(art) philip merlan - religion and philosophy from plato's phaedo to the chaldaean oracles

8/12/2019 (Art) Philip Merlan - Religion and Philosophy From Plato's Phaedo to the Chaldaean Oracles

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Rel ig ion and Ph i losophy

from P la to s haedo to the

Chaldaean Orac les

P H I L I P M E R L N

A FEW Y EA RS AGO a n o t h e r o f t h e s o - c al le d O r p h i c t a b l e t s w a s f o u n d ? L i k et h e p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n o n e s ~ i t is a n i n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e d e c e a s e d - - i t t e ll s h i m

w h a t h e w i ll f in d i n t h e b e y o n d a n d h o w h e is t o a c t t o s e c u re f o r h i m s e l f

a b l e s s e d a f t e rl i fe . A s a r u l e t h e t a b l e t s d i f fe r s o m e w h a t i n t h e i r w o r d i n g

a n d t h e n e w l y f o u n d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e m a r k a b l e i n t h a t t h e d e c ea s e d , w h e n

a s k e d b y t h e g u a r d s o f t h e S p r i n g o f M e m o r y w h a t h is b u s i n e s s h e r e is , is

i n s t r u c t e d t o a n s w e r , I a m a c h i l d o f t h e E a r t h a n d o~octvo~5~aveOo~v~og

a n d m y n a m e i s A s t e r i o s . ~ N o w , it is g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e t a b l e t s

a r e th e p r o d u c t o f s o m e m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n ? T h e n e w t a b l e t su g g e st s t h a t p a r t

o f i t s i n i t ia t i o n c e r e m o n y m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a m o c k d e a t ha n d a m o c k r e b i r t h , t h e la t te r s y m b o l i z e d b y t h e a s s u m i n g o f a n e w n a m e ?

X N . M . V e r d e l i s , X a X r ~ 7eCp6~oxos raX~ rls ~x r 'ApxaLoXoy~K 'Er 1950-1951(Athens , 1951) , pp . 80 -105 , e sp . pp . 99 -105 .

2 T h e i r t e x t c a n b e f o u n d i n a n y e d i t i o n o f D i e ls - K r an z , VS. N e w f i n d s : N . M . V e r d e l i s , ' 0 p r 1 6 2

~,& rt*a ra ~ K pr Ap~ca~oXo*t~x~ E ~ t z e p ~ 1 9 53 -5 4, S e c o n d P a r t ( A t h e n s , 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 5 6 - 60 . O n

t h e i r c h a r a c t e r ( O r p h i c ? P y t h a g o r e a n ? ) , s e e F . C u m o n t , L e x p e r p e t u a (Par is , 1944) , p . 406.

W h i c h m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n p r o f e s s e d t h e s e t w o a s o b v i o u s l y t h e h i g h e s t d e i t i e s ? O n e i s t e m p t e d

t o t h i n k o f t h e m y s t e r i e s o f S a m o t h r a c e , a s i n t h e m t h e s e t w o d e i t i e s p l a y e d a c o n s p i c u o u s r o l e

a c c o r d i n g t o V a r r o , De l ingua la t . V 58 ( cf . B . C a r d a u n s , Varros 'Logistoricus' i iber die G 6tter-v e re h ru n g [Wi i rzburg , 1960] , pp . 60 -67) .

4 d a r (~ po 4p ro ~) s e e m s t o m e a n e v i d e n t c o n j e c t u r e b y V e r d e l i s .

See , e .g . , M. P . Ni l sson , Gesch ich te der gr iech ischen Rel ig ion , V o l . 2 ( M i i n c h e n , 1 9 50 ), p p .

223-227.

0 T h i s i s t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f V e r d e l i s , XaXxr ~ 'e ,~ 0~ ox o~ w i t h w h i c h I a g r e e . O n b a p t i s m a l n a m e s

see , e .g . , A Oepke , AM~IOAAEIY~ i m g r i e c h i s c h e n u n d h e l l e n i s t i s c h e n K u l t , A rc h iv f i i r R e l i -gionswissenschaft 31 (1934) , pp . 42 -56 , e sp . 52 , no t e 5 (den Anstoss---scil. t o b e s t o w i n g o f a n e w

n a m e o n t h e i n i t i a t e - - g a b e n wo h l p r im i t i v e Wie d e rg e b u r t sg e d a n k e n ) .I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t t h e P i n d a r i c l i n e s p r a i s i n g h i m w h o d e s c e n ds t o t h e n e t h e r w o r l d i f h e h a d

b e e n i n i t i a t e d , b e c a u s e h e o t~ e ~ p fllov .reXew'gu,/olSeJ, ~b. &6a ~orol, tlp x~ p ( f r. 1 3 7 a S c h ) a r e t o b e

e x p l a i n e d b y a s s u m i n g t h a t P i n d a r i s h e r e a l l u d i n g t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f m o c k d e a t h (~ -~ ,ev ~-~ )

a n d m o c k r e b i r t h ( ap X~ ), t h o u g h i t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e i n i t i a te e x p e r i e n c e d t h e m i n h i s

o w n p e r s o n o r w a s o n l y s h o w n s o m e t h i n g ( e . g . t h e b u r i a l o f a s e e d f o l l o w e d b y i t s s h o o t i n g i n t oa n e a r ) s y m b o l i z i n g s u c h e v e n t s .

[ 6 3 ]



164 H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y

A n d i t is o n l y n a t u r a l t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e i n i t i a t i o n c e r e m o n y w a s p r e c e d e d

b y s o m e k i n d o f r i t u a l p u r i f i c a t io n .I n o n e m o r e r e s p e c t t h e n e w t a b l e t is r e m a r k a b l e . I t i s t h e o l d e s t w e k n o w .

I t b e lo n g s t o t h e m i d - f o u r t h c e n t u r y . A n d t h is m e a n s t h a t p e r h a p s o n l y a

f e w y e ar s s e p a r a te i t f r o m t h e d a t e o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f P l a to s Phaedo.

N o w , a s e v e r y b o d y k n o w s , t h e Phaedo h a s s o m e t h i n g t o sa y o n m y s t e r y

r e l ig i o n s . S o c r a te s f ir st e x p l a i n s t o h i s f r i e n d s w h y h e is n o t o n l y n o t a f r a i d

o f d e a t h b u t e v e n l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o i t. A l l h i s li f e lo n g , h e s ay s, h e w a s a

p h i l o s o p h e r a n d p h i l o s o p h y , a s h e s e es i t, i s n o t h i n g e l s e b u t ~X ~-c~l 0 ctv d,o v.

A n d a s h e e x p l a i n s in w h a t w a y p h i l o s o p h y is a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r d e a th , h e

t i m e a n d a g a i n u s es fo r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s w a y o f l if e t h e

w o r d p u r e a n d it s c o g n a t e s (Phaedo 67 d-e ; 69 a6 -e5 [~d~}aqot~, • ,

~ x a 0 a 0 ~ v o g ] , s o t h a t i n t h e e n d t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s w a y o f l if e c a n b y S o c r a te s

b e d e s c r i b e d a s p u r i f i c a t i o n - o b v i o u s l y p u r i f ic a t i o n n o t i n i t s r i t u a l s e ns e

o f t h e w o r d b u t , a s S o c r a t e s s e e s i t , i n i t s t r u e s e n s e .

A n d n o w S o c r a t e s c l i n c h e s h i s a r g u m e n t a n d s a y s :

An d it seems indeed that the men to whom we are indeb ted for the in sti tut ion of

init iati ons were quite com peten t men. I n fact they have long ago expressed tr uth in the

disguise of a riddle in that they said that he who arrives in Hades uninitiated and un-

admitted to the mysteries shall lie in mud, while he that comes there purified andinitiated shall dwell with the gods. For truly as their masters of in i t ia t ion ceremonies

tell us, man y carry the wand bu t few are the Bacchants. An d by Bacchants I take them

to mean nobody else but those who have properly pursued philosophy.

W e a r e so f a m i l i a r w i t h t h is p a ss ag e t h a t w e a r e i n d a n g e r o f o v e r l o o k i n g

w h a t e x t r a o r d i n a r y c l a i m i t i m p l i e s. M y s t e r y r e l i g io n a ss er ts t h a t i t c a n

a s su r e o n e o f a b e t t e r l o t i n a f t e r l i fe . B u t i t t u r n s o u t t h a t p h i l o s o p h y is t r u e

m y s t e r y r e l ig i o n . I f t h e r e i s i m m o r t a l i t y , i f t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g l ik e h e a v e n

a n d h e l l, s a lv a t io n a n d d a m n a t i o n , o r w h a t e v e r t e r m s w e p r e f e r t o u s e , i t

i s t h e p h i l o s o p h e r w h o i s a s s u r e d o f s a l v a t i o n a n d h e a v e n .N o t t h a t P l a t o h a s e v e r b e e n m o d e s t in h i s c l ai m s m a d e i n t h e n a m e o f

p h i l o s o p h y . A f t e r a ll , h is c la i m t h a t o n l y a p h i l o s o p h e r c a n b e a k i n g is n o t

so m o d e s t e it h e r ; b u t a c t u a l ly t h e c l a i m m a d e b y h i m i n t h e Phaedo i s e v e n

m u c h h i g h e r .

N o w , w h a t b e c a m e o f P la t o s c l a i m t o k i n g s h ip ? I t is q u i t e o b v i o u s t h a t

i n s p e a k i n g o f k i n g s P l a t o w a s t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f t h e G r e e k c i t y -s ta t e o r

a l e a g u e o f c i t y s ta te s . B u t s i n c e t h e t i m e o f A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t , t h e c i t y-

TThis makes it appear unlikely that the myth of two springs, one of Mnemosyne, the otherobviously of Lethe, was first invented by Plato and later adopted by the mystery religion inquest ion, as Nilsson tentatively suggested (M. P. Nilsson, Opuscula seleeta Vol. S [Lund, 1960],

pp. 85-92; 226).



RE LI GI ON AND PHI LOS OPH Y 165

state disappeared. To think of the successors of Alexander and later of the

Rom an r epublic or the Roma n empir e in terms of the Greek city-state quiteobviously no longer made sense. On the whole, we could say the idea of the

philosopher king gave way to another--the philosopher as educator of the

crown prince or as the director of conscience of the prince. Th e idea of the

philosopher-king survived in an extenuated form. 8

But how about the other claim--the claim that philosophy is true religion?

Did it survive in either its original form or in some extenuated way?

Perhaps we could expect a representative of religion, particu larly of some

mystery religion, to have objected to Plato s claim. Whatever the reason,

nothing of this kind happened. The representatives of Greek religion seem

to have remained silent?

By this I don t mean to say that Plato s claim was generally and explicitly

acknowledged. Obviously it was not by those whose intellectual horizon did

not even include philosophy. And there must have been quite a number of

them. In fact, as the newly discovered tablet was found in Pharsalus, while

the older ones were found on Crete and in Italy and as this newly found

tablet belongs to the fourth c entury B.c., while among the ones previously

discovered we find one belonging to the end of the second century A.D., it

turns ou t that the mystery religion which produced the tablets had a con-

siderable geographic range and continued in existence for many centuries

after Plato had pu t forward philosophy s claim to replace it. This could

surely be expected.

But it is worthwhile to reflect for a moment on the possible effects of this

claim on those able and willing to listen to Plato s claim. No doubt --some

might have accepted it wholeheartedly. If there is a difference between the

lot of some and that of some others--they, the philosophers, were assured of

the better lot. On hearing Sophocles

. . . . ~ ~p~ t;~flLoL xe~o~ ~poT~p, Ol raO r~ 8e pX #~ eS ~ X ~ /~ o ~ e ls A~8ov-To~Se 7~P #6po~5~ Ke ~ ]; ~p ~ , , ~ o ~ , 8 ~ o ~ s ~ r ~ ~ K e ~ ~ a K l~ - ~

they might have thought that it was they who have seen the T~I guarantee-

ing true life in the beyond.

But one wonders--how did they face the problem of those whom nature

itself prevented from becoming initia ted into the mysteries of philosophy--

and that means, how about those who died as children?

s C f . F . W i l h e l m , D e r R e g e n t e n s p i e g e l d e s S o p a tr o s , R h e i n i s c h e s M u s e u m 72 (1917/18) , pp.$ 74 .4 02 ; M a r g h e r i t a I s n a r d i , N o m o s e B a s i l e ia n e l l ' A c a d e m i a a n t i c a , L a P a r o l a d e l P a s s a t o ,

XII , 57 (1957) , pp. 401-458.9 C f . P l u t a r c h De cle f . or. 1 5 , p . 4 1 7 F , b l a m i n g p r i e s t s f o r n o t e x p l a i n i n g r e l i g i o u s m y t h s a n d

t h u s l e a v i n g t h e m o p e n t o c r i ti c is m s .10 Fr . 753 N au ck 2.




O f c o u r s e , s o m e m i g h t h a v e s t o i c a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e i d e a t h a t t o d i e y o u n g

m e a n s t o d i e a n u n t i m e l y d e a t h a n d t h e adroi w o u l d b e c o m m i t t e d t o so m ek i n d o f l i m b o - - n o b l is s fu l li fe f o r t h e m , b u t a t le a st n o l i fe o f t o r m e n t

e i t h e r l l - - o r e v e n t o a n i n f e r n o , t o s u f f e r t o r m e n t s i n f l ic t e d o n t h e m b y t h e i r

i n e s c a p a b l e f a t e t o d i e p r e m a t u r e l y ? 2

S o m e o t h e r s se e m t o h a v e so l v e d t h e p r o b l e m b y r e i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e c o n -

c e p t o f p h i l o s o p h y u n t i l i t b e c a m e t a n t a m o u n t t o l i b e ra l e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h

i n d e e d w o u l d b e a v a il a b le e v e n t o c h i l d r e n ? 8 C u m o n t i n t e r p r e t e d a n u m b e r

o f s a r c o p h a g i o f c h i l d r e n a s i m p l y i n g p r e c i se l y t h i s i d e a ? ~ O f c o u r s e, n o

a r c h e o lo g i c a l e v i d e n c e is e v e r e n t i r e l y u n a m b i g u o u s a n d C u m o n t s i n te r -

p r e t a t i o n w i l l n e v e r b e u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d . 15 B u t i t is c e r t a i n l y a v e r y i m -

p r e ss i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n a n u m b e r o f s a r c o p h a g i w e s e e c h i l d r e n i n t h e

b e y o n d p r e s e n t e d a s scholars in fantes doc t i in s u r r o u n d i n g s s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t i t is d u e t o t h e ir e d u c a t i o n i n l i b e ra l a r ts t h a t t h e y n o w a r e i n s o m e

k i n d o f p a r a d is e . A n d w h e n w e r e a d a n e p i t a p h o f a te n - y e a r o l d :

D o g m a t a P y t h a g o r a e s e n s u s q u e m e a v i s o p h o r u m

E t l y r i c o s l e g i , l e g i p i a c a r m i n a H o m e r i ,

S c i v i q u i d E u c l i d e s a b a c o p r a e s c r i p t a t u l i s s e t T

w e i n d e e d s e e m t o h a v e a n e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e o f th e i d e a t h a t n o t o n l yp h i l o s o p h y i n t h e s t r ic t se n se o f t h e w o r d , b u t s i m p l y e d u c a t i o n , a c c es s ib l e

e v e n t o c h i l d r e n , g u a r a n t e e d a b e t t e r a f te r l if e .

S t i l l o t h e r s m i g h t h a v e c o m f o r t e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i d e a s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e

e x p r e s s e d b y P l u t a r c h t o h is w i f e o n t h e o c c a si o n o f t h e d e a t h o f o n e o f

t h e i r c h i l d r e n . E a r l y d e a t h , sa y s P l u t a r c h , s i m p l y m e a n s t h a t t h e s o u l h a d

n o t i m e t o b e c o m e t a in t e d a n d s u l l i e d b y c o n ta c t s w i t h i ts b o d y . T h u s , p r e -

s u m a b l y , c h i l d r e n c o u l d b e e x p e c t e d s i m p l y t o r e s u m e t h e b l is s f u l li fe o f

a l E . N o r d e n , P . g e rg i l i u s Ma ro A e n e i s B u c h V I (4 th ed . , D a rm sta d t , 1957) , pp . 11 -16 , e sp .

p . 14 , no t e 2 .

12 F . C u m o n t , L u x , pp. 303-342.

13 F . C u m o n t , R e c h e rc h e s su r l e sy mb o l i sme fu n ~ra i re d e s R o ma in s (Par is , 1942) , pp. 281-288;

i d e m , L u x , p . 3 2 4 ; H . I . M a r r o u , A His to ry o f E d u c a t io n in A n t iq u i t y (London , 1956) , p . 101

( ~ p . 1 4 7 o f t h e t h i r d F r . e d . , P a r i s , 1 94 8) .

14 F . C u m o n t , U n s a r c o p h a g e d ' e n f a n t t r o u v 6 a B e y r o u t h , Syria 10 (1929) , pp. 217-237, esp.

232 f . ; idem, Recherches , pp. 334-350.

a ~ S ee , e .g ., A . D . N o o k , S a r c o p h a g i a n d S y m b o l i s m , A me r ic a n J o u rn a l o f A rc h a e o lo g y 5 0

(1946), pp. 140-170.

16 CE 4 3 4 B ( i c h e l e r ( t h e c h i l d l i v e d his qu inos annos menses duo) .A n d i t is o n l y t o b e ex p e c t e d t h a t s o m e f o r t h e i r ' s a lv a t i o n ' w o u l d c o u n t o n b o t h t h e i r e d u c a-

t i o n a n d t h e i r i n i ti a t i o n . A n e x a m p l e i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e s e p u l c h r a l i n s c r ip t i o n o f P r a e t e x ta t u s .

T h e i n s c r i p t io n e n u m e r a t e s a l l t h e m y s t er ie s i n t o w h i c h h e a n d h i s w if e w e r e i n i ti a t e d ; b u t i n

a d d i t i o n t o t h i s i t a ls o s ta t e s t h a t h e s t u d i e d t h e w o r k o f t h e sophoi , t o w h o m t h e porta caelipa ter . C f. L a m b r e c h t s , O p d e G r e n s v a n H e i d e n d o m e n C h r i s t e n d o m . H e t G r a f s c h ri f t v a n

V e t t i u s A g o r i u s P r a e t e x t a t u s e n F a b i a A c o n i a P a u l i n a , Me d e d e l in g e n v a n d e Ko n in k l i ]k eV la a mse A c a d e mie v o r W e te n sc h a p p e n , K la sse d e r Le t t e re n 17 (1955) , p . 5 , l ines 8-41; 36 f .



R E L I G I O N A N D P H I L O S O P H Y 167

d i s e m b o d i e d so u ls b e f o r e th e i r in c a r n a t i o n . T h i s w o u l d a c c o r d i n g t o P l u -

t ar ch e x p l a i n w h y a n c i e n t c u s t o m a n d l aw f o r b a d e f u n e r a ls a n d f u n e r a lr ig h t s f o r c h i l d r e n t o b e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e s a m e w a y in w h i c h t h e y w e r e

p e r f o r m e d f o r a d u l t s . 1~

N o t s o l o n g a g o i t w as a s s e r t e d th a t i t i s o n l y i n t h e d o c t r i n e s o f

C h r i s t t h a t t h e c h i l d a p p e a rs a s a s y m b o l o f i n n o c e n c e w h e r e a s p a g a n a n -

t i q u i t y s a w i n h i m o n l y t h e f u l l v i t a l it y o f a c h i l d o f n a t u r e ? s N o w o f c o u rs e

P l u t a r c h b e l o n g s t o t h e p o s t - C h r i s t i a n e r a . T B u t o n e w o n d e r s w h e t h e r h i s

a t t i t u d e t o c h i l d r e n s h o u l d r e a ll y b e t a k e n t o h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y

C h r i s t i a n i t y .

T h u s p a g a n a n t i q u i t y m i g h t ha v e h a d i ts a n sw e r s t o th e p r o b l e m c r e a t e d

b y t h e a s s er t io n t h a t o n l y p h i l o s o p h y w a s t r u e r e l i g io n . B u t o n t h e o t h e r

h a n d s o m e m u s t h a v e fe l t t h a t p r e c is e ly i n re s p e c t t o c h i l d r e n m y s t e r y

r e l ig i o n s o f f e re d s o m e t h i n g w h i c h p h i l o s o p h y e v e n i f t a k e n t o m e a n o n l y

l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n c o u l d n o t p r o v i d e f o r t h e m . F o r i t w a s p o s s ib l e t o i n i t i a t e

e v e n a c h i l d i n t o a m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n a n d s o t o s e c u r e a b e t t e r a f t e r l i f e f o r

h i m . M o s t c e r t a i n l y c h i l d r e n c o u l d b e i n i t i a t e d i n o n e o f th e g r e a t m y s t e r y

r e li g io n s t h e D i o n y s i a n a n d s o m e o t h e r s le ss k n o w n ; i n a ll p r o b a b i l i t y t h e y

c o u l d a l s o b e i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e E l e u s i n i a n m y s t e r y r e l ig i o n . 2~

T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h is p o s si b il i t y s h o u l d b e o b v i o u s . I t b r i n g s i n t o c l e a r

x r P l u t a r c h C o n s o l a t i o a d u x o r e m , i . f . C f . C u m o n t , L u x , p. 321 f.

xa H . H e r t e r , D a s K i n d i m Z e i t a l t e r d e s H e l l e n i s m u s , B o n n e r J a h r b i ~ c h e r 132 (1927) , pp. 250-

258 , e sp . 258 ; bu t c f . i d e m , D a s U n s c h u l d i g e K i n d , ] a h r b u c h f ii r A n t i k e u n d C h r i s t e n t u m 4(1961), pp. 146-162, esp. 158.

a 9 A n d i t w a s m o r e t h a n o n c e a s s e r t e d t h a t h e w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h i t , a s i n s o m e p l a c e s h e

o b j e c t e d t o i t s d o c t r i n e s . S ee , e . g ., A . M . P i z z a g a ll i , P l u t a r c o e i t C r i s t i a n e s i m o , A t e n e e R o m a(1943) , pp. 97-102; 106-115.

20 See M . P . Ni l sson , T h e D i o n y s i a c M y s t e r i e s o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n A g e (L und , 1957) .

I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t N i l s so n i s r e l u c t a n t t o a c c e p t t h e i d e a o f i n i t i a t i n g c h i l d r e n . H e e x p l a i n s a t

g r e a t l e n g t h w h y j u s t D i o n y s i a n m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n l e n t i t s e l f t o i t ; a n d a s h i s r e a s o n s s e e m v i r t u a l l y

t o e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i ty o f a n y o t h e r m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n l e n d i n g i ts e l f t o it , h e d i s m i s s e s t h e e x p l i c i t

t e s t i m o n y p r o v i n g t h a t c h i l d r e n w e r e i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e E l e n s i n i a n m y s t e ri e s ( se e o n t h e s e d ~ & r~-I~5# v o O d o o , e .g ., O e p k e , op . c i t . , p . 5 1, n o t e 1 ) a s u n e x p l a i n e d ( p . I 1 0 , n o t e 8 ) . I t d o e s n o t s ee m t h a t h e

e v e r d i s c u s s e s E p . g r . 5 8 8 K a i b e l , i n w h i c h a c h i l d w h o d i e d a t t h e a g e o f a l i t t l e o v e r s e v e n is m a d e

to s a y o f h i m s e l f t h a t h e h a s b e e n i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e m y s t e r ie s ( o r a s y n c r e t is t i c m y s t e r y ; s e e

A . D i e t e r i ch , D i e G 6 t f i n M i s e, P h i l o l o g u s 5 2 [ 1 8 9 4 ] , p p . 1 -1 2, e s p . 9 ) o f t h e B o n a D e a , o f I si s , o f

D i o n y s o s , a n d o f H e g e m o n ( = I a k c h o s ? ) . C f . C u m o n t , R e c h e r c h e s , p . 2 8 2 ; S . E i t r e m , O r a k e l u n dM y s t e r ie n a m A u s g a n g d e r A n t i h e ( Z t i r ic h , 1 94 7 ), p . 1 4 ; a n d , a b o v e a l l , A . O e p k e , Z u r F r a g e n a c h

d e m U r s p r u n g d e r K i n d e r ta u f e , D a s E r b e M a r t i n L u t h e r s u n d d i e g e ge n w i ir t ig e t h eo l o g is c h eF o r s c h u n g ( F e s t s ch r i L . I h m e l s ) ( L e i p z i g , 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 8 4 - I 0 0 , e s p . p p . 9 2 - 9 4 , w i t h a d d i t i o n a lmater ia l

F i n a ll y , w e m u s t n o t f o r g e t T h e o p h r a s t , w h o s e d e s i d a i m ~ n ( C h a r . X V I , 1 2 ) h a s h i s l i t t l e c h i l d r e n

( t h e y s ti l l h a v e a r l r 0 ~ ) i n i t i a t e d , a n d r e p e a t e d l y a t t h a t . T h u s , i n i t i a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n i s c l e a r ly a n d

g e n e r a l l y p r a c ti c e d . T r u e , t h e w h o l e p a ss a g e is r e a d a n d i n t e r p r e t e d i n a d i f fe r e n t w a y by

O . I m m i s c h ( T h e o p h r a s t s C h a r a h t e r e h g . . . y o n d e r P h i l o l o g i s c h e n G e s e l l s c h a z u L e i p z i g[ L e i p z i g , 1 8 9 7 ] ; c f. K . G . U s s h e r , T h e C h a r a c t e r s o I T h e o p h r a s t u s [ L o n d o n , 1 9 6 0 ] , c o m m e n t a r y

a .1 .). B u t e v e n i f w e a c c e p t I m m i s c h ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s t i ll t h e p a s s a g e w o u l d a t l e a s t p r o v e t h a t

lus trat ions w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o c h i l d r e n n o l e s s t h a n t o a d u l t s .



168 HIS TOR Y OF PHI LOS OPH Y

relief two fun dame nta lly different attitudes towards the probl em of salva-

tion or immortality or simply a better lot in the beyond for those who,recognize the importance of any of these. Is salvation to be achieved only

e x o p e r e o p e r a n t i s or is its effect secured e x o p e r e o p e r a t o ? Whether they

knew it or not, the ones who had the ir children initiat ed into mystery re-

ligions defended the latter attitude. Those who sided with Plato implicitly

defended the former. And to the extent that the concept of salvation is still

a live concept, I don't think that the issue characterized by the two formulas

e x o p e r e o p e r a t o and e x o p e r e o p e r a n t i s ) has been settled. Whoever asserts

that salvation depends on the former will have to defend himself from the

objec tion that he comes dange rousl y close to believing in magical effectsYWhoever asserts the other idea will have to defend himself from the objec-

tion that he makes salvation impossible for anybody not mature enough to

perform the necessary o p u s and not only has to rely on something as vague

as the concept of years of discretion or a similar concept--but to leave it

undecided what happens to those who died before they reached the age of

discretion.

However, no matter what the reaction to Plato's claim in antiquity, one

thing seems to be sure, I repeat: no explicit objection to it came from quar-

ters which we would probably be inclined to consider duty bound to do so,

viz. from representatives of any of the Greek religions.

But the situation changed entirely in the Hellenistic world--i.e., in the

world in which there was no other philosophy but Greek philosophy--but

in which there were religions other than Greek religions. How did those

among the adherents to these non-Greek religions feel when they were con-

fronted with the claim of Plato? As a rule, they were educated in Greek

spirit--were they ready to become hellenized to such an extent as to give

Greek philosophy priority over their own religion?

Undoubtedly many did. But not all. I am going to cite two instances

representing two non-Greek religions. First, we have the Egyptian religion.

In the first cen tur y A.D. we meet a n E gypti an high priest C haer emon , wh o

for a while was Nero's educator. He most certainly was thoroughly hellen-

ized and, as far as we can see, professed the Stoic philosophy. But in some

21 Cf. e.g., E. G. Weltin, The Concept of Ex-opere-operato Efficacyas an Evidence of Magicin Early Christianity, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 3 (1960), pp. 74-100; and, first of all,J. Jeremias,Die Kindertaule in den ersten tier ]ahrhunderten (G6ttingen, 1958; Eng. tr. London,1960), esp. pp. 107-115. Particularly illuminating is the passage from Gregory Nazianzen,Or. 40,in which he recommends baptism at an age of about three, at which age the ex opere operatoaspect (the children r v z r o ~ l ~ [scil. by the solemn rite], o~rw~ ~/~/L~e~ r~s ~vX~,~ Ka~ crdJ~ ra r o

t~eV ~X~ t~v~r~Ol~ r ~ ~'eXed~e~) and the ex opere operantis aspect (children of three can hearand answer questions, though they do not quite understand them) can both be present (Jeremias,p. 113). Cf. C. Schneider, Geistesgeschichte des antiken Christentums, 2 vols. (Miinchen, 1954),Vol. I, p. 241 f. (magic successfully nvading baptism).




o f h is w r i t in g s h e p r e s e n t e d t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e s ts a s li v i n g a l i fe o f t r u e

p h i l o so p h e r s . T h e s e E g y p t i a n p r ie s ts w e r e o f c o u r se m u c h o l d e r t h a n P l a t oo r a n y o t h e r G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r . C l e a rl y t h e y w e r e t h e t r u e p h i l o so p h e r s ,

s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y l i v e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o m m a n d o f E g y p t i a n r e l ig i o n . ~2

O n l y s c an t y f r a g m e n t s o f C h a e r e m o n s w r i ti n g s s u rv i v e a n d w e s h al l s p e ak

o f h i m a l i tt l e la t er . B u t t h e r e w a s i n t h e R o m a n e m p i r e s t il l a n o t h e r r e l i g i o n

c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e c l ai m s o f G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y . I t w a s t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n .

A t a b o u t t h e s a m e ti m e w h e n C h a e r e m o n , t h e h e l l e n i z e d E g y p t i a n , d e sc r ib e d

t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e s ts a s l e a d i n g a t r u l y p h i l o s o p h i c l if e , t h e r e l i v e d i n A l e x -

a n d r i a a t h o r o u g h l y h e l le n i z e d J e w , P h i l o . V e ry m u c h o f h is l i te r a r y

a c ti v it y c a n b e e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f a c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f J u d a i s m w i t h G r e e k

p h i l o s o p h y .

L e t u s b e g i n w i t h Quod omnis probus l iber es t T i t l e a n d t o p i c e x p r e s s

s i m p l y o n e o f t h e p a r a d o x e s o f t h e S t o a . O n l y t h e w i s e m a n , t h e s a g e, is t r u l y

f r e e , w h e t he r he l e g a l l y is a s la ve o r n o t ; a k i ng , i f he i s a f oo l , is a s la ve .

A t f i r s t b l u s h , t h e w r i t i n g d o e s n o t s h o w t h a t i t i s a J e w w h o i s w r i t i n g .

I t r e a d s l i k e a n u n o r i g i n a l r e s t a t e m e n t o f S t o i c d o c t r i n e s . I n f a c t , m a n y

s c ho la r s c o n t e n d t h a t i t m u s t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n w h e n P h i l o w a s s ti ll y o u n g

a n d n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n w h a t l a t e r b e c a m e h i s m a i n i n t e r e s t , i. e. , a s I s a id , t h e

c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f J e w i s h r e li g i o n w i t h G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y .

P o h l e n z w i t h s t r o n g , s t ri c tl y h i s t o r ic a l a r g u m e n t s p r o v e d t h a t i n a l l p r o b -

a b i l it y t h e w r i t i n g c a n n o t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n e a rl y . 2s A n d a f t e r h a v i n g

b e c o m e c o n v i n c e d o f th is , h e a l so g a v e u s t h e k e y t o a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h i s w r i t i n g .

A f t e r P h i l o h a s d e s c r i b e d i n g l o w i n g c o lo r s t h e l i fe o f a S t o ic sa g e, h e

p r o ce e d s t o e n u m e r a t e s o m e c o m m u n i t ie s , t h e m e m b e r s o f w h i c h c a n i n d e e d

c l a i m t h a t t h e y l i v e t h e l if e o f t h e S t o i c s ag e . A n d f o r a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n

h e s i n g l e s o u t o n e p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y - - t h e E s s e n e s , a J e w i s h

r e li g io u s c o m m u n i t y . A c o m m u n i t y o f w is e m e n ? A S t o ic o n r e a d i n g t h is

w o u l d h a v e b e e n s u rp r i s e d n o e n d . T o b e t r u l y a w i se m a n a n d t h u s t r u l y

f r e e w a s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e S t oi cs s o d if f ic u l t t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t s u r e t h a t e v e n

o n e s u c h w i s e m a n e v e r a c t u a l ly e x i s te d .

W h e n w e re a li ze th i s, w e s u d d e n l y u n d e r s t a n d w h a t P h i l o t r i e d t o d o . H e

b y i m p l i c a t i o n sa ys : W h a t y o u S t o ic s d e c l a r e t o b e u t t e r l y d i f fi c u lt , v i r t u a l l y

i m p o s s i b le t o a c h ie v e, a m o n g t h e J e w s w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s a c h i ev e - -f o r

e x a m p l e , t h e E s s en e s . ~

2~ H . R . Schw yzer , C h a i r e m o n (Leipz ig , 1932) , [r. 1 0 w i t h c o m m e n t a r y ; c f. R . R e i t z e n s t e i n ,

Zwei re l ig ionsgesch ich t l i che Fragen (Stras sburg , 1901), pp . 75-109, esp. 97 f .28 M . P o h l e n z , P h i l o n v o n A l e x a n d r e i a , Na ch r i ch t en d e r A k . d . W i s s . i n G 6 t t i n g en , P h i l .His t . KI . (G6t t ingen , 1942) , p . 415 . Cf . J . Dan i61ou , P h i l o n d A le x a n d r i e (Paris , 1958), p . 71.

24 Poh lenz , op. ci t . , p. 426.




I n o t h e r w o r d s - - t h e E s se ne s, t h o u g h n o t p h i l o s o p h e r s, a c h i e v e w h a t p h i -

l o s o p h e r s f in d a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o a c h ie v e . T h i s i s t h e u p s h o t o f Quodomnis probus liber? 5

A n d n o w P h i l o s o t h e r w r i ti n g s . F o r o u r p u r p o s e t h e i r g i st c a n b e s u m -

m a r i z e d i n o n e p h r a s e : m o s t o f P y t h a g o r a s , S to ic , a n d P l a to s p h i l o s o p h y

c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e w o r k o f M o s e s , t h e Pentateuch. B u t , a t t h e s a m e t i m e ,

t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f M o se s is s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f P l a to a n d o f a ll o t h e r G r e e k

p h i l o s o p h e r s i n t h a t i t is b a s e d n o t o n h u m a n s p e c u l a t i o n b u t o n d i r e c t

r e v e l a t i o n r e c e i v e d b y M o s e s f r o m G o d .

T h e c o r r e c t a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s M o s e s p h i l o s o p h y is o f c o u r s e e n t i r e l y d i f-

f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f a G r e e k t o w a r d s hi s p h il o so p h y . T h e p h i l o s o p h y o f

M o s e s m u s t b e b e l i e v e d ? 8 I t r e p r e s e n t s m o r e t h a n p h i l o s o p h y ; i t r e p r e s e n t s

w i s d o m - - d i v i n e w i s d o m , t o b e p r e c is e .

W h a t , t h e n , is t h e re l a t i o n b e t w e e n G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y a n d M o s a ic w i s d o m ?

N o t u n e x p e c t e d l y , w e f in d i n P h i l o t h e c h a r a c t e ri s ti c f o r m u l a : P h i l o s o p h y

is th e h a n d m a i d o f d i v i n e w i s d o m ? 7 D i v i n e w i s d o m : w e u s e t h e w o r d t he o l-

o g y . T h u s i n P h i l o w e f in d f o r t h e fi rs t t i m e a f o r m u l a a p p r o a c h i n g t h e

w e l l - k n o w n m e d i e v a l f o r m u l a : p h i l o s o p h y is th e h a n d m a i d o f th e o lo g y .

T r u e , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p h r a s e w h i c h o c c u r s in P h i l o s w r i ti n g s

o n l y o n c e is b y n o m e a n s e a s y a n d h a s i n f a c t b e c o m e q u i t e c o n t r o v e r s i a l , z8

H e r e , a s I s e e i t , i s i t s b a c k g r o u n d .

A c c o r d i n g t o s o m e S t o i c s , t h e enkyklia a r e t h e h a n d m a i d s o f p h i l o s o p h y . ~

P h i l o s o p h y i s t h e p u r s u i t o f w i s d o m . T h u s , i f w i s d o m a n d p h i l o s o p h y c a n

b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m o n e a n o t h e r a t a ll , t h e n o n l y i n t h e s e n se o f a t t e m p t a n d

a c h i e v e m e n t . C e r t a i n l y t h e t w o d o n o t d i f f e r b y t h e i r r e s p e c ti v e su b j e c t

m a t t e r - - t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f p h il o s o p h y i s s i m p l y w is d o m . T h u s w e f i n d

a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p h r a s e i n C i c e r o : p h i l o s o p h y i s t h e s t u d y o f w i s d o m - - a n d

w i s d o m i s rerum divinar um et huma narum causarumque quibus eae res

cont inent ur scientia? ~ B u t w h e n P h i lo r e p e at s th e f o r m u l a , s o m e t h i n g n e w

c o m e s i n. H e c o m p a r e s t h e r e la t i o n b e t w e e n p h i l o s o p h y a n d w i s d o m t o t h e

25 C f . D a n i 6 1 o u , op. ci t . , p . 82 : l e v r a i e sa g e s e lo n le P o r t i q u e , c ' e s t l e m o i n e s s 6 n i e n . . .

06 S e e L e i s e g a n g ' s I n d e x s .v . ~rl~rLs; c f . P o h l e n z , op . c i t . , p . 4 3 4 .or D e Congr., Ch . 1 4 , p . 7 9 .

0 s I t i s m a i n l y o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s p a ss a g e ( a c t u a l ly u n i q u e i n P h i l o ' s w o r k ) t h a t W o l f s o n

d e c l a r e d P h i l o t o b e t h e f a t h e r o f m e d i e v a l p h i l o s o p h y ( H . A . W o l f s o n , Phi lo , 2 v o ls . [ C a m b r i d g e ,

M a s s . , 19 47 ], e s p . v o l . I , p p . 1 45 -1 63 ). I t i s w e l l k n o w n t h a t W o l f s o n ' s t h e s i s o n t h e w h o l e h a s b e e n

m e t w i t h g r e a t s c e p ti c is m . A m o n g t h e m a n y c r i ti c s o f W o l f s o n , p e r h a p s I . H e i n e m a n n , P h i l o a l s

V a t e r d e r m i t t e la l t e r l ic h e n P h i l o s o p h ie ? Th eo l o g i s ch e Ze i t s ch r i f t 6 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 9 9 - 1 1 6 , c o u l d b e

s i n g l e d o u t . N o w i t s e e m s to m e t h a t W o l f s o n o v e r r a t e d t h e s i g n if i c a n c e o f t h i s p a s sa g e a n d

t h a t H e i n e m a n n u n d e r r a t e d i t.S V F I , p . 3 4 9 f . ; I I , p . 3 6 .

8o D e off. I I , 5. F o r m a n y p a r a l l e l s s e e, e . g. , S t a e h l i n - F r i i c h t e l ' s e d i t i o n o f C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a

CSEG) , S t romata I , 30 .



1 7 2 H I S T O R Y O P H I L O S O P H Y

t h e t r u e p h i lo s o p h e r s . W h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s a c q u i r e t h r o u g h p h i l o s o p h y , J ew s

a c q u i r e t h r o u g h t h e i r v 6 ~ t x ak ~0~1. 3T h e E ss en es a r e n o t t h e o n l y J e w i sh r e l i g io u s c o m m u n i t y w h o a s P h i lo

s ee s i t l iv e a t r u l y p h i l o s o p h i c l i fe . A n o t h e r i s t h e c o m m u n i t y o f t h e T h e r a -

p e u t s , d e s c r i b e d b y P h i l o i n a n o t h e r o f h i s w r i t i n g s ? 4

N o w , s t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , a s w e r e a d P h i l o s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l if e o f t h e

T h e r a p e u t s , w e m o r e t h a n o n c e a r e r e m i n d e d o f C h a e r e m o n s d e s c r ip t io n

o f t h e l i f e o f t h e E g y p t i a n p r i e st s. I n f a c t, t h e s i m i l a r i ti e s a r e s o g r e a t t h a t

s o m e s c h o l ar s as se r t th a t P h i l o m u s t h a v e d e p e n d e d o n C h a e r e m o n , 35 w h e r e a s

o t h e r s s a y t h a t t h e o p p o s i t e is e q u a l l y p o s s i b l e j u s t a s it is p o ss i b le t h a t b o t h

C h a e r e m o n a n d P h i lo d e p e n d o n a c o m m o n s o u rc e in w h i c h a d h e r e n ts o f

s o m e o t h e r r e li g i o n , n e i t h e r E g y p t i a n n o r J e w i s h , w e r e p r e s e n t e d a s t h e t r u e

p h i l o s o p h e r s ? e

W h i c h e v e r t h e c as e, t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g p a r a d o x i c a l i n t h e s i m i l a r it y b e -

t w e e n C h a e r e m o n a n d P h i l o . B o t h a s is k n o w n r e p r e s e n t t h e h o s ti le c a m p s

o f A l e x a n d r i n e J e w s a n d G r e e k s . O n e o f t h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i st i c ev e n t s r e -

s u i t in g f r o m t h is h o s t il i ty w e r e l e g a t io n s t o t h e E m p e r o r , o n e b y G r e e k s ,

o n e b y Je w s . T h e h e a d o f a J e w i s h l e g a ti o n w as P h i l o - - a n d C h a e r e m o n w a s

a m e m b e r o f a G r e e k o n e , 8T t h e h e a d o f w h i c h m i g h t h a v e b e e n C h a e r e m o n s

33 D e v i r t u t i b u s 65.It is obvious that Philo arrives at his conclusions only because he reads the Scriptures and

sees the life of the Essenes entirel y th roug h the spectacles of Greek philosophy . It is easy to find

Plato in Genesis, once the two cherubim guarding paradise have been interpreted as the two

circles of the world-soul in the T i m a e u s (De cher . 21-24). And it is easy to reconcile Plato and

t h Scriptures by simply juxtaposing with this another interpr etation of the cherubim as symbol-

izing the two divine qualities of power and mercy (for which explanation he claims OeoX~l~,

ib id . , 30--a clear proof that we should not interpret the many passages, e.g., De s o m n i s II, 252;

D e m i g r . 34-36; De cher . 27, on which some scholars base their assertion that Philo had mystical

experiences, as mean ing more t han what so often a wri ter refers to as a sud den flash of insight, etc.

Who wouldn't be familiar with Goethe's description of how he sometimes in t he middle of t he

night woke up, ran over to his desk, and started writing a poem in such a hurry that he did not

take time to adjust the sheet of paper on which he was writing, so that the poem came out written

diagonally across the paper? But who would therefore say that Goethe had mystical experiences?)As with writings, so with hum an communities. It is easy to see the Therap euts as philosophers

once the subject matter of their worship has been described as 7b 3p 6 KM dTa0o~ Kpe~6p ~a~t xal

~ v ~ e l X ~ K p ~ z , ~ o r e p o J xr /zov~ao~ De vit a co nt. 1).s5 p. Wendlan d, Die Thera peut en und die philonische Schrift yore beschaulichen Leben,

Jahrbi~ cher [ i~r klassische Philo logie , Suppl. 22 (1896), pp . 693-772; F. C. Conybeare, J e w i s hQ u a r t e r l y R e v i e w 9 (1897), pp. 151-155; J. Leipold t, Griechische Philosophi e und frfichristliche

Askese, Ber ich te i~ber d ie Ferh . der S iichs . Ak . d . Wiss . zu Leipz ig , Ph i los . -h i s t . K l . 106/4 (1961),

p. 26.

ae H.-R. Schwyzer, op. cir., p. 79 f.

3~ I. Bell , Jew s a n d C h r i s t i a n s i n E g yp t (London, 1924), p. 29. Phi lo he aded the Jewish em-

bassy, Apion the Alexandrian, to Gaius. Perhaps Chaeremon was a member of this Alexandrian

embassy. We know for sure that he was a member of the second Alexandrian embassy to

Claudius, i.e., if we assume that there were two Greek and two Alexandrian embassies to Rome(see V. A. Tcherikover and A. Fuks, C o r p u s P a p y r o r u m J u d a i c a r u m [Cambridge, Mass, 1960],

Vol. II, pp. 50-53; cf. H. St. Jones, ( Claudius and the Jewish Questi on at Alexand ria, T h e J o u r na lo f R o m a n S t u d i e s 16 [1956], pp. 17-35, esp. 21; 31): the first Jewish headed by Philo and a second,




s a c e r d o t a l p r e d e c e s s o r , t h e w e l l - k n o w n a n t i - J e w i s h w r i t e r A p i o n . T h u s ,

C h a e r e m o n a n d P h i l o - - a s t r a n g e b e d - f e l l o w s h i p . W h a t u n i t e s t h e m i s p r e -c i se ly t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e i r r e l i g i o n i s t ru e p h i l o s o p h y Y

I t se em s t h a t th e d e b a t e b e t w e e n E g y p t i a n r e li g i o n a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y

w h i c h w e f in d re p r e s e n te d b y C h a e r e m o n c o n t i n u e d f o r a l o n g t im e . I n a n y

c a se, i t s t i ll e x i s t e d a t t he t im e o f P lo t inu s ~~ a n d h i s f o l lowe r s , v iz . P o r p hy r y

a n d I a m b l i c h u s . T h e b e s t - k n o w n d o c u m e n t s e x p r e s s i n g t h e s e c o n t a c t s i s a

l e t t e r b y an E g y p t i a n p r ie s t, A n e b o , d i r e c t e d t o P o r p h y r y , i n w h i c h h e i n t h e

f o r m o f q u e s t i o n s s e e m s t o h a v e c ri t i c iz e d t h e t h e o l o g y o f P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e .

P o r p h y r y r e p l i e d a n d i n h i s r e p ly i n t u r n s e v e re l y c r it i ci z e d o r p e r h a p s o n l y

s c r u t i n i z e d E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n . I a m b l i c h u s c a m e t o i t s d e f e n s e a n d u n d e r

t h e p s e u d o n y m o f A b a m m o n p u b l i s h e d h is s o -c al le d D e M y s t e r i i s E g y p t i -

o r u m . ~~T h u s , i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y t h e d is c u ss io n b e t w e e n G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y

a n d E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n w a s s t i l l a g o i n g c o n c e r n . I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e

t h a t s u c h c o n t a c t s a l s o e x i s t e d i n t h e t i m e b e t w e e n C h a e r e m o n a n d A n e b o .

I t i s c e r t a i n l y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t f o r m o s t f r a g m e n t s o f C h a e r e m o n ' s w o r k w e

a r e i n d e b t e d t o P o r p h y r y .

N o t h i n g c o m p a r a b l e c an b e f o u n d i n t h e r e la t io n s b e t w e e n J e w i s h r e l i g i o n

a n d G r e e k p h i l o so p h y . O f G r e e k a t t ac k s o n J e w i s h r e l i g i o n t h e r e is c e r ta i n l y

n o d e a r t h . T h e w r i t in g s o f C el su s a n d o f P o r p h y r y d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y a g a i n s t

C h r i s t i a n i t y a re a t t h e s a m e t im e d i r e c t e d a g a in s t J u d a i s m . A n d t h e r e i s n o

l a ck o f c o m p l i m e n t a r y r e f e re n c e s to J u d a i s m , t h e r e f e r e n c e o f t h e a u t h o r o f

D e s u b l im i t a t e to G e n e s i s a n d N u m e n i u s ' W h a t e ls e is P l a to b u t M o se s w h o

t al k s G r e ek ? b e i n g t h e b e s t k n o w n e x a m p l e s . 1 B u t w h a t e v e r t h e r e as o n ,

t h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n t h e n a t u r e o f a t r u e d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n

b e t w e e n J e w i s h r e l i g i o n a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y .

S o m u c h f o r t h e E g y p t i a n a n d t h e J e w i s h c o u n t e r c l a i m . H o w a b o u t t h e

G r e e k s th e m s el v es ? D i d t h e i r p h i l o s o p h e rs r e m a i n u n c h a l l e n g e d b y r e l ig i o n -

i s t s ' ? I t h i n k w e c a n s a y : a f t e r a w h i l e G r e e k r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f r e l i g i o n

c a u g h t u p w i t h t h e E g y p t i a n s a n d t h e J e w s , t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y i n a p e c u l i a r

f a sh ion .

C h a e r e m o n a n d P h i l o b e l o n g t o t h e f i rs t c e n t u r y A .D . N o w , i n t h e s e c o n d

c e n t u r y A .D . i n t h e H e l l e n i c w o r l d a v e r y s tr a n g e w o r k o r i g i n a t e d , p r e t e n d -

i n g t o b e a c o l l e c t i o n o f o r ac l es , i n c l u d i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y o r a c le s b y A p o l l o .

t o w h i c h h e w a s h o s t i l e a n d t h e m e m b e r s o f w h i c h r e m a i n u n k n o w n t o us ; th e f ir st A l e x a n d r i a n

h e a d e d b y A p i o n a n d a s e c o n d h e a d e d b y T i b e r i u s C l a u d i u s B a r b i l lu s T c h e r i k o v e r - F u k s , p . 4 4 ) ,

i n w h i c h A p i o n d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d .

s 8 P o h l e n z , o p . c i t . p . 4 8 7 .

a~ A d i s c u s s io n o f P l o t i n u s a n d t h e J e w s w i l l m a k e u p t h e c o n c l u d i n g s e c t io n o f t h i s p a p e r .4 o C A. F . A l t h e i m a n d R u t h S t i e h l , P h i l o l o g i a s a c r a T f i b i n g e n , 1 9 58 ); to b e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y

A . R . S o d a n o , P o r f i ri o L e t t e r a a d A n e b o N a p l e s , 1 9 5 8 ) , p . x l .

~ 1 F o r o t h e r s s e e , e . g . , R . W a l z e r , G a l e n o n J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s O x f o r d , 1 9 4 9 ) .




T h i s c o l l e c ti o n w as th e w o r k o f t w o J u l i a n s , f a t h e r a n d s o n, t h e l a t t e r a ls o

k n o w n a s J u l i a n t h e M a g i c ia n . I s h al l g iv e t w o e x a m p l e s o f th e s e o r a c le s ? 2

T h e F a t h e r ' s I n t e l le c t , t h i n k i n g w i t h h i s v i g o ro u s w i ll , c a u s ed t o r u s h f o r t h m u l t i f o r m

I d e a s . A l l t h e se s p r a n g f o r t h f r o m o n e s o u r c e ; f o r w i l l a n d p e r f e c t i o n c a m e f r o m t h e

F a t h e r . T h e y ( th e I d e as ) w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o o t h e r n o e t ic ( I d e a s ) , a f t e r h a v i n g b e e n

d i s s e c t e d b y n o e t i c F i r e . F o r t h e R u l e r h a s s et b e f o r e t h e m a n y - s h a p e d C o s m o s a n o e t i c

i m p e r i s h a b l e F o r m ; h a s t e n i n g u p o n t h e u n w o r l d l y t ra c k of w h i ch t h e C o s m o s b e c a m e

v i s ib l e , a f t e r h a v i n g b e e n g r a c i o u s ly p r o v i d e d w i t h m a n y f o l d I d e as . T h e s e ( th e I d e a s )

h a v e o n e s o u rc e , f r o m w h i c h r u s h f o r th o t h e r m i g h t y d i v i d e d ( I d e a s ) , w h i c h a r e b r o k e n

u p o n t h e b o d i e s o f t h e w o r l d , a n d m o v e a b o u t t h e t e r r i b l e W o m b s l ik e b e es , fl a sh i n g

a l l a r o u n d i n v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s , t h e n o e t i c t h o u g h t s o f t h e P a t e r n a l S o u r c e , w h i c h p l u c k

t h e p l e n t e o u s f l o w e r o f F i r e t h r o u g h t h e t i r e le s s v i g o r o f T i m e . T h e f i r s t- b o r n S o u r c eo f t h e F a t h e r , p e r f e c t i n i ts e l f, c a u s e d t h e s e p r i m o r d i a l l y g e n e r a t e d I d e a s t o w e l l f o r t h . ~3

A n d h e r e i s a n o t h e r .

T h e r e i s a c e r t a in n o e t i c b e i n g w h i c h t h o u m u s t t h i n k w i t h t h e f l o w e r o f t h o u g h t . F o r ,

s h o u l d s t t h o u i n c l i n e t h i n e i n t e l l e c t t o I t , a n d t h i n k I t a s i f t h i n k i n g s o m e t h i n g , t h o u

s h a l t n o t t h i n k I t . . . . I n g o o d s o o th , o n e s h o u l d n o t t h i n k t h a t n o e t i c b e i n g w i t h v e he -

m e n c e , b u t w i t h t h e s u b t l e f l a m e o f s u b t l e i n t e l l e c t , t h a t m e a s u r e s a l l t h i n g s - - e x c e p t t h a t

n o e t i c b e i n g . T h o u s h o u l d s t n o t t h i n k I t i n a f o r th r i g h t m a n n e r , b u t k e e p i n g t h e p u r e

e y e o f th e s o u l t u r n e d a w a y , t h o u s h o u l d s t r e t c h o u t t h e v a c a n t i n t e l l e c t t o w a r d s t h en o e t i c b e i n g , i n o r d e r t o l e a r n t o k n o w I t ; f o r i t su b s is t s b e y o n d t h e i n t e l l e c t .44

W h a t s t r a n g e l y p h i l o s o p h i c q u e s t i o n s m u s t i t h a v e b e e n w h i c h t h e o r a c l e

w a s a s k e d a n d w h a t s tr a n g e l y p h i l o s o p h i c a n s w e r s t h e y r e c e iv e d T h e G o d

w h o g a v e t h e m w a s o b v i o u s l y v e r y w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h P l a t o n i c a n d A r i st o -

t e l e a n c o n c e p t s a n d h a d r e a d h i s Ti m ae us v e r y w e l l, i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d a l s o

(Ps . -?) P la to ' s 2nd a n d 6th Letter A F a t h e r e n g e n d e r s t h e r e a l m o f t h e

I n t e l l i g i b l e ; h i s r e a l m b e c o m e s o r g a n i z e d i n t o a c o s m o s o f I d e a s ; t h e s e I d e a s

s e rv e a s a m o d e l f o r t h e v is ib l e w o r l d . F u r t h e r m o r e : t h e r e i s a n o e t i c b e i n g

w h i c h i s a c t u a l l y b e y o n d nous a n d i t c a n b e r e a c h e d o n l y b y a k i n d o f

t h o u g h t w h i c h d o e s n o t t h i n k o f it as b e i n g s o m e t h i n g . A l l t h i s is a s t ra n g e

m i x t u r e o f p h i l o s o p h i c d o c t ri n e s , a m i x t u r e , m o r e o v e r , m o r e t h a n o n c e

t r a c e a b l e t o P l a t o n i s m o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A .D . B u t w h a t is p a r t i c u l a r l y

i m p o r t a n t : t h e s e p h i l o s o p h i c d o c t r i n e s a r e su p p o s e d t o b e f o u n d i n o r a c l e s

- - t h e y r e p r e s e n t d i v i n e w i s d o m . T h e i n f e r e n c e is o b v i o u s: w h a t e v e r i s v a l u -

42 On these o rac les see par t i cu la r ly : A .- J . Festug i6re , La Rdvd la t ion d Herm ds Tr is rndgi st e, Vol .I I I (Par is , 1953 , pp . 53-59 ; ibid. , Vol. IV (1954), pp . 132-134; H . Lew y, Chaldaean Oracles andT h e u r g y ( Ca i r o , 1 95 6 ); E . R . D o d d s , New L ig h t o n th e ' Ch a ld a ean Or ac l e s , ' T h e H a r v a r d

T h e o l og i c a l R e v i e w 54 (1961), pp . 263-273.4s G.[W.] Kr oll , De oracu l i s cha lda ic i s (Breslau , 1894; repr . Hi ld esh eim 1962, p . 23 f . ; Lew y,op. cir., p . 165 f . The t ransla t ion i s by Lewy.

Kr o l l , op. cir., p. 11; Lewy, op. ci t . , p . 109 f . The t ransla t ion i s by Lewy.




a b l e i n G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y ca n b e f o u n d i n d o c u m e n t s o f d i v i n e r e v el a ti o n .

O b v i o u s l y r e l i g i o n i s t r u e p h i l o s o p h y . A n d p e r h a p s a l s o t h i s s h o u l d b ea d d e d : t h e C h a l d e a n O r a cl es t ea c h h o w t o b e c o m e i m m o r t a l . I t is n o l o n g e r

b y p r a c t i c i n g p h i l o s o p h y i n t h e P l a t o n i c s en s e. I t is b y m a g i c a l p r a c ti c es .

T o u s i t i s q u i t e o b v i o u s t h a t t h e C h a l d e a n O r a c l e s a r e s i m p l y f o r g e r i e s .

I t i s a l m o s t u n b e l i e v a b l e t h a t t h e y s h o u l d h a v e b e e n r e c e i v e d b y P l a t o n i s t s

l a te r t h a n P l o t i n u s w i t h u n c o n d i t i o n a l e n t h u s ia s m . T h e y b e c a m e v i r t u a ll y

t h e i r b i b l e - - a n d i n s o m e w a y c o n t i n u e d t o p la y th i s r o l e d o w n t o t h e t i m e

o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . H a d G e o r g i o s G e m i s t h o s h a d h i s w a y a n d i n t r o d u c e d

n e o - p a g a n i s m as t h e r e li g i o n o f t h e n e w e ra , t h es e o ra cl es u n d o u b t e d l y w o u l d

h a v e b e e n a m o n g i ts sa c r e d s c ri p t u re s .

N o w , a t t h e t im e w h e n E g y p t i a n , J e w i s h , a n d G r e e k r e l ig i o n i s ts s t ag e d

r e li g io n s c o m e b a c k a n d p u t f o r w a r d t h e i r c o u n t e r c l a i m t h a t r e l ig i o n i s tr u e

p h i l o s o p h y , a n o t h e r r e l ig i o n h a d c o m e i n t o b e i n g - - C h r i st i an i t y . O n e o f t h e

f ir st C h r i s t i a n s to c o n f r o n t C h r i s t i a n i t y w i t h G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y w as J u s t i n

t h e M a r t y r. A n d i m m e d i a t e l y w e m e e t i n h i m t h e c l a im - - t h a t w h i c h s e e k er s

o f t r u t h h a v e i n v a i n t r i e d t o f in d i n G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y - - e v e r y s i m p l e C h r i s -

t i a n i s i n p o s s e s si o n o f . C h r i s t i a n i t y i s t r u e p h i l o s o p h y . H e i n h i s q u e s t

f o r t r u t h l o o k e d f o r i t i n a n u m b e r o f p h i l o s o p h i c s c h o o ls - -b u t f o u n d i t

on l y i n Ch r i s t i a n i t y . 45

W h a t J u s t i n r e p r e s e n t s i n a m o r e p e r s o n a l f o r m w e f i n d i n C l e m e n t i n

a n i m p e r s o n a l f o r m . I n f ac t, w h e r ea s t h e w o r k o f P h i l o i n f l u e n c e d n e i t h e r

J e w i s h r e l i g i o n i s t s46 n o r G r a e c o - p a g a n G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s , 47 n o n e o f w h o m

e v e r q u o t e d P h i l o , i t i s o f p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e f o r C h r i s t i a n s . C l e m e n t , a s i s

k n o w n , q u o t e s f r o m P h i l o . A n d i n o n e d e ci si ve pa ss ag e fu l ly u t i li z i n g h i m

C l e m e n t r e p e at s af t er h i m : t h e s am e r e l at i o n i n w h i c h t h e enkykli s t a n d

t o p h i l o s o p h y o b t a i n s b e t w e e n p h i l o s o p h y a n d w i s d o m . T r u e , e v e n i n

C l e m e n t i t is n o t q u i t e c le a r w h e t h e r p h i l o s o p h y d if fe rs f r o m w i s d o m b y

s u b j e c t m a t t e r . F o r C l e m e n t c o n t i n u e s , p r e c i s e l y a s P h i l o d o e s , b y d e f i n i n g

sophi a s t h e s c ie n c e o f t h e d i v i n e a n d t h e h u m a n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r c a u se s- - t h e S t o i c d e f i n i t i o n w h i c h w e f i n d al so i n C i c e r o . B u t C l e m e n t a l so u n -

45 Dia l. 1, 4; 2, 3-6.

48 See, e .g . , S . W . Ba ron , A S o c i a l a n d R e l i g i o u s H i s t o r y o [ t h e Jew s , 2n d ed . (New York , 1952) ,

V o l . I , p . 3 9 0 , n o t e 5 2 ; E . L . D i e t r i c h i n : H a n d b u c h d e r O r i e n t a l i s t i k I / 8 / 2 ( L e i d e n , 1 9 6 1) , p . 3 6 8 f .

47 A p a r t f r o m t h e c o n t r o v e r s ia l p r o b l e m o f P h i l o ' s i n f lu e n c e o n t h e a u t h o r o f IIepl ~ov~ (eft.A . R o s t a g n i , I 1 S u b l i m e n e l l a s t o r i a d e ll ' e s te t i c a a n t i c a , A n n a l i d e l l a s cu o l a N o r m a l e S u p er i o r e~i Pisa, Lettere, Storia e Filosofia, Ser . I I , Vo l . I I [1933] , pp . 99 -119 ; 175-202 ; R . i d en t i f i e s h im w i th

H e r m a g o r a s , s t u d e n t o f T h e o d o r o s o f G a d a r a , o n e o f w h o m h e t a k e s t o h a v e b e e n J e w i s h ) ;

E . N o r d e n , D a s G e n e s i s z it a t i n d e r S c h r ff t v o m E r h a b e n e n , A b h . d . D . A k . d . W . i n B e r l i n ,

K l a s s e [ i i r S p r a ch en , L i t e r a t u r u n d K u n s t , 1954 , No . 1 (B e r l i n , 1955) . Cf . G. P . Go o ld , A G ree kP r o f e s s i o n a l C i r c l e a t R o m e , Tr a n s a c t i o n s a n d P r o ceed i n g s o [ t h e A m er i ca n P h i l o l o g ica l A s s o -iation 9 2 (1 9 61 ), p p . 1 6 8 -1 92 , e s p . 1 77 f . ; L . J . v a n d e r L o f , V e r b r i c h t A u g u s t i n d a s S c h w e i g e n

i e s k l s s i s c h e n A l t e r t u r a s u r n P s . - L o n g i n u s ? , Vig i l iae Chr is t ianae 16 (1962) , pp. 21-33.




h e s i t a t i n g l y u s e s t h e w o r d s u s e d b y P h i l o t o d e s c r i b e t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n

sophia a n d p h i l o s o p h y as t h a t b e t w e e n t h e m i s tr es s a n d h e r h a n d m a i d , o ri n O l d T e s t a m e n t s y m b o l i sm , b e t w e e n S a r a a n d H a g a r . A g a i n , sophia is

a b o u t t o b e c o m e t h eo l o g y , a n d p h i l o s o p h y h e r an cilla. 4s T h u s , b y t h e e n d

o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A .D . t h r e e r e l i g io n s - - E g y p t i a n , J e w i s h , a n d C h r i s t ia n

- - h a d p u t f o r w a r d t h e i r c o u n t e r c l a i m w i t h r e g a r d t o p h i lo s o p h y .

W h a t s h a l l w e s a y o f t h e s e m u t u a l c l a i m s ?

I d o n t t h i n k a n y - - i n t h e a c a d e m i c se n s e - r e s p e c t a b l e p h i l o s o p h e r w o u l d

s ti ll d a r e p u t f o r w a r d P l a t o s c l a i m i n a n y g e n u i n e s en s e o f t h e w o r d . I s u p -

p o s e t h e h i g h e s t c la i m e x i s t e n t i a li s m w o u l d m a k e f o r p h i l o s o p h y is th a t i t

a n d i t a l o n e m a k e s p o s s i b l e a u t h e n t i c e x i s t e n c e - - w h i c h f o r m o s t e x i s t e n t i a l -

i st s i s l ik e l y to b e t h e i r d e - m y t h o l o g i z e d c o n c e p t i o n o f i m m o r t a l i t y . O n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , t h e c l a i m s o f r e l i g i o n s e e m t o d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m r e l i g i o n

t o re l ig i o n . Su ffic e i t to m e n t i o n H i n d u i s m , B u d d h i s m a n d I s la m , a n d c o n -

t e m p o r a r y o r t h o d o x J u d a i s m , i n a ll o f w h i c h t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n r e l ig i o n

a n d p h i l o s o p h y s ee m s to d i f fe r c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h a t i n C h r i s t i a n i ty .

A n d t h is , o f c o u rs e , le a d s u s t o o n e o f t h e p e r e n n i a l q u e s t i o n s o f s c h o l a rs h i p :

t o w h a t e x t e n t i s t h e a t t i t u d e o f C h r i s t i a n it y t o w a r d s p h i l o s o p h y d e t e r -

m i n e d b y t h e fa c t t h a t i t in t e r p r e t e d i t s r e l ig i o u s c o n t e n t s i n t e r m s o f G r e e k

p h i l o s o p h y ?

( T o b e c o n c l u d e d )

Scripps College Clarem ont Calif .

4 s S t r o m . I , 3 0. H e r e t h e p h r a s e o ccu r s: ~p l , , r $ ~o r r ~s ~O ,o r1 6 2 - - t h u s w i s d o m i smis t r ess o f p h i lo sop hy r a th er tha n s im ply i t s sub je c t m at te r - -~ s i~ceiu~ ~-$s ~rpo~ra~#das. Cf . E . Fa sche r ,

D e r L o g o s - C h r i s t u s a l s g 6 t t l i c h e r L e h r e r b e i C l e m e n s y o n A l e x a n d r i e n , S t u d i e n z u m N e u e n

T e s t a m e n t u n d z u r P a t r i s t i k [ Fes t s ch r i f t E . K l o s t e r m an n ] ( B e r l i n , 1 9 61 ), e s p . p . 1 97 o n C l e m e n t ' s

e q u a t i o n o f e o ~ t a w i t h t h e a c q u i s i ti o n o f d k ~ 0 e t a - - d ~ 0 e m ~ a ~ r~ , ~rep~ ~ 6 x6p~o~ drrep ~ d~L*) dX~Oeta - - (S trom. I , 4). I n d e e d , a c c o r d i n g t o C l e m e n t e v e r y b e l i e v e r i s a p h i l o s o p h e r ( S t r o m . I V ,5 8 ; I I , 27 5 ). See f u r t h e r m o r e A . B eck ae r t , L ' e v o l u t i o n d e l ' i n t e l l ec t u a l i s m e g r ec v e r s l a p en s 6 er e l i g ie u s e e t l a r e l i v e d e l a p h i l o s o p h i e p a r l a p e n s~ e c h r 6 t i e n n e , R e v u e d e s E t u d e s b y z a n t in e s 19( 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 4 4 - 6 2 , e s p . 5 6 w i t h t h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m G r eg o r y o f N y s s a : C h r i s t i an l i f e is p h i l o s o p h y( D i s c . c a t . 1 8 ). T h e e q u a t i o n C h r i s ti a n s ~ t r u e J e w s ~ p h i l o s o p h e r s: C l e m e n t , S t r o m . VI , 108 .

(art) philip merlan - religion and philosophy from plato's phaedo to the chaldaean oracles

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