatise is difficult to explain in an academic setting, given

    the difficulty of the text and lack of "practical rules of a teachable kind."[1]

  • 20

    Writing style and rhetoric

    Despite its faults, the treatise remains critically successful because of its

    "noble tone," "apt precepts," "judicious attitude," and "historical

    interests".[5] One of the reasons why it is so unlikely that known ancient

    critics wrote On the Sublime is because the treatise is composed so differently

    from any other literary work. Since Longinus' rhetorical formula avoids

    dominating his work, the literature remains "personal and fresh," unique in its

    originality. Longinus rebels against the popular rhetoric of the time by

    implicitly attacking ancient theory in its focus on a detailed criticism of words,

    metaphors, and figures. More explicitly, in refusing to judge tropes as entities

    unto themselves, Longinus promotes the appreciation of literary devices as

    they relate to passages as a whole.[3] Essentially, Longinus, rare for a critic of

    his time, focuses more on "greatness of style" than "technical rules."[5]

    Despite his criticism of ancient texts, Longinus remains a "master of candor

    and good-nature".[11] Moreover, the author invents striking images and

    metaphors, writing almost lyrically at times.[3] In general, Longinus

    appreciates, and makes use of, simple diction and bold images.[1]

    As far as the language is concerned, the work is certainly an "unicum"

    because it is a blend of expressions of the Hellenistic Koine Greek to which

    are added elevated constructions, technical expressions, metaphors, classic

    and rare forms which produce a literary pastiche at the borders of linguistic

    experimentation.

    Influences

    In reading On the Sublime, critics have determined that the ancient

    philosopher and writer Plato is a "great hero" to Longinus.[1] Not only does

    Longinus come to Plato's defense, but he also attempts to raise his literary

    standing in opposition to current criticisms. Another influence on the treatise

    can be found in Longinus' rhetorical figures, which draw from theories by a

    1st-century BC writer, Caecilius of Calacte.[5]

  • 21

    Historical criticism and use of On the Sublime

    10th century - The original treatise, before translation, is copied into a

    medieval manuscript and attributed to "Dionysius or Longinus."[6]

    13th century - A Byzantine rhetorician makes obscure references to what may

    be Longinus' text.[3]

    16th century - The treatise is ignored by scholars until it is published by

    Francis Robortello in Basel, in 1554, and Niccol da Falgano, in 1560.[6] The

    original work is attributed to "Dionysius Longinus" and most European

    countries receive translations of the treatise.[5]

    17th century - Sublime effects become a desired end of much Baroque art

    and literature, and the rediscovered work of "Longinus" goes through half a

    dozen editions in the 17th century. It is Boileau's 1674 translation of the

    treatise into French that really starts its career in the history of criticism.

    Despite its popularity, some critics claim that the treatise was too "primitive"

    to be truly understood by a "too civilized" 17th-century audience.

    18th century - William Smith's 1739 translation of Longinus on the Sublime

    established the translator and once more brought the work into prominence.

    Longinus' text reaches its height in popularity.[3] In England, critics esteem

    Longinus' principles of composition and balance second only to Aristotle's

    Poetics. Edmund Burke's A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas

    of the Sublime and Beautiful and Immanuel Kant's Critique of the Power of

    Judgment[12] owe a debt to Longinus' concept of the sublime, and the

    category passes into intellectual discourse. As "Longinus" says, "The effect of

    elevated language upon an audience is not persuasion but transport," a fitting

    sentiment for Romantic thinkers and writers who reach beyond logic, to the

    wellsprings of the Sublime. At the same time, the Romantics gain some

    contempt for Longinus, given his association with the "rules" of classical

    poets. Such contempt is ironic, given the widespread influence of Longinus on

    the shaping of 18th-century criticism.[1]

    19th century - Early in the 19th century, doubts arise to the authorship of the

    treatise. Thanks to Italian scholar Amati, Cassius Longinus is no longer

    assumed to be the writer of On the Sublime.[5] Simultaneously, the critical

    popularity of Longinus' work diminishes greatly; though the work is still in use

  • 22

    by scholars, it is rarely quoted. Despite the lack of public enthusiasm, editions

    and translations of On the Sublime are published at the end of the century.[3]

    20th century - Although the text is still little quoted, it maintains its status,

    apart from Aristotle's Poetics, as "the most delightful of all the critical works

    of classical antiquity."[3] Also see Neil Hertz's essay on Longinus in his book,

    The End of the Line. Hertz is in part responding to Thomas Weiskel's book The

    Romantic Sublime, probably the most influential recent account of British and

    German Romantic attitudes towards the Sublime of both Burke and

    Longinus.[13][14] Laura Quinney treats the attractions grim demystification in

    analyzes of Longinus, particularly Weiskel's.[15] Jonathan Culler has an

    appreciation of Hertz on Longinus in "The Hertzian Sublime."[16] Anne Carson

    and Louis Marin have occasion to discuss Longinus as well and Harold Bloom

    and William J. Kennedy have significant accounts of his work. William Carlos

    Williams also uses three lines from the work as an epigraph to the Prologue to

    Kora in Hell.[17][18][19]

    German film director Werner Herzog claims to have an affinity with the work

    of Longinus, in a talk entitled "On the Absolute, the Sublime and Ecstatic

    Truth", presented in Milan. Herzog says that he thinks of Longinus as a good

    friend and considers that Longinus's notions of illumination has a parallel in

    some moments in his films. He quotes from Longinus: "For our soul is raised

    out of nature through the truly sublime, sways with high spirits, and is filled

    with proud joy, as if itself had created what it hears."