art of ancient india ch 9

51
::rqtadesh. ' ::;. II: rr2 r8. r6. Buddha. FrorD N.iandr, Bih.r, Irdia. p.la period. Ca. carly-to-rnid nirrth ccrrrury- Merirl. H:23.J cm. IndianML$eum, Calcutta. UNDIR lHE PaLA AND SENAKrNGS 401 rll.r7. Buddha. Froru Kurkih:rr., Bihrr, India. p.h period.Cr- late nirrth c:rr1y terlthccnrury. Mcral with silveriul:r,v. H:33 crn. Patn,r Muscurr), rafila. -] ..,i^. J:nke) in . ilcscrip- r r .ri leavcs :rlc]Llding .:--. r8.r5). : l,itlh ds : ::.rtrcl in .. ii ad- :.-r Or,Vn - : L)Lrlglng - '...'orship -:.r of thc ., t: tnetel ': lriods, r:_. a beelr : ._LlCtiOn. Thc rvidespread usc of rneral may havc been putially due to thc rich ore dcposits throughout Magadha that had madc the region rvealthy cvcn in early historic times. No netal coins of the Pala kings have been found, however, suggestilg that meta] tvas tcserved for certain purposes only. Two sites at \vhich nLlDterous mctal inages havc bcen recovcred are Nalanda ancl Kurkihar, both in Magadha. lly ancl large, the Nalanda inages predate thc Krrkihar exarDplcs, and in gcncral they arc nuch sin.rpler, smaller,ancl lesscomplex iconographically. A typical Nalanda bronzc of xbout rhc early to rniddlc ninth ccntury shows the lucldha seatecl upon a lotus throne, his hatds rn dharnacakra nwdra (Fig. 18.16). The incidcnt may be idcn- tificd as Sakyamuni's first scr.mon by thc trvo deer flankins tl.rervheel. Thc routd pnblnnaa- /a/,2 servcs as both halo and body aura as typical of examplesof this date. In latcr in.rages, how- ever, cspecially thosc from Kurkihar, the halo and body aura are often distinct. The umbrella over thc head of the Buddha is also typical of theseimages. In style, thc majority of Nalanda bronzcs shorv a relationship to Gupta-p,-riod sculpturcs, especiaily visiblc in the fcatrircs of thc face, the rarhcr boyisir proportions of rhe body, and rhe rreatmcnt of the robcs. This image is inscribccl on the bxck, as xre mxny othcrs lrom Nelanda, Most often, thcse inscrip- tions givc the BLrddhist creed, r,vhich acts as a vivificatiot praycr lbr thc image. Fron a siightly latcr datc, the larc ninth or carly tclth century, a figurc of a Bucldha in bhinisparla nurdratls<'t scatedon a lotus throne, from Kurkihdr (Fig. tS.r7), shor,vs a number of stylistic aclyancements when corr-rpared to the prcaching Buddha from Nalanda. The .":.:"i(-

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Page 1: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

: : rqtadesh.' : : ; . I I : r r 2

r8. r6. Buddha. FrorD N.iandr, Bih.r, Irdia. p. la period.Ca. carly-to-rnid nirrth ccrrrury- Merir l . H:23.J cm.Indian ML$eum, Calcutta.

UNDIR lHE PaLA AND SENA KrNGS 401

rl l .r7. Buddha. Froru Kurkih:rr. , Bihrr, India. p.hperiod. Cr- late nirrth c:rr1y terl th ccnrury. Mcral withsi lver iul :r ,v. H:33 crn. Patn,r Muscurr), raf i la.

- ] . . , i ^ .

J:nke) in. ilcscrip-

r r .ri leavcs:rlc]Llding

. : - - . r 8 . r 5 ) .: l,itlh ds

: ::.rtrcl in.. i i ad-:.-r Or,Vn

- : L)Lrlglng- '...'orship

-:.r of thc

. , t : tne te l': lr iods,

r:_. a beelr: ._LlCtiOn.

Thc rvidespread usc of rneral may havc beenputially due to thc rich ore dcposits throughoutMagadha that had madc the region rvealthycvcn in early historic times. No netal coins ofthe Pala kings have been found, however,suggestilg that meta] tvas tcserved for certainpurposes only. Two sites at \vhich nLlDterousmctal inages havc bcen recovcred are Nalandaancl Kurkihar, both in Magadha. lly ancl large,the Nalanda inages predate thc KrrkiharexarDplcs, and in gcncral they arc nuch sin.rpler,smaller, ancl less complex iconographically. Atypical Nalanda bronzc of xbout rhc early torniddlc ninth ccntury shows the lucldha seateclupon a lotus throne, his hatds rn dharnacakranwdra (Fig. 18.16). The incidcnt may be idcn-tificd as Sakyamuni's first scr.mon by thc trvodeer flankins tl.re rvheel. Thc routd pnblnnaa-/a/,2 servcs as both halo and body aura as typical

of examples of this date. In latcr in.rages, how-ever, cspecially thosc from Kurkihar, the haloand body aura are often distinct. The umbrellaover thc head of the Buddha is also typical ofthese images. In style, thc majority of Nalandabronzcs shorv a relationship to Gupta-p,-riodsculpturcs, especiaily visiblc in the fcatrircs ofthc face, the rarhcr boyisir proportions of rhebody, and rhe rreatmcnt of the robcs. Thisimage is inscribccl on the bxck, as xre mxnyothcrs lrom Nelanda, Most often, thcse inscrip-tions givc the BLrddhist creed, r,vhich acts as avivificatiot praycr lbr thc image.

Fron a siightly latcr datc, the larc ninth orcarly tclth century, a figurc of a Bucldha inbhinisparla nurdra tls<'t scated on a lotus throne,from Kurkihdr (Fig. tS.r7), shor,vs a numberof stylistic aclyancements when corr-rpared tothe prcaching Buddha from Nalanda. The

. " : . : " i ( -

Page 2: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

402 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r8.r8. Sarvavid Vairocana. From NelaDda, Bihar,Indir. Pala period. Ca. eleventh century. Metal withgi ldine. H: ca.3o crl- Narional Muscuur, New Delhi.

r8.r9. Buddha. FrorD Kurkiber, Bihir, I l ldia. Pi lapcriod. rgth year of reign of Visrahapela (I I ! . Ca.third quarter elevcrlth ccrltury. Metal with silverin]ay, H: t rz cr1r, P;rtna Museum, PalDa

residual Gupta features sccn in thc Nelandabronze are uow nearly lost. The Kurkiharfigurc is more elongated and its torso is in theform of a gonukha (cow's heacl), a metrphoricalconvention prescribed in the iconographic textsin use at tbe time that becarne a typical featureof the matrue Pala style. The simple, roundhalo and canopy seen in the Nalanda examplehas given way to a scparated halo and throncback, each of which is claboratcd with forrnsserying both decorativc and iconographic pur-poses. A ktrttimukh4 at thc top appcars to spewthe leaves of the bodhi tree and the rod aboveoriginally held the unbrella.

Only a fcw mctal images from Nilandt areknown from the late Pala period, although the

decrcasc in apparent numbcrs in no way signifiesa clecline in quality of production. This is seenin a depiction of Sarvavid Vairocana as theAdi-Buddha from Nalanda dating from aboutthc clcvcnth ccntury (Fig. r8.r8). Thc figure isgildcd according to a conmon practicc of thetimc, but thc pedcstal has bcen lcft plain, clcarlydetoting the goldet radiancc ofthe n.rain figure.In this {brm, the Adi-Buddha embodies stillanothcr xspcct of thc sotcriological conccpt ofMahayana l3uddhin. His four faccs rcpresentboth his omniprcsence and his univcrsalityand yet, con.rbined as drey are iuto a singlehead, personify the rnclilTerentiated state of allduality, that is, tl.re true knowledge of lunyaft.Thc botlhyangi nttdra, tt which the index finger

P l a r e :l:1ir recenaua\C l c r e l :Puch:

Page 3: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

of the left hand is enclosed by the five fingers

of the right hand, signifies the r.mion of thc live

knowledges of the jina Buddhas into the single

enlightenment. In this case, thc njrc emergingat the top as though it was an extension of thc

left forefinger reemphasizes the syrnbolisn.r.Thrce almost idcntical standing Buddha im-

ages found in the Kurkihar hoard are dated inthe reign of Vigrahapala, presumably Vigraha-pala III, the Pdla king who rulcd around the

middlc of the eleventh century,r0 and thusthese images hclp to pinpoint certain stylisticdevelopments of thc later Pala period. Theexample choscn (Fig. r8.r9), while slightlymore elongated in the body trcatment tl.ran the

other two, shows the clegance and tcchnicalperfection achieved by the Magadha craftsmen.Over a meter in height, the inage shows theBrrddha surrounded by a prabhana4lala rhat wascast separately. Various aspects of the Buddha's

body are stylizcd and are meant to suggcst

visual metaphors with othcr forns, Thc torso,for cxan-rplc, is conccived as a gorrrtrk,lra (cow'shead) and thc nose, whcn vicwed fiom the

side, resembles a parrot's beak. Such analogies

are known in Indic art from earlier periocls, butare emphasizc,L to a grerter or le.ser extertt indiferent sylistic idioms. The use of such forn.rsin the eastem idiorns n.ray indicatc e grou'ingintellectualization of thc art as iconographicthcory became incrcasingly well dcfincd.

Onc of the finest cxarnples of sculpturc lromthe Kurkihrr hoard, indeed pcrhaps fiom rll

of Pela art, is a gilt bronzc image of Lokar-tlu,a form of Avalokitcivara, lrom about the trvelfth

cennrry (Pl. z7). Thc fcatures of his facc are

sharper and nore stylizcd, and tire posture o[his body is luorc anguJar, compared with

earlier cxamples. In spite of en unduleting glaccand rhythm to thc irnage, thcre is a qtality ofstificss that l.ras entcred the sculptural mode

that is easily secn itr colnparison rvith carlier

works, for the rather naturalistic rendering of

thc facial features has bccn rcplaced rvith slick,

stylizcd forr.r'is.Nalanda and Kurkihar represcnt only two o[

the many importalrt metal workshops of thcPala-Sena periods. Severai othcr sites havc

yielded works that gcnerally lollowed the nain

UNDER THT PAIA AND SINA KINGS 4OJ

trends of the Pala-Sena pcriods in ten:rs ofincrcasing elaboration and othcr features, buteach is also charactcrized by certain individualstylistic traits. These separate schools are ex-tremely important to study, espccially whcnlooking for Indic sources for Tibetan, Ncpali, 1.Southeast Asian, or other art traditions, for inmany casesr it can bc seen tlut the ties to thcscother regiols wcre not merely gcncral butwcrc associated with particular sites.1l Metalimages, of course, arc gencrally more ersilytransportablc than stone sculptures, sincc theyarc usually smaller, and thcrefore the metalpieces may havc played a major rolc in thedissenination of Indic styles to othcr parts ofAsia.

A striking stylistic contrast, for example,may bc seen by cotlparing the gilded Krrrkihrr..,,/Lokanatha (Pl. z7) to a reprcsentation of thc'Bodhisattva Maitreya founcl at the viliage, ofFatehpur, l.rardly twcr1ty kilometers fron $ur-kiher (Fig. r8.zo). Probably also dating /ron.rthe twelfth centrlry, as suggested by thc /rgularand acccntuatcd posture, stylized facialy'eatures,complcxity of the lotus base, and othi:r details,th is work i ' r 'o r rb lc lo r the J r igJ r p l , r lo rn r r rponwhich thc lotus pedestal rcsts. Although asin-rilar platform occurs in another sclrlpturefolr.rcl :rt Fatehpur, it is unlikc any thxt have

becn noted on othcr imaqcs from Bihar orBengal. Upon closc cxanination, thc maunero[ executing thc piccc fron.r Fatchpur difersgreatly fior.r.L thc Kirrkihar Lokar.rarha itr spitcof thcir siraring gencral features of thc tu'clfth-ccntury Mxllaclhan style. Thc lotuscs hcld byLokanatha, for cxample, arc lt-mch morc thrcc-dimcnsionally conccived th:rn thc rathcr flatllowcrs fl:rnking Maitrcya. Thc coilecl locks ofthc coifurcs of the tr,vo bodhisattl,xs arc also

created in a diferent n-rantrcr, thottgh rn terrnsofheiglrt and shapc, both fall rvithin thc stylisticparanlctcrs of the pcriod. Othcr aspccts of the

work, such as the lotuscs of the pcdcstals, the

.jervclry, facial fcrtures, and drapery can also besubjccted to snch scrutiuy, with the result that

i t bccontc . t v i , le t t t t l t : r r f l r c two P i ( (c \ wcre

proclucts of related but nonetl 'relcss distinct

craft tradirions.

Jhervari ancl othcr sitcs in the Chittagong

Page 4: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

404 LATLI. NORTHERN SCFIOOLS

*\

1

i :t-

r8.2o- Roalhisattvr Mritrcya. F onl Fatehpur, Bihar'

India. Pala pcriod Ca. twclfdr ccDtury Metal H:

: .8 . r . . . Bod l r r ^ . , \ r Mr rsc , r r ' t s^d t a t ' ,

c l i ' t r i cL o f B r r rq l ,dcJr l r . ' vc y ic ldcd r r ru r lbc r o f

r r rc r , l i r l rqc , t l t ' r d r f l c r con ' id ' r 'b l1 f ro r r r

,o.tgJ-rly .ont"r't,poraneous Pieces lrorn othcr

Bihir ':tn.l

Bcnial sites. A particularly fine

cxample shows "-

n"ddlt" seated, with lis right

hlndln lthintisyaria rwrdra, wluclt in this respect

i, t.r".alv an unusuJ configuration for thc

Pala-Sera periods (Fig rS zr) Prob:rbly rlating

fr,rrrr a.or',rid the rer-rth ccntury' tirc imagc shows

r sicncier figurc rvith pronincnt nipplcs' au

eruphasizc.l line for the rvaistband of l.Lis garment'

"tj " u".y cliapl.nnous gxrnent $'ith alnost

.ro ",,tplt^ri,

no p1.",, n, folds Wl.Lilc thc facial

f""t.,r.-'r r""t-rr r"l"t"d to typcs founc'l at Ntlandl

(Fis. 18.16). there is al attenuation ant' l rcfine-

,,r"rrt tlL^t h"d been lacking in othcr stylcs'

Much of thc sarrc range of iconograp\ scen

in Butldhist stone picccs of tlLe Pala-Scna periods

is fo .l nr metel imagcs, although stnce tncral

p ieccs r r rus t h l rc bce t r r re l ted dor i r t a t t i r t rc ' '

i",tr,ru".l bv firc, or sinply carriecl rlvay' thc

,"ut"irrirtg oncs do not providc as full evidence as

r8.zr . Buddha- FrornJhcrvar i ' Brneladcsh Pt ia per iod'

Ca. rcnth ceirtury Metrl. Il: IJ J crl lndian Museurn'

Calcutta.

the stonc pieccs of religious dcveloPnents' A

slnall inraqc of Salnvara of about the elcventh

century nd at P-thargbata in castern Biher

clelnonstrates the prescnce of aclvanced Tantric

iconosraphy ir.L mctal in.Lages (Fig r8 zz)

Saruvirl.' is' another oue of thc Heruka deitics

and is "lso

xn emanation of Aksob}rya' Adorncd

rvith a sarland of skulls ancl standing in ahdfua

por,,t.","lta tranPlcs on Bhairava end Kalaratri

and holds a variety of attributcs in his many

hancls. includins the sevcred heacl of Brahma

(Brahn.ra Aapala), the uajra, and g/ranta in his

t."o cross"ih"n,1t syr.nbolic of the Pcrnunenceand transicncc of the universc rcsPcctively, and

thc eleplant skin in his two rlPpcr hands' synr-

bolic ol the overcominq ofhindrances'

Another snall metal iruagc, fron Kurkihar'

,nd u , , l ' ,p t d . ' r i t tg f ro r l t rhc e lcvenr l l ce l tu ry '

' \o r r : H . , ) r g r r r ' , . I f , " . . " L . " " ' " f

A v ' lok i tc iv ' r ' '

1F i3 . r8 . : j ) . H ' yagr iv . - rHor 'c -nccL) t ' o f rc t t

, " . ion . i r "J b1 . " ho , tcJ rc ,d o rn 'mcnt in I i '

hcadl{ress. His corpulcnt body, serpent orna-

'

Page 5: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

td=

I8.22. Sat l lv l ra. Fronr Pirharqhat l r , Bihar, India.Pala per iod. Ca. c levenrh ccDrurv. Mctai . FI : r5.1 cnr.L ld ian Muscurn, Calcut ta.

ments, dishcvclcd l.rair, end bulgine eycs arc rJlcharactcristic of his fierce naturc ancl xrc notstylistically clctclnined. This sculptule rvasprobabiy part of a largc group of irnagcs thattogcther constitutcd a colnp1cx iconoeraphic. t . r f c r r c n r s u c l l r . t l r r t o f r ' r K i ' . . ' r i , . r n . ' { v . r -lokiteivara fiom Nalande (Fiu. r8.5) in rvhichHayagriva also appears. Tl.roush isolatccl li-orrri n o r . g r n . ' l c o r i e x f . l l r c i r r r . g , r . . . r r r . p o r t l n lrcmindcr of the interrclatiouships bet\lccnimlgcs that werc crcxtccl sep:rratcly but rrsccltogcfhcr to colDnllrnicatc a reliqious ntcssaqc.

Although ncarly all tJre sculpturcs survivinglrolL thc Pala-Scta period are rnedc of stonc ormctal, it is l ikely that woocl l 'as the nlostpopular sculptLrral nedium of thc day. Notonly rvcre various types of srl itablc hardrvoodsrcacli l l ' ayli lxl]6;.t t l ie region, espcciallv tscngal,but rvoocl rves especiallv appropriatc for thcintricate dctail of thc P:r1e-Scna srylcs.

Among thc fcrv renraining rvood pieces lroruPela-Sena tines is a rcprcscrltxtiorl of e scatcd

UNDTR'fHE PATA AND SENA XINGS 405

r8.23. Ha,v lqnvr. Frorrr Kurki l rar , Bihar, L ld ia. I , r laper iocl . Cr. c lcventh ccnturr ' . Gj ldcd nrcta l . H: ro crn.Patrlir Muscrrnr, Pilolr.

boclhisattva from Vikramapura in J3anglaclesh(Fig. rl l .za). The conrplexity of its lotus bascand thc thrcc-climensioual dctail of the pcralssuggcst a clare in the late Pala pedocl, pcrhapst h . . l c v . r r t h , c n r r ) . I n L o n r r . , r t o \ l n r ) c i r n -ages, rvhich arc invariably crcrted out of asingle piece of stone, rvoocicn sclrlptlires rvcrcapparcntly jointel '"vhcn neccssary. T[e lcgs ofthis firure, for cxernplc, rverc cleerly addcd onto tjlc ilain piccc of woocl by me ans of morticeand tcnon joints. The iarge size of thc imageend thc fact rhet it wxs jointcd suqgcsts thatartists wcrc not liDitcd to using lvoocl forminor in-i lges. Such cervings are a bold rcmindcrof tl-re fact thet as rvc trxcc South Asie's arristichcritase tlrrouqh surviving u'orks, primarilythosc madc of cncluring lnaterials, we arc prob-ably vicrving only a srr.rail fiecrion of thc totaloutput of Inclic arrists, u'hosc principal meclianust havc been rvood. tcrra cotta, and othcrfragile matcrials. Thc popularity of rvood rvasnot a phenomenon limited to Bihrr and Bengal,

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i

Page 6: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

406 trtir.,t NoRTHERN scEooLS

-'::.- r*'. Vikralapura, Bangladesh'l 6 . 2 4 D o t " r ' ' " " ' " ' - .

\ i / ^ ^ n H r 2 0 c u r .1 6 . 2 4 e u [ t " _ " - . " , d . H : r z o c u r .P5la per iod Ca elcventh century wuu

Dacca Museulrl, l-,xcca'

rcprescntative o[ the vast - nu-l)]bcrs of such

.T..,t' ' ".i*i""r't produced' for' rside from

:jL,it:i:*":-,''.i; ilii,1Ji'[i1',.1dil:j:Jl;J. i$;;;'f;;at'ervcd r',rePo'itories-ror

:ln,' lff i:o,, -','l;',,H:'" J ".1il1", :::;'"';+* ";::;:':'i ;,1;jni';l;i',,"""",,,-ili r5'"..i't'"* -ttl"';pt' was rpprrenrly

['*",'"'"': l"Y*":t: :: i5'.:: "]i il'l,,lli;l l- '""t."t"." after the introdLrction of paper

[jli,:'*,:** " i*J,[1:i';;Jl*,"i'1""rtri"*l"i

i t. '"'tion c'I rcxts separatc leave''

li:: " :::' x':::";ili"fi';";"il #::::' llir"litrt. *.t"'"tt ' 't l ly ried togcther with string

I"i-.* it"t"t"a by *oodti',t"uttt rhat were

:i*: l i:i*::n;l:: l:t*l'm:, lli:tln ll;*1";ru';5 :lli; ;:;;#*H: l::,,n:jtf *5";xlnl;,i:::";l;;l,.{ x':ii;*: l;;;"llll;'ll ll#',1[:

"

t.t. "'

t. ' "i

-a mcr.l dtrring thi' period . rnd

..-" ,"f.,i"",f ip may exist betwecn the subject

for it is likely that wood was thc preferred

-"aiu- ,tttooghout the centuries in rnost parts

trT::1'"i:t", must have been ^ verv.popular

:: *'n*:m;i".lli;?ru;':l; l;;;"1;i';-;. '. apparcntly commonly cxecuted

in ,h"" *,llt of *"ny religiorr\ structures'

*:rihi tr; l*:;: Tl,lr 1::""T':1;t:j,;;] "ll

't" '"..-' i in' of the Palr-Sena

o"]n,lng ,.",lition are r numbcr of fragttrenr..

iit"it '? f..it ' '""scripts The'c' too arc hardly

'"1i'i,:;:; ,."'* on a single page of an Astasa-

'mru*lrl ;';, ::T :ilxil1 l:i::;!: j;:llr:, j'l I ;u* I jl:",:.:* Tf H:,.:'T:*: rlil; :l*.^5::: t:.':fl "t:'"' ;:":T: TI Hil*ii.l:i l ;:;l : ::,1"';,1'. ifi fiT:,',il*1,H-i;:il1i:l ::"lll; l};.'l::illl lm; :'l ll ill,::li;' :11ffi lliTJ'l:'nffi iiltt*':+;i;;*t:,{:*artist has linited his painting to

"1"ru';*llrl'* ;l" Ji'J-l'::l.'iiff :".:,

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rd.G

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-d:fr

:.rl

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lli

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Page 7: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

of suchiic- frorngfarentlyeranple,:orics for: I l r i n o

-rr cvenls

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i : . : t1 sub-

: C:lstenl

::::.] and

:: -, or the

: i - r -a \ 'CS,

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1n

the palette.is confined primarily to unmixedmrnerrt

, colors

.including rcd, yelJow. blue,green. black, and uhjre. presrrm:rbly. Om nanipadue hu*, tlrc Buddhist mafltuar is associatcdwr th t l lesc , s ix co lo rs r3 and apporent ly co lo rpray\ a symbollc role, as suggcsreJ by rhe v.rriorrscolors used to represent the skin tones. Most

UNDIR THE PAIA AND SENA ITINGS 4'7figures are shown with their faccs rn a threc_quarter vrew. except repre5cnrJtions of .c.rtedBuddhos. wlLich mry bc rhown full [acc. Arr

:lf lr.* "i , ih. cycs. depictcd by r ery ffowirrg,

ex.rggerAted lrncs. i: a prelude to thc ex.rggerrtedeye treatment to bc found in later schools ofIndic painting.

H r N p u A n r

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- : . : : . 1 .

I

Althougb the firsr two hundrerl or so years ofPala-period art were dominar"a fy dJaiir,productions, Hindu ren-nins also extsr rn somequattiries from. that phase and clcarly doninatern f i rc las r rwo hundrcd ycars o f the pa la per io , l .^s rn thc c,.\e ol Buddhist arclrirecrurc from rlrisregion, little rcmains to reveal thc fi il ,"";. ;iH i r rdu arc l r i tec r r r ra l lo rms in use ovcr th is fourJrundrcd year spaD. {or ir is m.rinly rhc sculptrrre.thJ t hdve cndr r red . Sonrc oF rhe ru rv iv ing t r r i ld_,Lg,l. ,I,o,'gf darrr.,gcd. \rggesr rlrrr ,n. "l""lJiarcnr tcc (ura l s ry ie r in p r r r i c r r la r shared nrLuleatures with other northen schools, especialij,that of Odssa. Most of the ,urrriviog i.nrpl.'sfrour Fengal date from later than the

"pala_S'cna

per iod . espec ia l l y f ro rn r j re . i x reenth . .n ,u r l . ,nJ

:iI i ,:.u \rnrcrurcs, displJy , ricl: v.rrieiy o[

to rms. l l tough. ! lnce r l rc l . r re g rc r r l y in l lL rcnccdby tstdnric modcl". rlrcl fall oursidc rhc scope of

:T f * t : l l vo iumc. r r ' l hus . lo r : rn r r r rdcnr ,nd ing

o.r ,t l. ,u'nd,'

lrri.t ic dcvcloprnenr. fronr rhie rgnUl lh ro l tg l r t l re tue l f i l r cenr r r r i c . in r l re c rs r ,the grc . r te r f Jncnt io t ) n )u \ r bc phccd on r l rc s t r r_vtvtng sculpture\.

- ? l l .g tJ re -prc -Pa l ; rnd enrJy pr l . r per iod . .

- 'u.rdlh sl a.nd Hindu sculptrrrcs vrcrc appllqnlly

produced rn ,cp . r r r rc workshops rnd , r_h ib i re , lm l l le r d rvergent s ry l i5 r i c chr rdc tc r i , r rcs . \ \ l r i l ccllstrnctlons between Buddhist and Hindu artsrl les,rrc-nor apparenr in nrov othcr regionai.choo ls .o f South A" ian ar r . i r r B i l rd r rnd B"enga la spccial case secms to have been fostcred becalseof,thc Buddhist strength within Magarlha. Inorder to stre[gtlEn- Hinduism in thc rcgion,[rah lnn,s w-crc .pccifically brought ro rlrc"cr.t,esPccr r l l y Benga l . lo r sc l t l cn lc t r t rnd , rs L r r asmay be inferred fiom_ remaining inscriptionalevldence, a north_central Indian artistic idiom tvas ,

rhus irrrodrrced into thc rcgion.r, In contrastro rhc r . , r l rc r e lcgrnr B t rd , l lL i . r s ry le o f the se_venrn i rnd c rg l r rh rcnr r r r ies ( i - ig . rS .4) . H indulmagcs tend ro shoy\ rrrher shorr. ,,tocky fig_urcs. rlhough_somc cxceprions

",. kno*n'. ruih

ds rhe rmage o f V i5nu J : rom Aps id l r ( f ig . r r . ro ) .^ represcntuuon o f Sury ; l rom Lrk lusar . r i ,

, ,1 -o , ,n r t , ( f

ig . r8 . :5 ) . lo r e rample . nny bcdated ro l l r c / r re c ig l r rh , "n r , , ry on Lhc br r i s o fcompar rson w i r l r d : r rcd uurks . Howcver , rhcrather slrorr proportioDs of rhe fig,,r" ,.cn, tooenvc t ron l nor t l )_ccn t r j t l l nd ia r r exantp les o f r l r c

lylta ,na post-Gupta pcriotls, not the elcgant

io rnrs , .ecq c r conrempomry Buddh is r s i t cs . "A j_

:Do l rg t l . t t 15 t ruc r l la r n lany o f t l r c H indu imaqes

trom .lJrher

ard Bcrrgai of thc e.rrly prla periodare ot tcsscr artistic merit than thcir Bui<ihist

:ou l l : rpar r \ . r 'nCor rbre< i l y par r l y becau.c r l rc

Duddlrst ccnrcrs wcrc better establirhed andmorc lavishly patronized, difference in quality byno mcans accounts for t]re distinction. A, ."n b.secn in this examplc, thc carving is crisp and ex_prcssrvc anc l in no u : ry amrrc r r r j .h . T i re debr ronor t l l - ccnr rJ l lnd i rn r ty l r . r i t n lodc \ In j l ) i to rnave becn duc to e n (w in f i , s io r r f ionr t l r . r r rc_glon at this dmc. Rather, it miglt rcllcct all evo_l l r l lo l o , an i r r i . t i c t r rd i t ion b . , ,cd . ,n c . r r l i c r H i r r_d t t n rode l r in B ih : r r rnd Benga l . . r . rs .L rgg . r rcdby compar ing th i " Sur l o i in rgc ro one rn rde in

: : * l l y sc \cnr l r ccnrury f rom Mundc ivar j in

t !har (F ig . r r .8 ) . Bo th f igures s l row " r r i k inq ly5rnr l . r r body propor t ions . . l ca t r r r ( rh r r a . ,nno,1"

rscnbcd,ro Hrndu iconograpiric prccepts .rJonc.I rc eJ l l c r uork . . l rowcvcr . . t i l l bc r ra ls r r t r rch

o l l l t c

\o l r rnode l ing o f Cr rpr : r and pos t_Cr rp taPCflOd Carvngs.

. Similarly fuil but squat body forms arc seen

ln a rcprcscntation of Uma_Maheivara from

Page 8: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

408 LA'IEI NORTHTRN SCHOOTS

r8.2-j . Sriry]- From Lakhisarr i , Bjhrr, India. pala pc-rrcd. Ctr. l .r tc cighth ccutur,v. Black stone. l t : 6r cnr.Prnlr MLrsculll, Prrrrll.

Bil.Llr, pcrhaps Rrjgir, also probably dxtinsfrom thc late eighdr century (Fig. 18.26). Thecletailing is rcmarkably precisc, as is eviclent inthe treltnrcnt of thc f,rcial fcatures. coilTures,and othcr clenents. Yet the figurcs clo notrescnrble thosc depictecl in rrosr Buddlistimages frorn this rcgiou antl period in thcir bodyproportions but instcad rchte to rvh:rt appearsto bc a Hindu tradition basecl on norrh-centralIndieu moclcs. Au inporrant clement of this sculp-trrc is the rorv of bcacls arouncl tl-rc rirn of tirestclc, for tlis {iature occurs rvirlcly in Bihar andBengal s'orks of the cighdr and ninrh centuries.The subjcct of Una-Mrheivara r,vas espcciailvpopLr l . r r + r .cv . r , . l . i te . i r r B i l r . , r , l r r r inq r l r ,. " i I 1 t ' . 1 . r p e r i . , d . l l r r . . c r r l p r L r r c i . , l i , r r r ' c r i u c i nthe trcrtment ofthe basc rvith its stylizccl craggynountain clcsign ancl thc :rnirDatiolr of rhc tt,oaniural rrrd,,d.r ofthe trvo cleit ies, Sivr's bLrli andLIm-'s l ion.

IJy ebout the ninth centurv. stylistic distinc-

r8.26. Urn.-Mahc(vrra. Posibiy frorn Rajgir, Bih:r,hdir. tt la pcriod. Cr. htc eishrh .enturv. Btackstore. II: 52.6 crl. Asutosh Museum, Cajcutra Univer_srrv,

tions bct$-ccn Buddhist and Flindu art scen.r rohave clisappeared. This frned style rs secn rn arcDrc . (n r . r t io r o f C . rnc . , r . ro rn Nr r ry i rnpur . rnBengladcsh, clatccl in thc lourth year of thc rcignof Mahipala (l) rvho mled in the latc reuth andcarly eievcnth ccnturies (Fig. r8.27).16 The detail-ing of the lotus pcclcstal, the foliatc motiG, thegerland. and the flan.rc edsc of the stcle arevirtuallv ideirtical to thcse elenlents in a numbcrof both BLrclclhist antl Hindu works lound inBihar ancl l3engal prcsLrmably of rhe saruc date.

Visnu is by far the most coumon subjcct inthc Hindu art of Bihar and Bcnqal durirg thelatc'r Pala,rnd Scna periods when Buddhisn haclbcen largcly supersccled rn rhc region. Vcry oftcn,the spccific for-m shorvn is Trivikrana, one ofthc tlventy-foLrr icons of Visnu (rvhich shouldl1ot bc conflised rvith Visnu's cl*'arf iucarnation,Trivikranra). Orrc exaruplc of Visnu TrivikramaN:rs forlrlcl ar Balurghr, Wcst Bengal (Fig.r8.:8). Trivikr:rnr:r is idcntif ied by drc po-

Page 9: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

: . . Black

13-27 urr.rcia. frorn Narayaqpur. Brrrgladcstr. pala pc_rrod. four(h ) eJr nIr cign of MahrpalJ { l ) . Ca. hre rcnrh(cn tu ry . t l eck ( t o c . H : r JJ c , . I ) r cca Muscu r r r ,Dacca,

sition of the four attributes held in his hands:the gala appean in r lre upper r ighr lrand: rhcp.a.tnta, ! t1 rhe lowcr r ighr: rhe rnlra is hcld inthe upper left hand; and the ja;frla (now largelydamaged), in the lower left. The emphasis" oirthc Trivikrama icon in relation to BengaiiVa i5qav ism has yer to bc exp io r .d , b l r un_

1"rb,,:dJf has srgnificance. In rJLis sculpture.

rne hlgtrly omarc rrearmenr of rhe jewelry.co5tume. rnd sLrbsidiary elcmcnrs of th. br.[_slab typical of rwrlhh-cenrury works is presenr.rndicating it" probablc darc of manufcture. Asin orher lare Pala- or Sena-period sculprures. rhecentrJl l lgure is virtually rcmoved fronr thebacl-.lab and srJnds almost as a separare figureplaced in front of it.

Along with the many rcpresentations of Visnu

UNDXR THE PAIA AND SENA KINGS 4d9

r8.28. Visnu Trivikrarra. Fronr Balurghit, WesrBcngal-India. Pala pcriod. Ca. irvclfth ccitury. Blackstone. H: r33.u crn. Indi:n Museum, Calcutta.

and SDrya, and some ofothcr Hindu gods, manyh igh ly ,unusua l works wcre p .odr i "d . lu , in ithe Pala

_arrd 5ena periods. One sr.], e*"--

!l: T"y b9 uniquc within the entire span ofHindu art for it shows a figure of a fo,.rrl"rmedgoddess

.apparently either arising out of a liigaor . rand ing beh ind i r ( f ig . i s . :9 ) . For rnd ' r rKaga j ipada.

.V ik rdnr rpura . i r i . , p robab ly aproduct of the twclfth ccntury, judging fiomthe ornateness and dctails of the'carving. Thefigure holds r rosrry in her uppcr righr h"and. abook rn her rrppcr lc[c. and rhe remrining ruohands are olaced in a variation of dhyana iwdra.Although the name ofthis goddess is still subjectto qucs t ion . rT shc is p robab ly a lo rnr o f p . rva t r ,and r l rc ovcra l l l l l cmc must cer r r in ly bc t l reunity of the litga with the fernale principle.

: L Di\ cr-

ieeDI toi'en in a

::rc reign:nrh and:: detail-r:rfs. the;:: le areramber::nd i[

: : date.:l 'r 'ct in::f tne:.::: had- -;^-

. t:1e of: r:_-OUld- . ' - " tLon,

-,: . :ama

: (Fig.

Page 10: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

410 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r8.29. Hirdu goddess. Frorl Vikramapura, Baugladesh.Pala perjod. Ca. trvclfth ccntury. Black stone. H: r4icm. Dacca Museurn, Dacca.

r8.3o. Ardhanari6vara. From Purapam, Bangiadesh. Prlaperiod. Ca. lare eleventh carly twelfrh ce[tury.Black stone. H: 106.8 cm. Varendra Research Museum,Rajshahi.

In this rcspect, it is similar to a depiction ofArdhanariivara, found in the vicinity of Daccaat Purapara and of approximately the late ele-venth or early twelfth century (Fig. r8.3o).There is, perhaps, no more graphic descriptionin all of South Asian art of the androgynousSiva combined with Parvati, as seen no; o yin the presence of the female breast and malephallus, but also in the two halves of the head-dress, Siva's divided third eye, and the distinctivetreatment of the two halves of the lower gar-nent.

r8 .3 r . S iBangladrstone. H

The IodginarNatara1his bullthe eleri l lustrara n d a sarmed]ooks uconsortat tlrc cher nal

Page 11: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

l

:8.3I: liv.a Natareja. Frorn palgiri, Conrilla districr,

Bangladesh. Pala period. Ca. elevenrh century. Blackstone. H: Ijo,8 cnr. Dacca Museum, Dacca.

UNDIR THT PALA AND SINA KINGS 41]

rti.32. Bal3rarna. From Kurkihar, Bihar, India. palapcriod, uinth ycar of rcign of Dcvaprla. Ca. secondq u : r r t ( r , ) r i r t r . t n r u r y . M e r " l . H : 3 0 . : . r , . . p a r u , rMuscum. Prnra.

: ln o fD,rcca

- - - - l -

:-- : : ton

:-. :10us: onlv: : t l 1 e

- - - - J

::a:i!e

The Pela-Sena art schools ofBcngal apparentlyoriginated a uniqueformat for images oi Siva asNahreja in which Siva dances atop the back ofhis bull vahana, Nandi. One example of aboutthc elcvenrlr century fronr palgiri. in Banglrdesh.rrrustrares the rype (fig. r 8.3 r). Witlr l ihga etecrand a subline expression on his face, iire ten_armed god perfonns his dance while Nandilooks up at his lord. Siva is accompanied by hisconsorts, Parvati, who stands on her Iion uahanaat dlc right of the.composition, and Gariga, atopher makara at the left. Although not as elaborate

or as.formal as nrany image. frorn rhj. date,therc ls ltrt lc qucrrion rhrt it belongs ro (he l.rrcPala.period becausc of rhe fugh herddres. vornby sLva. rhe poinred .relc rop. and rhe rccen_tuated postures of the attendant goddesses.

, Meidl imrges were prodtrccd in tf,e service o[

rhc Hrndu rcligion. r:, rhey had becn for theBuddhi'rs in Bihar and Bengal. alrhougJr a lesscomptete plcture cmerges for them becausenrany Hindu irrr;ges have bccn foLrnd o. eirhcrtsota(ed pleces or in muclr smaller hoard.. Animage of Balarama, who is often considered to

Page 12: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

4t2 LA' IER NOITHERN 5CHOOLS

r$'r,'.r'..r&..'t,'.

be thebroth,ycar (I i . . ^

ccntLl

and,

r '___skil l carnlc(but hhood

Al tBiharmetalBecl

ThcVislr-thxt tdccliri s i t nenthrgrcrr

r3.J3. Visnu Trivikrrnra. Froru \r ikr.rnu!um, B,rnghdesh. Palapcri ,rcl- Cr. t \ \el l ih cclnrr,r ' . Si l lcr. Hrcx.: j cnr. Indian Museurt,CrlcLrttr .

Page 13: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

be the seventh incarnation of Visnu and the elderbrorher of Krsna. is datcd by inscriprion to theycar 9 ot rlrc reign o[Dcvapala. rhc tlr ird palaking, who ruled in the firsi half of the ninthcentury (Fig. 18.32). It was found at Kurkihar,and, ]ike the morc nunerous Buddhist metaipie_ces fron that site, reveals a high degrce ofskill on the part of its naker. Balarama is four_armed and holds attributes associated with Vis1lu,but he.is rccognizcd by the characreristic nagahood that appears behind his head.

Although most of the netal imagcs found inBihar and. Bengal are bronze. works in preciousrnetals such as_gold and silver were also produced.Because of their intrinsic value, these imagcs

UNDIR THE PATA AND SENA XINGS 4'ljiare_les likely to survive the centuries, since afinder might convert the mehl conrena to amedium of exchange rather than preserve the

1".r.rj 1T"g". Hoyevel a splendid silvcr sculp_

ture o1 Visqu, as Trivikrama attended by hisconsorts laksmi and Sarasvati, managerl tosurvive and was found ar Vikramapur; (Fig.r,8.33).,The zuperb cr.rftsrnanship -"y indi."i.tnat only rjrc bcsl anisrs were used when precioLlsmaterials were involved, which -ould b"expected, since the patron who could affordsilver could also afford the best artists. Thermage probably dates from the twelfth century,as indicated- by the ornate costuming and thetreatment of the ila me rim of the prabiaman/ala.

Coxcrusror , , r

The very existcnce of images like the silverVislu conrradicrs rhe oftcn iepeated staremen[thaL by rhe rwclfrh century, rhe;e was an arhsttcdcclinc in rhe P6le-Sena kingdoms, for nowherels rr nlore clear that both patrons and artisrs werecnrhrrsiasrically producing religious images ofgreat beauty a[ that t ime. The sudden cessationof patronage and the effect on the artistic tradi_

tiol undoubtedly arose due to a number ofpolit ical and social factors. including bur noti lrru,red to the_ rncrea5ing Muslim control. lt iscvldenr rhrt rhe tradition was halred at a highpoint. and it.can only be speculared as to wh"atrurtner devrlopmcnrs might have occurred ifrt had not been interrupted.

Page 14: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

(t)LU

tl *

f t \ : - ;= 1

a) Ll_l coZ LJ.{n<( t-LJ F ;

lA f -

iA< < s: - : | . l

LL lll cc d^ l - r - O

: .: ' Po 6 o

..,4:

W;i:

;

o ?

E ;

a az,.

=E

;

I

- 9\-:ZA.j: 9 b 9 : -3++.+.o -o

aol

/.- l)'

4 . 1- v \ ":

E

t:!6

; o

Thec11Sa1

ano

dist i

i np

ba r r

tn

tent

so-c

celtr

aboL

tuc

civi l

Ald:5ripbon

Page 15: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

9a

.2

o

.E

flthough properly speaking, the ancient city ofSripura (modern Sirpur) does not lie within theboundaries of modern Orissa state, thc relation_

C H A P T E R N I N E T E E N

Orissa and Related Regions

The art and architecture of Orissa forms adistinct unit, having a continuous developmentand numerous well-preserved examples ai wellas canons, texts, and a specific terminology thatdistinguish this tradition from thosc oi otherregions ofSouth Asia. This eastern Indian region,important since Maurya times and A(6ka,sbattle of Kalinga, especially gaincd prominencern rhe posr-Guptr pcriods when inrporranrtemple compiexes of the northern styl", theso-called_,nagara

. type. dcvclopcd ar ieligiou.

centc rs . I t )e i t l rdy o t t i r c reg ion over a per iod o frbo t seven hundred yeJrs provides a Inlcroco\_nric. view of a single area of the complcx Indiccivilization. Although the Orissan dev.lop-ent,are distinctive and form a unit by themselves,

S n i r u n a ( S r n l u n ) A N D R a J r M : M A D H y A p n , r . p r s n

tics with other regional dcvelopment,, are alsostrong, especially at the outset when Orissa'srelations to the stylcs of the Early WesternCalukyas and

_ro rhe rrr of Srrpura (Sirpur) rnd

parts ot Andhra Prade:h are mosr evidenr.Although the posr-Gupta stylcs of Orissa arctrequently said to havc arisen suddenly sincexlmost no art remains are known between thetime of Kharavela and thc later dcvelopnents,the.later art may have had its roots in an eplrem_eral art tradition. Also, the art ofncighboring orother inlluential regions may hold ilues to"theorigin of this idiom and should bc examinedin order to more fully undcrstand thc Orissandevelopments.

ship of its history and art to rhar of Orissa isclear. Sirpur, in the Chllattisgarh region (ancientDaksina Kosala)r of Madhya pradei-h, lies aiong

4 1 5

Page 16: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

4I6 LATER NORTI.ITRN SCHOOIS

thc banks of the Mahanadi River, which linkedit to somc of the main art centers of Orissa,including Bhubane6vara. The importancc ofSirpur from the sixth through the tenth ccnturiesis secn in thc archa6ological remains, largelyunexcavated, that extend for sevcrai kilomctcrsaround the modern villagc. During thc first halfof the sixth century, its rulers includcd thc kingsof Sarabhapura, but no remains in Sirpur orthe ancient Daksina Kosala region in generalcan definitely be associatcd with that dynasticpatronage. Frorn the second half of the sixthcentury llntil the mid-seventh century, thePanduvarhiis (also called the Somavarh$is) ofDaksiga Kosala had thcir capital at Srrpura. Then.rajority of ren.rains at Sirpur, which consist

r9.r. Lakgma4a ternple fronr south. Sirpur, Madhya Pradesh, India.P54duvari61 period. Ca. larc sixdr-carl]' seventh century. Brick.

: t _ i :

.::-:: :-:.'-:-; :i ' . : : a : _ i

tn : ! r _

: :

i : - . - :-.eci c---: -is c'r:::dif,c:.-:-:on e;;l--bear : . : - .thc b:rrthe r.::llarge s:cp a n e l s ,notit ,reclininsThe fiqnithuna

of both Buddhist and Hindu naterials, belong(o thc pcr iod o f Pdnduvarh i r ru lc

The most rvell-preserved ten.rple at the site isthe east-facing Lakpmana temple (Fig. r9.r)built in the latc sixth or early seventh century byVesala, the mother of Mahesivagupta Balarjuna(ca. 595-65o), the rnost important and lastpanduvaril6i king.2 Dcdicated to Vi;4u, thisbrick temple stands on a large stone plat{brmaccessible by steps at both thc north and southends ofthe eastern side. Stonc is also used in thedoorfiame, and the pillars and pilasters of thena4/apa. Thc tcnple consists of a shrine and thema4lapa that lies before it. This pillared hall,3.now ahnost conpletely in ruins, cxtendedaxially to the shrine, and its roof, now lost, was

Page 17: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

r9.2. South lvall, Laksmana tcnple, dcrail ofbrickwork.Sirpur, Madhya Pradcsh, Indi:r. Panduvafi6i pcdod.Ca. late sixrh cariy scvetlth century.

O . R I S S A A N D N E L A T T D R T G I O N S 4 I 7

r9.3. Doorway ro shrinc, Laksmana tenplc. Sirpur,Madhya Pradesh, India. Pardr:varh(i period. Ca. latesixth-carly severlth ccntury.

: : : i r c s i te i s- :1 . r9 . r )

-- --:'ntuly by:: ])ara!una:.: :nd last-. ' i :nu.

this- : : l : r t {b rn1

: :rd south::;d in the

. , : : i s o f thc

.-:.' and the: :rcd ha1l,3r. c'\tended' ' . Ios t , was

tI

1:

originally uphcld by stone pill:rrs errangcd inrows.

Of special intercst is thc shape irrd forn ofthelilehara, fot its curvilincar sbape, almosr cylin-drical in form, has a rathcr low, somelvhatheavy appearancc sin.rilar to examplcs of thctypical early Orissan style. The clcar divisiouinto horizontal stories (6lr.rrrls) found in Orissais also present, as is the division into vcrticalscctions. The exterior of the likhara and shrineis cxtensively dccorated with candralalas anddiFerent typcs of nouldings. Thrce niches, oneon each of the sides and thc rear of the shrinc,bear false windorv motift, skillfully executed inthe brick medium (Fig. r9.z). The sanctun ofthe templc, now ernpty, is cntcrcd through alarge stone doorway (Fig. r9.3) dccoratcd withpanels of nitluxas, t1k;adetatas, and foliaternotifs and bearing a representation of Visnureclining on S"r^ iror, ,i. ."o,", of thc lintel.The figures, as seen in a representation of anithuxa (Frg. r9.4), are rather full-lleshed, grace-

templc. Sirpur, Madhya Pradesh, India. Penduvarhlrperiod. Ca. late sixtlt carly scventh ccntruy.

Page 18: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

LATBR NORTHERN SCHOOLS

.i

1 5

ful, and relaxed in their poses. Of particularnote stylistically is the trearmenr of the haloswith their detailed centers and pearl rims.

Important Buddhist remains have also beenfound at Sirpur, including monasuc structuresand metal and stone sculptures. One of themonasteries has been dubbed the " suastika"monastery in modern times becausc thc arrange-ment of its cells and courtyard suggest the formof a. suastilea (Fig. i9.j). If, indeed, this was theintenrion ofits creators, such usagc is rcminiscentofthe practice in Andhra Pradesh,where a srrasr*,ror cahta form was sometimes imbeddcd in the.rttpa structure. A large stone image of a seatedBuddha in bhumispa a nuha (Fig. 19.6) was thcmain object of devotion. An important featurcof this sculpture, and others discovered at thesite, is the fact that it is made of several larserectangular picccs of stone in conrrast wirh thcmore common monolithic form of large in.rages

r9.5. Plan of "raastl*a" monastery. Sirpur, Madhya Pradesh, India.Ca. seventh century.

in other regions of ancient India. This char-acteristic is also to be noted in Orissa, especiallyduring the Bhauma period, in both Buddhistand Hindu contexts and probably re{lects aregional stylistic and technical preGrence. Thefigure of the Buddha derives fronl Gupta typesalthough a greatcr abstraction has occurred andthc torso and limbs appcar to be almost hollowtubcs rather than softly modeled fesh and bone.

The Buddhist remains at Sirpur are usually at-tributed primarily to thc reign of Maha(ivaguptaBalarjuna. However, while the munificence ofthis Saivite king toward Buddhism is clearfiom inscriptional evidence, he must have beenonly one ofthe inportant patrons ofthe religionin rhe region, as suggesred by an impres.ivegroup of metal images lound at the site that prob-ably date from the late seventh or cighth centuryand later.a Many ofthe pieces show a remarkableafiiliation with the style prevalent at Nalanda

19.6. B.:Prade:ir.

ourlng

fact thaMahaiirMaukhato the rvehicle {

On th,o t ie r5 (This im:Asian mperfecticby an arSirpur, shand.5 IrAsian arname,

r ara s'blossomthrone. I

Page 19: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

I-:rs char-L:-:Pecially:5 r - toon ls t

::dects aa:--rCe . lne

i:::a types:;-::le d andr -:: \ollowr :: i bone.: iji:ally at-

1: :: r'ag up tar :a;ence ofc. :-. clear: :-:te been:,:::eligion:::::ressive

- - - . , " . "h -

::: ;entury:.-:arkable: : \a lanoa

19.6. Buddha at "svastika" monastcry. Sirpur, MadhyaPradesh, India. Ca. seventh century. Stone.

during the seventh through ninth centuries(Fig. t8.t6). This visual tie is reinforced by thefact that Vasate, queen dowager and mother ofMahaiivagupta Balarjuna, was a daughter of aMaukhari ruler of Magadha who flourished priorto the dse of thc Palas, suggesting a possiblevehicle for thc transmission oF sryle.

On the basis ofstyle, a very complicated imageofTara (Pl. 3o) is assignable to the cighth century.This image ranks among thc fincst of all SouthAsian metal pieces because of its intricacy andperfection ofdetail. Its similarity to signed worksby an artist named Kumeradeva, presumably ofSirpur, suggest thar it may be attributed to hishand.5 It is thus a very rare example of SouthAsian art that can be associated with an artist'sname.

Tdr- sits on the calyx of a fully opcned lotusblossom that itself rests upon a lion-supportedthrone. The central configuration is raised on a

ORISSA AND RITATED RTGIONS 419

dais before which there is an offering platform.The back of the lion throne is elaborately or-namented with conventionalized jewels, andits cross-bars support inages of Amitabha,Vajrapani/Mahasthamapr.pta, and Avalokitei-vara. The sides of the thronc back arc cnrichedby the prescnce of uyalakas-'fera is attended bytwo female companions who are refections ofother aspects of hcrsclf; one, who is also calledTara, appears on hcr proper right while theother, Bhfkriti, stands to her left. The centralfignre exhibi* abhaya mudra with her left handand holds a fruit in the palm ofher right hand,which is in the uaruila gesture, thus bestowingthe gift on thc bcholder. The sccondary figureof Tara displays uarcda mudra in her right handand holds tbe stem of a fully opened lotus in herIeft. Bhrkuti offers the devotccs a gem in hertwo lowered hands, wbich form a dor:blevarada nuha. Thc position of the central Tera,bctwcen Tere and Bh1kr1i, makcs her equal inimportancc to Khasarpana Loke6vara. Althoughshe is the female reflection of AvalokiteSvara inall his forms, herc, shc directly supplants him.Further, seated on the lion throne with her twoattendants, she is identical to thc Buddha and ismaniftstly prajfia, the knowlcdge inherent inBuddhahood. The .rttcndants carry meanirgrparallcl to thosc of thc bodhisattvas, for Tara iskaruqa (compassion) and Bh;kuti is prajia. Inthis icon, femalc synbolism reacbes one of itsfullest expressions.

Onc of the nlost interesting aspects of thisimagc is its completencss as a shrinc. Thc dcvo-tional group in front ofthe main image consistsof two ra{.?.r standing on lotuscs and a dcvotcc.Thc nagos hold bowls containing offcrings ofswccts, and the devotec kneels and holds his handsit afrjali nwdfi, thc gcsturc of devotion. Speci-fically, he may refer to thc donor of the image,but conceptually, his prescnce in the scene in-sures pcrpctual adoration of the image. Theoffcring platforrn in front of the lion tluoneholds a conch shell on the lcft, a covered dishcontaining swccts in the center, and an incensebumer on thc right. In Buddhist rituals, theconch is uscd to hold watcr for ablutions andritual clcansing. The swccts containcd in thecentral dish would be madc from thc five

Page 20: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

420 LATEI\ NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r9.7. Visru, at Rdjrva-locana tenlple. Rajin, MadhyaPradesh, India. Probably Nala period. Ca. early eighthccntury. Stone.

suitable offerings: gr^in, ghee (clarified butter),sugar, honey, and rnilk or milk curds. Burninglncense ls a common practice in Buddhist andHindu rituals alike and is also considered anappropriate offering.

This complicated ir.nage provides an outstand-ing example of the quality that was achievedduring the later Mahayana phascs of Buddhistart in ancicnt India. It is possiblc that this figurewas not the culmination of the dcvelopmentsofBuddhist art in Madhya Pradesh, but perhapsonly illustrates a starting point. If Buddhismcontinued to be practiced in this rcgion rintilabout the twelfth century, as it did in north-eastem Irdia, it is likely that examples of thclast phases of Indic Buddhism could bc foundin the unexcavated site of Sirpur or elscwhere.

At nearby Rajim, evidcnce ofextensivc tenplebuilding and sculptural traditions related to

r9.8. TrivikrarDa, at Rajiva-locana temple. Rejim,Madhya Pradesh, India. Probably Nala period. Ca.earll. eighrh ccntffv. Stone.

others of ancient Dakgina Kosala may be found.The group of Vaig4avitc temples at the site,particularly thc R5jrva-locana, is still activelyvcneratcd by large nun.rbers of pilgrims whovisit anmrally. However, rhc temples themselveshave bcen little studied, partly because theyhave experienccd nulDeroLts renovations andrcconstrrlctions throughout thcir history, thusmakins it difficult to know thcir original formsor rhe form" ar any givcn sraec. In spitc of rhis.rlrc .rbundanr ..,r ip,"urrl reJain. f iom Rajimtestify to a high quality of rvorkmanship and agreat pcriod of forescencc during the cariyeighth century. Following the demise of thePa[duvarhiis, control of thc region was assumedby a little known fan.ily called the Nalas rvhoscsolc inscriptional rccord in Daksina Kosala is anundated stone inscription found in the porchof the Rajiva-locana templc, which moy, ihe.e-

, :Il

:l {-.lI

:: . ::-ft

: : : ,_ '3

Page 21: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

fore..be.ascribed ro rhe Nala period, aroundthe elghth century.

Thc Rajiva-locana remple has yielded anumber of important sculptures. Images in thefour. subsidiary shrines that were pirt of itspossible original pafrcayatufla pl^r\ include repre-sentations of Vamana, Nrsirhha, Vi;r.ru (Fig.r9.7), and Trivikrama. Also, inserted in the com_pound wall of the same temple, is a second,partially restored figure of Trivikrama (Fig. r9.8)that is unusual because ofthe bent left leg. Theimages ar-e probably works of the early iighthcentury, for stylistically, they reveal ties to Lothnorth

.Indian and Early Western Calukyaexamplcs from around that datc.

. The Visnu image (Fig. r9.7) is unusual among

the reFrescnlarions oFthis god from Sourh Asilfor.it. shows him in mediiation, with his legsfolded up in padmasana, instead of in his rnoiecommon sranding posc. and with two of hishands pleced in thc dhyana nudra, rai.rcr rhanholding tuo of his artribures. As in other imagcsfrom this site, thc forms of his body seemloswell from within, and the transitions bctweenthe parts ofhis body are curved rather than an_gular. There is a softness and roundness to hisbody thar is reminiscenr of Cupta and post-Gupra arr of nortl)crn rnd north_central India, arelationship furthcr suggestcd by thc trcxtmcntof Visnu's hair in long, luxuriant curls.

, The Trivikrama imagc (Fig. r9.8) has a vitality

that is conveycd iargely through thc animatedposcs of the naga devotcc and Trivikrama him_self. Visual richncss is achicved through the

oRISSA AND RUAT;D REGTONS 421contrast between the smooth bodies and thecrisply carved ornaments and garments. Likeother north Indian sculptures ofthis approxrmatedate, including other; from the site, the soft,feshy appearance of thc bodies suggests theGupta heritage, as does the intricate iarving ofTrivikrama's halo. Characteristic of what maybe the Nala style, the sraooth body offic figurcis virtually unarticulated, and shows no empf,asison transitions between parts or even the sculp-tural delineation of the various surfaces of thebody.

VisUal comparison\ rupporr the suggcsrron^'...thet rhc afl rradroons_ ol Sirpur and Rajim aresomehuw reJated to the more extcnsivc ar(isticschool of adjacent Orissa. However, the his-torical relationships are less clear. Cr,rnninghamsLrggcsred tl) lr Maheiiv.rgupra Balirjuno. t l:eIast king ofthc Panduvarhli dynrsry. was idcnri-cal r.r irh Sivagrrpta. rhc fir,u prince of thcSomavarhir l ine in Ori.".r.o A lrhorrgh rlri. ' as-sertion was subscquently rejected by Fleet andothen on palcographic grounds, sincc an in-consistency rnd gap erisr: pa leogra phica l lybefwcen rhe docrrmenrs o[ these kings. ir ispossiblc that therc is some relationship tetweenthe rwo dyncsrics.r While rhis connccrron lsperhaps still somcwhat vaguc in historicalterurs, its position in art history is more clcar.Therc is littlc question that rhe monumcnts ofSirpur and ncarby Rajim, as well as others inthcir vicinity, had some rclationship with thedcveioping forms of Orissan art and architcctruc.

::::::'lc. Rejnn,: . : : c r i od . Ca .

,--:v bc found.s lr the site,

'r i1l actively::. qrims who., rhcmselvesl:causc they_'. :r ions and:-:\tory, thus

::::inal forras: :cire of this,::om Rajim

::r 'hip and a- - J.. ^".1-,

::rise of the; 15 assumed\alas whose

: Kosala is an

H r u o u A n r A N D A R c H r r E c r u n e o r O n r s s a

The history of Orissa begins to become clear inrhe second quarter of rhe .ixrlr cenrury vihen adyna.ty called rhe Sailodbhavas camc intoprominence. In the early seventh century, Orissais thought to have become a source ofcontentionbetween three grerr rrval kings of northcrnlnd ia . Sasanka o fBengr l . Harsa o fKanau j , andPulakelin II, thc Early tffcstem Caiukya.According to. tradition, iaianka, who wasa devotee of Siva, built thc first Saivite tcm-ple in Orissa, at the site of Tribhuvancjvara

(Bhubaneivara), thus init iating a tradirion oftemple building dedicated to the pe6upata sect.Indecd, a number of temples at Bhubane(varaare Pa(upata. Howcvcr, since almost nothingis known about architccturc undcr Saia;rka, thenature of his influence is not undcrstood. Itcan bc statcd, however, that, in addition torelationships to Sirpur and rclatcd rcmains,definite ties in form and stylc to thc art of theEarly Wcstcrn Calukyas are found in earlyOrissan art anci architecture. (Again, since little

Page 22: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

422 L|\IEIr7 NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r9.9. Paralurane(vara telllple ftonr south. Bhubanc(vaia, Oissa,

lndia. Ca. sevcDth ccnlury.

- g . i 1 o 2 P 3 0

I 1 ? , r l j

19.ro. Plan of Pamiutmeavara tcmple. Bhubane(vara, Orissa'

India. Ca. sevcnth centurY

Page 23: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

I

I

is known of the art of Harsa's time, his influencein Orissa is also an unknown factor.) EarlyWestern Calukya impact on the easternDeccan is verified by the establishment of theEastern Celukya linc. Further, a lcgcnd in thcElanrra (BhubancSvara) Pwalta tells ofa Calukyaking, who is referrcd to as a demon, coninginto Orissa,8 although it is not known if theCalukyas actually gained control or howextensive that control might have ever been.F{owever, evidence for an Early WesternCalukya role in the formulation of Odssan artis preservcd in the monuments then-rselves ascan be seen in a number of ways. The Orissanrelationships to neighboring or associated regionsin no way implies a lack of originality on thepart of the Orissan craftsmen; rather, under-standing these ties serves to better place theOrissan developmenrs uirhin rhe mainstreanrof Indic art.

The Sailodbhavas, who continued to ruleuntil the second half of the eighth century,probably initiated the building tradition thatdominated Orissa for the next seven hundredyears and that is best seen in the monuments atBhubaneivara. The best-preserved temple ofthis early phase, although not the earliest templeat the site, is the Paraiurameivara (Fig. i9.9).The deity of the temple is named in one of theinscriptions as PSreseivara, which is taken to bea variation of the name Par56ara, an acarya ofthe Peiupata sect in whose name the llig4 ofthe temple would have been enshrined. Anumber of representations of Lakuliia on thetemple verify the Pa(upata dedication. Eventhough it is not tied to the Sailodbhavas byinscription, the temple was probably a productof this period. Traditionally, the temple hasbeen dated to the eighth ccntury on the basisof the paleography of its inscriptions as wellas the fornl and style of the structure itself,but recently, it has been suggested that it wasconstructed in the seventh ccntury, possiblyeven the first quarter of that century.e Indeed,stylistically and historically, a seventh-centurydate seems reasonable, although perhaps notthe first quarter, and coincidcs w.ith the probableassociations of the building tradition withrelated and contemporary styles.lo

ORISSA AND RELATED REGTONS 42ji

In Orissan architecturc, specific names aregiven to every part of the temple. While thisalso may be true of other regional styles inIndia, in Orissa, it is especially fortunate thattexts that define and describe these elementshave been known for some tirne. In addition,the tempJe fornrs rs known from exisringnonuments seem to closely follow the textualprccepts. (This is not always the case in otherpar ts o f . rnc ien t Ind ia : in fac t . i t remr ins aconsiderable problem for art historians tocollate textual descriptions wirh actual archi-tectural remains throughout South Asia,)

The Para6urerneivara temple consists of twoparts, a mana and a, matl/apa preceding it. InOrissa', a uimdnars commonly called a /eal, whilea ma4/apa rs called a jaganohan. The tetn dexlcan also bc used ro refer to the temple rs awhole. The shrine of the Para6urame$ara tcmpleand the other Orissan examples to be discussedhere is of the rebha type, which is charactcrizedby the curvilinear shape of the likharc. Often, thejagauohan ofan Orissan temple is in the form ofa pi/ha, that is, a temple that has horizontal plat-forms, or pidhas, fot the roof. The ry'eul andjagatnohan typically consist offour vertical units,starting fron1 the ground: the pura (platform),which is apparently absent in the case of thePara6urdme(vara; the bala (waIl); the gapdi.(trunk, that is, the curvilinear spire of the rckha/erl or the pyranrid al roof of rhe jagamohar); and{inally, thc mastaka, or crowning elements (the"head," including the amalakd and kalala on theiikhara; the kalaia, or "pitcher," is missing here.)At each of the four corners is a series of projec-tions that demarcate the form ofthe likhara intobhnnis (horizontal levels), with each ribbed disc(amalaka) distinguishing one bhnni. In thistemple, there arc five bhamis in the likhara.The fifth bhami in this case is topped by asquare element, the uedi or altar. As Orissanarchitecture developed over the centuries, alongwith the texts themselves and the skills andknowledge ofthe artisans, these Gatures becamemore elaborate and complicated, but essentiallytheir classification remained constant,

I-ike many Orissan remplcs. rhis monumenris surrounded by a compound wall that delineatesthe sacred area. In this case, the wall is rectangu-

Page 24: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

424 LATER, NORTHTRN SCHOOLS

lar. Also, as is common in Orissa, the Para6ura-meivara temple faces west, although the orienta-tion is sliglrtly ofi^ axis. From the exterior,the two elements of the structure are balancedin size, but the plan (Fig. rg.ro) shows thatthe interior of the jagamohan is considerablylarger than the shrine, a feature found frequentlyin Hindu temple architecture. Although the useof pillars is unusual in later Orissan architecture,there are six pil lars in rhejagarzolar, suggestingconceptual ties to Early Western Calukyaarchitecture and to the Laksma4a temple atSirpur. A somewhat awkward juncture existsbetween the jaganohan ar'd rekha deul of thetemple. The fiont face of the rckha deul rs infact finished and fully carved, but the joint

berween the two structures obliterates thisdetailed work. Panigrahi suggests that thispeculiar juncture, visible in other Orissantemples as well, is due to a construction methodof burying the structure in earth as work pro-gressed to the top, as a kind of scaffolding, sothat the inclined plane created by the surfaceof the surrounding mound could be used todrag up the large blocks of stone.l1 Hence, thepillared hall and the shrine could not be builtsimultaneously, thus accounting for the dis-crepancies in jointing the two parts. If such aprocess was used, and some authorities have

questioned it, this earth-mound practice wasprobably directly tied to the process of tankexcavation with the size of the tcmple tankbeing a product of the size of the temple, orrather, the size oithe rnound needed to constructthe ternple. Stylistically, however, the twoparts of this temple are ciosely related and

probably rellcct a unified original plan andsingie exccution, although posibly constructronprogressed serially.

The shape of the likhara typifies the formfound throughout Orissan architecture, havinga rather straight ascent and an inward curveup to tlre base of the amalaka. Eventually, a taller,

sornewhat more slender profile was achieved,and, due to thc increase of raf,4a elements,the form sonetimes appears almost circular.However, the basic profile remains virtuallythe same. T1re towcr hcrc is about thirtcenmerer. in hciglrt. a lengrh equ:rl ing.rpproxirrate-

r9.rr. Carved window on Paralurtmelvara temple.Bhul-raneirrra. Oris.a. India. Ca. serenth century.

ly three times the inside measurement of thega hagTha. The exterior of the sides of therel<ha deul is articulated with a buttress-like forminto a triratha plan (Fig. r9.ro), essentiallythrec vertical sections created by a centralforward section amidst two receding scctions.'fhe triratha plan anticipates the later, morecomplicated paicaratha ({ne rctha) configura-tion used in Orissa, in that each side of theexterior ofthe rekha deul rs decorated with threeniches. a central one on the projecting portionfanked by two smaller niches that projcct onlyslightly fiorn the wall, but that suggest theform of the Iater paicdratha,

A peculiarity of the jagamohan is that it maybe entered through doorways on both the westand the south. Light was probably admittedinto the interior through these passageways,as well as by the four carved windows (one

lattice window each on the north and southand two figurative windows on the west) andby the clerestory created by the double roof.This unusual arrangement ofdoors and windows

suggesr!developthe orieof itsconsider

Ptqnas ain devesomervltemple ,that boI n e l n t

virtuall.featurenorthenon theshowinrtne De!

the adrhave begrid offavor ols suggebears ai

-. -, -- .c, '- ' : *.: I .-.-

Page 25: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

l-., ,.'f th.fl.- r: the

F n:Tt : : ] . : i l ua t t y

lu r: :emple.E.-: .

[ ] centralr.=_-;:ctions.i::::. more

i:i: of thei ''..:rh threec: portion

F:_i.ct only:;:lest the

,--: rhe westi-. .:dmitted!:j!:geways,c:-.*'s (oner .:rd southe ',vest) andL-::ble roof.c: rr indows

r9.rz. Karttikeya, east dche, Para6urtmeivara temple.Bhubaneivara, Orissa, lndia. C.r. sevcnLh cenlurv.

suggests a formative stage in thc architecturaldevelopment, or that several modifications tothe original scheme occurred during the courseof its building. The double-storied roof isconsidered to be a prelude to the horizontalpilhas or pl*fotms of the rcof of the jagamohanin developed Orissan architecture, but it is alsosomewhat sirnilar to the roof of the Lad Khantemple at Aihole (Fig. r5.zz), suggesting perhapsthat both temples had a common prototype.The interior of the jaganohar is starkly simple,virtually devoid of sculpture, again a commonfeature of Odssan temDles, but not othernorthern sryles in general. The carved windowson the west, however, are remarkable worksshowing scenes of dancing and music making.The best preserved of these (Fig. r9.rr) revealsthe animation and vitality of the {igures thathave been cleverly posed to mask the rectilineargrid of the window. A stlong argument infavor of a seventh-century date for the templeis suggested by the style of the carvings, whichbears afflnities to that oi late sixth-century for

oRISSA AND RITATED RXGTONS 42J

slightly later) carvings of the Early WestemCalukyas.

In contrast to the plain interior of the temple,the exteriors of both the jagamohar ar'd rikhary'eal are embellished with architectural alddecorative designs, arranged within strict hori-zontal and vertical divisions. Essentially, eachportion of the temple profile, including thebase, wall, superstructure, and crowning ele-ments, with their numerous subdivisions, andmany of the decorative motifs serve specificsymbolic purposes in the overall scheme of themonument. Prominent motifs include thecarfuaiala and the amalaka, the round-flutedcrowning member of the likhan that alsoappears at intervals at the comers of each bhamiof the iikhara- The large blocks of srone usedin the construction of the building are clearlyvisible, especially oL the jagamohax, in spite ofall of the surface elaboration, but in later tem-ples, the joints will be obscured by the decora-tion. Compartments in the walls of the jaganohanare created by the use of decorated pilasters,within which are representations of variousmembers of the Hindu pantheon. An interestingfeature of the sculptural program of the templeis the placement of Ga4eh in the principalniche on rhe south side of rhe iihhara, suggesringthat the temple was circurnambulated in acounter-clockwise fashion. (His left-pointingtrunk almost seems to usher the devotee in thisdirection.) The niche on rhe east side of theiikhara holds an image of Karttikeya (Fig.r9.rz). In style, this figure strongly relates toa seventh-century representation of the samegod from Mundeivari in Bihar (Fig. rr.7) inthe flat, broad treatment of tbe body, thoughthis Orissall exanple is more ornate. Thisreinforccs the suggcstion of a seventh-centurydate for this temple. Karttikeya is shown herein lalitasana holding a jaAri (spear) in one handand a citron in the other. }{is peacock uahandis shown in the act of killing a serpent. Kertti-keya's position in the rear ntche of the deul, alocation generally reserved for a key icon ofthe temple, suggests his importance to thePaiupatas.

A later stage in the development of Orissanarchitecture may be seen in the Mukte6vara

Page 26: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

426 LA'IE]i NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r9.I l . Mukte(var.r rernplc frorn sou(h$est ' Bhubanci_

"r.", O.i '* , Indir. Pr;brbl) 50rrrrvarhi i period Ca'

third quarter tenth centurY.

form a.c.iof the :::chitect -ris not irt.ereced :ceDrtlr\--tne q:!l{

rnPoF-allbeaun- e

posirionmenr o:transitrcimenrs c:ple still ,

the -la3;rmal h-arrn conrr'roof of.L . - ; . j ;

reachingagafr a

phase o:a5 rn occornplerdme ileconcePE

1I1e

locareoshrine,.others tthe enutordfia \Is'all re:

ambuiaI ' a l l ) . 'longerin theinsteaditself, lthose rfeatureadds t<concePand sola *iddof the

ro.r4. Plan of Mukte(vara remple Bhubanelvara'

Orisi", India. Probably Sonavarhii pcriod Ca third

quartcr tenth century.

Page 27: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

ternple at Bhubaneivara, frequently called the"gem" of Orissan architecture (Fig. r9.r3). In

fo-rrn and sculptural excellence, this temple is one

of the hishest achievements of the Orissan ar-

chtect (iilpln). Although the date of the temple

is not fixed by inscription, it is likely that it was

erected around the third quarter of the tenth

century, during the reign of Yayati I, one of

the early rulcrs of the Somavaftii dynasty. The

importance of this temple lies not only in its

beaury and architectural perGction, but in itsposition as a kind of watershed in the develop-

-"ttt of Orissan architecture, marking the

transition between the"early" and"late" develop-

ments of the style. Like early structures, the tem-

ole still consists of two main p tts, the deul ̂ r\d

ih" iogo.ohon (Fig. 19.ra), while later e*"mples

may have as many as four separate units. But,

in contrast to the ParaSureme{vara temple, the

roof of the jdganohan is fully developed into

the pidha form. In size, the temple is small,

,"""hiog "

height of only about ten meters,

asain a feature often associated with tbe earlierphase of the building tradition, for in Orissa,

is in other parts of India, the developments in

complexity of iconography and structure over

time inevitably led to bigger and more grandiose

conceptrons.The Mukte6vara temple faces west and is

located in a compound with a number of other

shrines and temples. It is separated from the

others brr a low compound wall. On the west,

the entrance into its iompound is marked by a

tora4a (Frg. r9.r5) and on the east, the compound

wall reaches just to the edge of a sacred tar*(it is therefore impossible to completely circum-

ambulate this temple outside of the temple

wall). The compound wall (Fig. r9.r3) is no

longer a simple rectangle, as had been the case

in the Para6ureme5vara temple, but follows

instead the shape of the exterior of the builfing

itself, having ratha-llke prcjeci'ons paralleling

those of the temple, The tora4a, an :urlusual

feature in extant temPles from Orissa, greatly

adds to the unity and beauty of the overallconception. In appearance, the tora4a is heatry

and solid, having two thick pillars separated by

a width only slightly greater than the diameter

of the pillars. A thick arch built of separate

ORISSA AND REIATFD REGIONS 427

rg.!5. Tordta in fiont of Mukteivara telnple. Bhu-bane3vara, Orissa, India. Probably SomavafiSi period.Ca. third quarter tenth century.

pieces of stone that have been carefully fittedtogether bddges the space between the twouprights. This form, while shaped like an arch,is not built at all along the principles of thetrue arch, but consists simply of overlap-ping layers of stone carved in a curved shape,The decoration of the toraqa includcs carvedgarlands adorning the sixteen-sided pillars,elaborate capitals, makara ends, and a pair ofGrnale figures leaning against the arch form,as well as faces peering out of round nichesalong with floral and vine patterns.

A very low plinth supports the temple butits function is perhaps more symbolic andpsychological than physical as is the case insome other nagaru styles. (The compound wall,in fact, is also minimal, serving more as ademarcation and definition of a boundary thanas a physical protection.) As seen from theplan (Fig. r9.r4), the jagamohax is essentiallyrectangular but has offset walls on both theinterior and exterior, creating an approximatelypaicaratha pIan, while the shrine is cubical inside

B:ubaneSvara,..1. Ca. third

Page 28: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

j 2cc LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r9.r6. Irlterior of jdganahdtl lookiDg to\4'xrd shrine

(cast), Muktc(vara tcnplc. Bhub:weivara' Orissa'

lndia. Probabty Sorlravrrhii pcriod. Ca. llird quartcr

r9.17. Cciling of jaganohdn, Muktcivara tcmple. Bhu-

bate!vara, Orissa, India. Probably Somaverilii period.

Ca. third quarter tendr century.

but has offset walls creating a Paicoratha fo t

on the exterior. Lavishly carvcd with increased

numbers of architectural divisions and mould-

ings as well as sculpturcd figurcs, the extcriors

of thc jagauohan and rekha deul nark a dcparturc

from the rclative sir.nplicity scen in the Para-

6urtmeivara temPle. An unusual feature for

Orissan architecture is thc interior decoratiou

of dte jagamohan, which, drough pillarless ac-

cording to typical modcs, is here richly sculpted

(Figs. 19.r6, r9.r7). The sl.rape of the i ikhara

is similar to that of the Para6urSmeivara temple

but is slightly more elongated and slender. In

spite ofthc fact that this tcnple is wcll preserved

with most of its original sculptural decoration

intact (except for the unfortunate absence of the

nichc iurages of thc exterior), a full study of its

iconography and iconographic program has

ne,r". bc"., carried out. Howcver, one of its

outstanding sculptural fcatures is a highly clabo-

rate ornarnent called a bho, which appears like

a crest on the upper surface of the iikhata (Frg.

19.r8). The rro, which consists ofan arch with a

kirttirukha above flanked by a pair of dwarfike

i

r9.r3. Blo ornancnt on ertcrior of.iilla|n, Mukteivare

temple. Bhubane(vara, Orissr, India. Probably Soura-

varilii period. Ca. third quartcr tcrllh ccttur)'

Page 29: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

ORISSA AND RELATTD RIGIONS 429

a

if

j ' *

:.!ilple. Bhu-?thii period.

vatha formh increasednd mould-te et<tellorsa departure

rarure fordecoratronillarless ac-I1' sculptedthe iikhara'ara templeslender. InI preserveddecorationeoce of the;rudy of its-.gram hasone of itsrhll elabo-ppears likekltara (Fig.Lrch with aI drvarfike

r9.r9. Rajarani temple from northBhubane(vara, Orissa, India. Ca. rooo.

\

\

\

r9.zo. Plan of Rejare4i cemple. Bhubaneivara,Orissa, Il1dia. Ca. rooo.

o - , ' , , 1 o

Page 30: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

430 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

figures, is one of the typical elements of Orissantemple decoration.

Another important tcmple at Bhubanedvarais thc R.jar.fi (Fig. 19.r9). Dating from aroundA.D. rooo, its form shows a continuation ofcertain trends seen in earlier cxamples and alsopossesses a number of unusual features. Thisrather large ternple is typical in the relationshipof its jaganohat to the sluinc area (Fig. r9.zo),in the usc ofthe pillas to form the superstrrlcturcof the jagamohan, and in the paicaratha plan ofthe jagamohan- However, tlli,.e lihhara has clustersof smaller likharas around the central core incontrast to the usual sirnple form found inOrissa. Instead, it resembles the common typcwell developed in north-ccntral and westernIndia at about the same date. The complicationsof the rathds on the rekha r/erl almost give the

inpression that it is set at a diagonal to thejagatnohax, although this is not the case. Sculp-turally, the cxterior of tbe jagamohan is qtitesirnple, a dominant Gature being the largecolunrns encircled with sculpted naga figuresfanling the entrance to the temple, a malc tothe lelt and a fcmalc to drc right. In contrast,thc rekha deul is lavishly carved with sculpturesthat havc bccn rightly acclaimed as some ofthe {inest in all of Orissan art. In addition towonderful vcgetative motifs, these includenumerous figures of female beauties (Fig. i9.zr)and gods (Fig. 19.22). By this later date, figureshavc become nrore acccntuated in pose, andmore clongated. As in other approximatelycontempordneou\ srylcs. the carving is ornateand therc is an emphasis on the treatment ofsurface detail in the jcwclry and costurne.

r9. : r . Sculpture of bcaut i lu l

ivonran oD Rejrrani tcr11p1c.

Bhubanc6vara, Orissa, India.

Ca, iooo.

19-22. Sculpturc of the god Varuna onR.jart4i tcrlplc. Bhubrnc(vara, Orisa,Lrdia. Ca. rooo-

Page 31: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

:: -i to thc

- - . . t . - - ^

-,:.: figures:. .: male to--, contrast,

: . cu lp tu res.li ronle Of

: . : : 1 U O n t O

-: include

:::.. figures. : l re. and- - . - - . - t , -

: : i o m a t e

::. : : lent of

i _ : . : .

-: Orissa,

The dorninating architectural feature of theBhubane(vara landscape is the Saivite Liirgarajatemple, its rectangular walls enclosing numeroustemple5 21d shrines that surround the centralfour-part temple (Fig. 19.23). Mitra has calledit a "pro_dqct ofthe accumulated and crystallizedexperience of several centuries."1z Indeed, sucha monunent is testimony to the collective skillof the Orissan architects. Supposedly begun atthe instance of Saiairka, king of Bengal, inthe early seventh century, the ternple bears novisible evidence to support this traditionalaccount. Instead, the monument clearly belongsto the late phase ofbiissan architecture, havingbeen btri lt in ar leasr two main stagcs. Thcrckha deul and jaganohan were probably con-structed during Somavarhii rule around themiddle of tbe eleventh century, as suggested by

oRrssA AND RTLATED REGTONS 4J1

their relationship to the Brahmcivara temple ofaround ro6o, while two more additions, thebhogana4dapa (hall of offering$, at the easternend of the sequence of four structures, andnagnou|h (hall of dance), between the 6ioga-ma114apo and the jagamohon, were built ap-proximately a century later (Figs. t9.23, tg.z4).The surrounding temples and shrines in the corn-pound, some attachcd to the main templc itselqwcrc built at diferent points in time and de-monstrate the continually active religious rolethis temple has served in the history of Bhu-banedvara. Sincc the temple is still in activeworship today, it cannot be fully studied.Thus, a temple that is clearly one of the mostimportant in the Orissan tradition is littleunderstood by modem scholars.

The main entrance to the hugc compound,

r9.2J. Lingerajx tcnplc fron northcast. Bhubanc6vara, Orissa, India.Ca. mid-clfl'cnrh ccnr:ury, wirh additions in mid-trvclfih century.

Page 32: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

432 LATEP. NORTHERN SCHOOLS

at

0 ? , ! , : , 9 1 5 3 l

19.24. Plan of Lingartja templc. BhubaDeivara, O sa,India. Ca. mid-elevcnth ccntury, rvith additions in rlid-twelfth century.

which mcasures more than rJo meters iIr lengthand about r4o in width, is on the east andthere are two smaller gates on the north andsouth. However, thc odentation of the com-pound is slightly off of true north. The additionof the bhoganandapa and xatamandir to the twobasic temple elements reflects the growingconrplexity in tlte riru:ri and rcligious practice..From the plan, all four elements appear aboutequally balanced in terms of extemal size (Fig.19.24) but the heights of the roofs form a seriesof increasing crescendos lrom the front e]e-ments to the peak of the iiftlzara, which reachesa height ofabout sixry meters. As may be notcdfor numerous other art traditions, possibilityand probability are inextricably linked, andwhat the rrchitccts had hoped they couldachieve became a reality only whcn tcchuologicaladvanccments occurred. Thus, the construcuonof tlre massive likhara of thc rekha deul wasacconrplrshed b1 the rrse of severai iuccer.iveceil ings crcrting a numbcr ,,I vertically supcr-imposed chambers in thc towcr itself, effectivelystabilizing thc walls. In form and character, therckha deul is not unlike earlier examples, thechief distinction being its impressive size. Theform of the jagamohar, with in layered roof,also reflects the type seen at an earlier stage ofarchitcctural devclopment. All elements of thetemple are strictly organized according tovertical and horizontal divisions. Thus, in spiteof an abundancc of sculpturcs on the exteior,the dominating effect is onc ofa highly ordcrcdarchitectural forr:r.

Sculptures and carved decorations lavishlyadorn the exterior of dre tCmplc, inclirdingreprcsentations of beautiful women in a varietyof poses, a cornnon inotif on Orissan tcmples.Onc sl.rows a wonan adjusting her garnent(Fig. 19.25) and id ren.rarkable not only for thevitality of the deeply-carved figure but becauseof the intricate and delicate carving of herpedestal (not visible in thc photo). The angularposc and sharply defincd facial fcaturcs aretypical characteristics of carvings of this date.

From the time of Sa$irka's putativ€ inlluenceon Odssa until the thirteenth century, Orissawas prinarily Saivitc (espccially Pa6upatite) asdelronstrated by the fact that most of the

: ] : : ' - :1

l' 'tt

r/

Page 33: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

B :-:! andr ::h and

: ::-: com-1. , idit ion: :hc two

:.: fractlces.,.e". about

)rm a serl€siront ele-

:ich reachesrv be noted

possibilityinled, and:iey couldchnological'onsrructlon

e deul wasI succcssiveralry suPer-. cffectively.]racter, therrnplcs, thee size. The\'L-red roof,ier stage of..nts of the;ording toIS. ln SPlte:L- exteriol,, l . o rdered

rs lavishly. including

::r remples.:': gxrnrent':iv for the:u! because:::g of herlle angular:-iIures are::: it datc.r',- inlluencc:::r'. Orissa. : - : tat1te,) aS

. : ' : o f thc

19.25. Sculpture of wornan adjusring her garnlcDt, o11Liirgarajx renple. Bhubaneivara, Orissa, India. Ca.mid-clcvcnth century.

important temples of that approximately 6oo-

ye.rr period were of that religious persursion.However, a ncw phase in the religious history

of Orissa was ushered in by thc Gangas, oneof the most distinguished princely lines inancient India, the later branch of which wasVaignavite in their religious preGrcnce. Variousbranches of this illustrious family had controlled

portions of Orissa, cspecially Kalinga, for somccenturies, and already had a temple buildingtradition at Mukhalingam in Andhra Pradesh. Inthe twelfth century, Anantavarman Chodagangadcfeated the Somavarir(is, thereby considcrablyextending the Gairga tcrritories. A number ofVaignavite monuncnts were erectcd during the

ORISSA AND RELATED REGIONS 4.'J

Gairga period, including the famous Jagannathatemple at Puri (one of the most sacred templesin Orissa, which, like the Lingaraja templc, is

dificult to study because it is still uscd in activewordrip) and the Ananta VSsudcva temple at

Bhubane6vara (Fig. 19.26), as wcll as the magni-6cent Sun temple at Konarak (Konarka; Figs.

19.28-40).The Ananta Vasudeva, the supreme examplc

of a Vai;r.ravite temple at BhubaneSvara, wasdedicated in rz78 (as known by inscription)13by Candradevi, a daughtcr of Anangabhima III

during the lule of Bhanudeva (I) of the Ganga

dynasty. In spite of the fact that the sectarianoricntation is Vaisnavite rathcr than Seivite, the

basic form ofthe ten.rple seen.rs to bc simply a re-duced version of the Lingaraja tcmplc, followingprecisely the general trcnds visible in thc de-velopment of the Orissan tetrtple tyPe. Consist-ing of four elements, again the bhogonaltlapa

ard xitamandir (which arc later additions) and

the jaganohan and rckha dcul (Fig. 19.27), rhc

primary diffcrcnce between this teurple andnost others at Bhubancivara is the sculpturaldecoration, which includes incarnations of

Vi;gu and shrinc images of Krgna, Balar-ama,

and Subhadra, K1lna's sister.Howevcr. a cornplcrc)y different conccprion.

though still within drc limits of thc Orissan can-

ons, is found in thc renowned Sun tcmplc at Ko-

narak, not far from Bhubane6vara,which is clearly

one of the most ambitious and wcll-thought-outnonunents in all of South Asia. Dcclicatcd to

Surya, the sun god, ancl built in the forrtr of,

gigrntic chariot pulled by sevcn horses, this

templc (Fig. 19.28) rnarks drc high point in the

achievemcnts of the Orissan architects and

embodics advanced astronornical rnd rcligious

views of thc thirteenth ccntury as rvcll. It is anonument that was grcat in its own time and

Iong after, having bccn written about in eyewit-

ncss accounts and in latcr tert\ .ubseqtren( to ir\

construction. That it does not represe[t the"dccadence" ofthc Orissan style, as has so oftcn

been stated, will be clearly seen in thc following

discussion.A l rhor rgh r l re re i s no dcd ic r to ry in 'c r ip t io r r

at the tenplc, a latcr inscriptionra and importanttextual cvidcnce, the latter largcly discovered by

Page 34: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

r9.26. Anants Vasudcve tcnrplc lrol1l south Bhubxnelvara' O ssa'

lndix. Gange period, reign ofBhanudcva (I) Dcdicated ill r278.

i | a!L r t f l

r l ) r l 2

19.27. Plan of Ananta Vasuctcva tenrplc- Bhubaneivara' Orissa,

India. Ganga pcr iod, re ig ofBhanudcv: ( l ) . Dcdicrrcd in r278.

Page 35: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

Alice Boncr,rs reveal that Raja Ngsirirhadeva Iof the Gairga dynasty initiated construction ofthe temple at the suggestion of his mother whilehc was still a prince eighteen years of age. Theoccasion was his return fiorn successful cam-paigning in the capacity of commander-in-chiefof his father's army and the money to be usedwas rhe boory gained lronr rhese cempaignr.However, funds from the royal treasury plusother contributions eventually went into thetotal cost of the building, which has bcen cal-culated to represent one thousand times Nr-sirhhadeva's weiglrt in gold. From its iniriation,the project became the preoccupation of Nr-sirhhadeva for nearly twenty years. Recordsshow that it took six years and three months ofplanning and twelve years and ten months ofbuilding and was completed only after hc hadbeconc king. A popular but unfounded viewregarding the temple is that due to the grandscale of the conception and inadequate buildingtechniques, the work was never completed.Textual sources indicate that the tcmple wasfinished and consecrated, and that thi mainirnage was installed on Magha Sukla saptdtlti,the birthday of the sun god, which occurred ona Sunday in the Saka ycr rr7g, equivalent toA.D. r2J8. Thus, the period of building, fiomconception to completion, was from about tz3gto 1258. The rcmple s fame apparently sprcrdfar and wide for several ."nturi. i

"f,., lr, .o--

pletion. Caitanya, the great Vaisnavite saintfrom Bengal (r486-r53 3), visited the temple, andthe great sixteenth-century Mughal e.rnperorAkbar's court chronicler, Abn'l-"Fazl, went tothe place and remarked that "even those whosejudgemcnt is critical and who are difiicult toplease stand astonished at its sight."16 Nineteenth-century visitors, such as Stirling, Fergusson,and Kittoe also saw the temple stiil standing,including portion, of th" n-o* lost likhai,although much destruction brought about byage or malicious intent had alrcady begun toshow. For example, the l<alaia atop the likharawas supposedly made oI purc coppcr. and hadapparenrly been carried offas valuable boory inthe sixteenth century, along with gold andprecious stones stored there. It is posible thatan inscribed copper plate telling of the dedica-

ORISSA AND RELATED REG]ONS 4JJtion of tire temple by Nlsirirhadeva wouldhave been placcd there as well, according to anancient practice.

The date of consecration was not just chosenat.random but rvas rather a target date carefullyselected by the king becausc of its auspiciou,ness.(In fact, in

_his impaticnce to have ihe templecompleted by that date, the king may ha-vebeen responsible. for ]c"ser qualiry work byiorcrng construcrion even during rhe rainy sca_son.) Astronomical evidence ha-s corroboratedthat.Magha Sukla saptami occurred on a Sundayin the year r2J8, as it does oncc every sevenyears. The auspiciousness of this day, due to thecoincidcnce ofthe sun god's birthday falling on aSunday, was such that the mcrit accrued frorndoing good deeds was multifold.rz A main func_tion,ofthe-Sun temple was to facilitate worshipof thc birthday of rhe sun god each year.

"l_rhough othcr fornrs of worship. strch'as dailysun rituals, mlnthly cerenloni"i cel"br"dng th'"movemcnt of the sun through the signs oi thezodiac, and the celebration of equinoxes andeclipses also formed part of the bisic functionsof the Sun temple.ls

Like typical Odssan temples, the Sun templeat Konerak is situated within the center of alarge guadranguJar compound (Fig. r 9.29, inser).A number of smaller shrines are also witiLin thecompound wall, some possibly older than themain temple itscle At least three different typesof stone were used in the construction of lhetemple, each of which had to be brought fromsome distancc, A fine chlorite was used for carveddoorframes and important images: larerire, forthe core of the plarlorms and staircases; andkhondalite, an easily weathered stone, for themajor i ry o f rhe bu i ld ing . A l rhough mor ta r wasnor used. dowcls were cmpioyed to hoid thestones together. In contrast to early stone tcm_ples, the joints were finely disguised by surfacedccoration. The n-rain structure is oriented to theeast and has been buiit to be almost perGctlyaligned with true north.

The temple sit ' on a high plinrh and consirrsof a rekha deul and a jagaiohan. Thc rekha deulhas a cruciform plan on the exterior due to theaddirion of risas (niche remples) on the south,north. and west, although the.hrine interior is

tr

Page 36: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

436 LA'IE]F. NORTHERN SCHOOTS

rj

-----=l--t

tl

iflr

. .

,.

l''-

, r - l f ' "

,? : , : , r , : ! - , j '

19.29. Plan of Sun tcnrple. Konarak,

Orisa, India. Ganga pcriod, built by

Nrsi f ihxdeva L r2r8 58.

r 9 . I c .I l lus i r : :

le:f r:rOr issa.

and S3rTentpii:

Chorrk

ffi-F

Page 37: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

l

square. The jagamohan has esscrtially an elab-oratcd poicaratha exterior cxtended conceptuallyby the plinth, which projects outward on thenorth and south sidcs, again crcating a cruciformconfiguration in the plan but leavrng a sguareinterior (Fig. 19.29). Originally, the shrine wastopped by a likhara; the jaganohan is of thepidha rypc.\e

'fhe nila templcs surrorurdingtlre slrrine contin paiva-deuafas, the sccondaryaspects of the main deity of the templc, in thiscase, threc variants of Surya, which will bediscusscd below. A detached hall, which may bea ratumafldil ot a bhoganaxdapa, precedcs thetemple. It is square in plan and rcsts on a highplinth but is roolless now, although its heavypic$ nust once havc supported a roof of someryPc.

At prcsent, thc temple is in a quite ruined statc;rts rekha deul is alnost totally lost and thejagatno-lrz interior has been filled in and blocked offinrecent years. Howevcr, the original appcarAncemay be infcrrcd from a drarving fiom a palmleaI n.ranuscript (Fig. r 9.3 o).20 The drawing sholl,.sthe teurple as it nright have looked, complctcwitb iikharo al.d pidha roof, in its rolc serving

ORISSA AND RELATED REGIONS 4J7

as a rcpresentation of a chariot for thc sun god'sdaily and annual journeys through the sky.Thus, while the ternple in many ways is typicalof Orissan art (although more elaborate andlarger than any other examplc), its form rcsem-bles a chariot being drawn by seven horses, withone horsc for each day of thc weck, thrcc onthe north and four on the south. Thc conceptof the tenple as chariot rnay bc related to thcpractice of using a large wooden crt (ntha) toparade portable imagcs of a deity through thccity strccts on spccial occasions, which wasprevalent in various parts of ancicnt India. Thccart motifas a part ofthe design ofa nonumentalstone temple, hor,,'cvcr, probably derivcs fiomsouthern Indian types. Sincc one of Nrsirhha-deva's queens was a Pendya and Nrsirirhadevahimself was a descendant ofa Cola princess whohad bccn marricd into the Ganga femily, such acorrelation could cxist.2l

Thc twclve pairs of wheels carved on theplinth represcnt the r$'cive months or signs ofthc zodiac. Each rvheel is more tiran thrcemeters in diameter ancl ius cight major andeight minor spokes (Fig. r9.3 r). Tlic rims, spokes,r r Canga

, I r 2 j 8 ,

II

r9.3o. SLrn rerDplc at Konarak.Illustration on le:rvcs of a palmleaf nrarruscr ipt of r6ro f ronOrissa, India. Prcsent lvhere-abouts unknorvn. (After Bonerand Sarm,, Ntw Light on the SuttTenple oJ Kd?a/[a, courresvChowklumba Sanskrir Scries.)

Page 38: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

4J8 LATET. NORTHERN SCHOOLS

ro.1r. Wheel on Plinrh of Sun

tc,r-rpl. . four"t. Orissi. , lndra'

Gang:r Pcrjod. rcign ot Nrsrm-

hadcva I. r238-58.

and other elements are caryed in detail with

l".or"ti r. an,l foliate notifs and figurcs as wcll'

+ ,p..in. iconography he' nor t 'een deternrincd

lor each pair of whcels, but c"ch m"y relate to a

partic,rlar sign of the zodiac in- sculptural pro-

grrm rs well .,s position One o1 the manusctlPt5

i.. i i"* *nft t irc rernplc tells of the whcels

b.ine ""qu"l to the constellations of the zodiac

*hi[ ariothe, tclls of thc dcvotions and cere-

monies paid to the vadous pairs at the aPProPrt-

ate tim;. Beneath the whecls and running as a

er."" "rou"a

the plinth of the temple is a band

o? "l.oh.rr*

in pr-ocession' Although tiny' they

,arrr.'" f,to"tion similar to that of their more

gr".rdior" countcrParts, like those et thc Kailasa-

natha temPle at Ellora'-- Th. doortu", rc the jaganohan is lavish' yet it

,a^"n,, mo.. "n

clabo"tion of clemcnts that

hi,l bcen visible at least since the Gupta Pedod

ih"n "

n.- direction (Fig r9 3z)' Multiplication

oi,tt. .t"-""" ,.,ch "'

j"n.tbs and lintels indicate

,i. n-*i"* complication The scalc o[ in-

aitta"""f .. i i f is 'eJuccd proporrionarc to rhe

J""rriit.rt"*" and thus eaci eLment te"mt lett

:a:: : : :.--

: - , - .

ro.r2. Easr doot to ioga Lohalt'

Surt t."tPl.. Konlrak, Orissa'

India. Canga Period, retgn ot

Nlsirnhrdeva I r238-J8'

Page 39: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

ORISSA AND RELATED REGIONS 4Ji9

ietail with:-:ies as wcll.: ierermined.rr_ relate to a

': lanuscrlPts

rhe wheels,: rhe zodiac:. and cere-:ie appropri-:Jlnlng as a:l; is a band--a tlny, tney: :hcir more: ihe Karlasa-

:.en1ents that3!pta pedod,'r':ldplication..:els indicate',-ale of in-i,.rate to the': i! seems less

r94j. Navagtaha parcl ofeast door to jagalrolmn, Suntempie. Konarak, Orissa, India. Gairga period, reigDof Nrsirhhadeva L r2l8-J8. Houscd in shed at site.Chlori te. H: rr4 c1n; L:6.o9J m.prominent, Above the doorway was placed a

huge stone slab carved with represcntations ofthe navagrahas (nine planets; Fig. 19.33). Al-though particularly Iitting a subject on a templededicated to celestial ald astronomical deities,such as the sun god , the nauagtahas ate fiequentlypart of the doorway scheme of northern Indiantemples after the Gupta period. The lifting intoplace of this extremely heary stone is describedin one of the rnanuscripts associated with thetemple : apparently pulleys manipulated by bothelephants and humans performed the chore.From left to right, the planets are Ravi (Sun),Soma (Moon), Mangala (Mars), Budha (Mer-cury). lJfl laspau (JuPrterJ, )ukra tvenus). 5aru(Saturn), Rahu (ascending node of the moon),and Ketu (descending node of the moon),although it should be noted that technically,Ravi, Sorna, Rehu and Ketu are not planets.

Each of the reDlesentations shows a seatedfigure contained within an architectural nicheresembling a rniniature temple. Carved ofa closegrained chloritic stone, as are other major sculp-tures at the temple, each figure is distinguishedby certain features or attributes. The most strik-ing representation is that of Rihu, typicallyshown as a kind of demonic monster, holdingthe crescent moon symbolic of lis supposeddevouring of the moon, wfuch is said to causeeclipses (Fig. 19.34). In style, the images resernbleother rnajor images at the temple, although theydifer from the general sculptures carved as partof the walls and fabric ofthe temple. This is duenot only to the use of a different stone, but be-

19.34. Rahn; dctail o{ utagraha paDcl, Sun temple.Konirak, Orissa, India. cariga period, rcign of Nisiril-hadeva I. r238-J8. Houscd in shed 3r sirc. Chlorite.H: (of 6gure) ce. 90 cm.

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440 rATER NOnTHERN SCHOOTS

19.35. SDryl in southenr t?i.ia, Sun tcmPle Konarak,

Orissa, L,dia. Ganga period, reign of Nqsifihadeva I'

r ;38-58. Chiori te. H: 338 cm.

19.36. Nfsirirhadeva I as an archer. Fron Sun tenple.

Konrrak, Orissa, India. Gariga period, reign of NJsirh-

hrdeva L 1238-58. Black chlorite. H: 89 cm. Na-

tional Museum, New Delhi.

:

I1

cause the finest craftsmen wcre selected to work

on these spccial irnages, as verified by the manu-

5cript .rcco(rnts, while Iess distinguishcd artisrs

pro;ided rhe nurncrous olhcr cnrvings The

heures of the pJ.rnets are notable for rhe rather

,ri.lled form, of the bodies, the broad, smililg

faces and aimost slitlike features (especially the

eyeE, thc high-peaked headdresses, "nd

the fine

detailing of the jewelrY.

Orisinallv, there were at least four major

i-"g"i "t

the temple, one in each of the three

nilai(the rhree par!rra+/erralas) and the nrain image

ofthe sanctum ofthe temple (which is now lost)'

The southern (Fig. r9.35) and western rlia figures

show Surya in a standing posture, while that

on thc noith shows a dcity scated upon a horse'

It is posible that this figure does not represent

Survr rt all but may dcpict Revanta. his son'

who characteristicelly rides a horse. fhe south-

em image shows the god standing with no flex

ro his body in a manner behtring, nrajor icon'

As is typical of Surya, he has two arms, which

hold lotuses. Hh body is nearly cornpletely

detached from the back-slab of surrounding

elements, a feature also found in sculptures of

comparable date in other northem styles. A

stiff smile is visible on the face, lacking the

gcntleness and warmth of rnany eariier images,

Lut still of very fine quality sculpturally. The

densely grained stone permitted great amounts

of detailing on such accoutrements as thejewelry

worn by thc god. His seven horses are depicted

being driven by his charioteer below, and he is

flanked by attendant figures, with the kneeling

figlre in afijali mudra next to Surya's right foot

said to be a raja, posstbly Nrsidrhadeva him-

self.'Whether

or not this is the case, a number of

reliefs fron.r the ternple have been identified

as representing King Nlsirirhadeve and events

in his life. In fact, certain aspects of the

iconographic program of the temPle seem to

, ! : t : i

. ' - ' : : i :

D,- -l

K . : : - :

ril::::

Page 41: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

r Sun temple.erl of Nrsirh-

S9 cm. Na-

|rms, whichcompletely

;urroundingerlptures ofD sryles. Alacking thelier images,urally. The2l amounts

thejewelryue depictedv. and he ishe kneelings right footadeva him-

nurnber ofr identifiedald events

:ts of theple seem to

19.37. Nrsirirhadeva I worshiping Durga Mahisesura-mardini and Jagannttha. From Sun temple. Konerak,Orissa, India. Ganga period, reign of NJsirhhadevaL r238-J8. Black chlorice. H: 87 cm. National Mu-seum, New Delhi.

be personal to him rather than conceived forthe deity. ln the Baya Cakala manuscttpt ttis noted that the king on returning from warordered an image to be made showing him"in the attitude of a triumphantly returningwarrior,"zz and, although this image is notknown, others relating to events in his life havebeen identified. One sculpture shows the king asan archer (Fig. 19.36) and is apparently the carv-ing described in the Baya Cakada as that madeby the artisan Ganga Mahapatra and for whichhe received a pair of si]k cloths, two earrings,atrd fwe tolas of gold. Another shows the kingworshiping a shrine with an image of DurgaMahisasuramardini at the left and Jagannatha(the main image of the temple of that name atPuri in Orisa) next to her (Fig. 19.37). Whilemost of these images clearly refer to the kingalone, one relief identified as the marriage ofRema and Sita fiom the Ramaya4a has beeninterpreted as a double play on the name Site,

oRISSA AND RELATED REGIONS 441

r9.j8. Sculpture of female musician atop roof ofjaganohan of Sun temple. Konerak, Orissa, India.Ganga period, reign of Npsithhadeva I. r238,J8.

referring to both Srta and Sitadevi, the wiGof the king, and thus the king as Rama. Carvedof chlorite. these figures are again very crisp indetail, and in style they relate to the masterworks of the parlva-deuotas.

Monolithic stone sculptures in the Konarakcompound include the free-standing animalcolossi that "guarded" the three original stair-ways of the jagamohax, namely, wvo lions atopcrouching elephants on tJ}e east, two war stal-lions on the south, and two eleohants on thenorth. Huge free-standing ..olptures also adornthe roof of the ja3amohan, whose pilhas are abranged in three terracelike main stages. Theuppermost of these bears enormous representa-tions of lions seated on their hind legs and facingoutward. The lower two bear life-size andlarger than life-size sculptures, primarily offemale musicians (Fig. 19.38), gracefully andrhythmically posed, as well as representations ofBhairava. Originally two Bhairavas faced each

Page 42: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

412 LATEI\ NORTHERN SCHOOTS

she says t(physicalprema, theby denialsublimati<both rhe

Anotherevealedportable i:of the Sunto carry Imetal "sumediatorsand the Sris now prPuri and rimage s'owould ha.for that p

Anotherdevelopmrship, l'hicleled the Iofthe rarir

w-

r9.39. U3ra (Terrifying) Bhairave atop roofofjaganoharof Sun temple. Konarak, Orissa, India. Ganga period,reign ofNrsirhhadeva I. rzjS-58.

direction, onc being peaceful, the other terrify-ing (Fig. 19.39) in countenance, and lepresentedthe benign (anugra) and wrathful (rgr4) jro-tectors of the temple above the portals. EachBhairava has four faces and six arms, and appearsin a dancing posture, standing upon a boat,which is said to be the sqhsarq-potd, or worldboat. Both the fenale nusicians and the Bhair-avas are extremely powerful figurcs, not onlybecause of their size, but because of the monu-mentality with whicb they are represented.Thesc figures are large, full bodied, and activelyposed. Yet in spite oftheir heavy fleshiness, theyare remarkably graceful. The omxmcntationand jewelry are so fully carved that the figuresactually seem to be "wearing" their decora-tions. Each figure is posed naturalistically, as ifthe artist had an understanding of anatorny andmotion, as well as dance and music in India. Yetthe aim was apparently not to capturc the in-dividual physiognomy of particular characters.This rnay be inferred from the Baya Caka/a,

tg,4o. MithLtna, on Sun remplc. Konarak, Orissa,India. Ganga period, reign of Nlsirhhadeva I. rz38J8.

which tells of an artist who carved three sculp-tures of Gmalc figures, one of which was re-jected by thc overseeing architect, who claimedthat the artist had made it a likeness of his wiGand therefore it could not be placed on thetenlple.

An intriguing aspect ofthe sculptural prograrnof the Sun temple at Konarak is the profusionof nithuxas and erotic sculptures decoratingthe walls of the buildings (Fig. r9.4o). Thesefigures have received much attention, as havethose at Khajuraho and other mainly northemtemple sites of the post-Gupta periods. In gen-eral, however, their purpose and meaning hasbeen studied out of contcxt. At Konarak, inlight of the overall hugeness of the monumentitself, the erotic images in fact play a ratherminor role. Some interpreters have associatedthe erotic figures on the Sun temple with Saturncults, but this claim has not been substantiated.An excellent explanation of eroticism in thecontext ofthese tenples is given by Boner,z3 for

E

Page 43: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

k:' Jdssa,lr : . r :38-

she says-that in the search for the Truth, hama(physical desire) could be transformej intoprema, the self-surrender that cannot be achievedby d, nial bur only rhrough transFormation andsublimation. Thus, the nl'thra would representboth the union and the transformanon_

Another important aspecq of the temple,revealed in the Baya Cikada, is the use ofportabie images oF metal. Since the main imageof the Sun temple was ofstone and was too larieto carry out for worship and procession, rlv"ometal "surrogare'' imagcs of Sirya .,served

asmedrarors berween this image (the stone image)and the Sun God in heaven."za On. su.h i-[iis now preserved in the Jagarnarha t.rnpl. "in

Pun and was posibly from Konarak. Suih antmage would have been used in ceremonies andwould have been bathed, dressed, and anointedior that DurDose.

, Another importanr aspect of the religious

developments in ancient Orissa was lakti -wor_

:Tp; yH.h developed in Hinduism and paral_teled he Wajfid devotion in Buddhism. In spireoI the ru\ty of yogifli temples in India,25 two are

w"

ORISSA AND RNIATED RIGIONS 44Jilocated in Orissa. Alrhough rhe dares o[ theLrnssan exampies are not f ixed by inscriprion ororher known historical evidence, they ieem todate lrom_the Somavarh:i i period or perhapsslrght'y earlier. yogini rcmples, dedicateJ to rhesLxry-tout

,yogirlts (female yogins) are generallycircular, the form usuaily ,"rroii"t.d *i,h th.teminine aspect, as seen in the small temple atHirapur (Figs. rg.4t, t9.42). The entrance io theHirapur temple extends outward fiom thecircular enclosure; thus, the form resembles thecirculat yoni and.spout into which the liiga istrequently set in Saivite shrines. undoubtedly adetrberare atlusion.- Originally. the temple hadsrxry sculptures ot yoginrs arranged in nichesaround the inner circumference of the temple,as well as other female and male images in nicLsboth,inside.and out. One exanrple ihows Ajai_kapada Bhairava_ (Fig. tg.+l).

" m"le d.iry wlth

oruy one teg. who is rarcly encounrered in rhevast repertoire of lndic iconography and whosemcarung rs sU uncerrain. No indicarion rhat rhecerrtral courtyard was rooGd over exists in thisor the other known yogir; tenples.

: : : : - l a m

: : : : s i o n__::. : :1ng

lhese

-: :lave_ :::tem

i : ;1] :glJ r.n)ph f,o,n eaqt and stishrty ro south. Hir.rpur, ori"sr,

nola. La, tenth centur ! , ,

Page 44: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

441 LA-lEk NORTHERN SCHOOTS

19.42. PIe:r. of /ogi'ri tcrnple. Hirapur, Orissa, I[dia.Ca. tenth century.

r9.43. Ajaikapeda Bhairava at ?ogi,ri templc. Hilepur,Orissa, India. Ca. tenth century.

: n : : :

r : - , ' F r

:!--:l

:2r,:,::i

:Ja- ;

=.-= :D, , - - -

B U D D H I S T A R T o T O R I S S A

The Buddhist art of Orissa is one of the leaststudied subjects ofall South Asian art, in spitc ofthe fact that archaeologically, the region isenornously rich in this material. In manyrespects, the sculptural styles parallel those seenat variolrs stages of development of OrissanHindu art. However, the architectural formsreflect BLrddhisr tradirions o[ other regions ex-cept in their decorative elements, which arc alsotied to the Orissan style. Much of the architec-ture is in ruins and will therefore be excludedfrom discussion here.

Thc prcscncc of Buddhism in Orissa ap-parently goes back to a very early date. At lcastby thc time of A(oka, Buddhism had beenestablished, and it has'survived there even tothe present day in various forms. Buddhism wasapparently encouraged in the early eighthcentury, when the Bhauma (Kara) kings came

into power, for the first three oftheir rulers wereBuddhist devotees, and it continued to fourishunder subsequent non-Buddhist rulers. Archaeo-Iogical evidence testifies that there was con-siderable activity during this period, and this isvcrified in Chinese sources, as well as by theTibetan historian Teranatha, who was wellaware of the importance of the Buddhist mon-asteries in Orissa as thcological centers from theeighth through the twelfth centuries.

Very little of the early material in Orissa hassurvived, but the art styles were definitely relatcdto those found in northern Andhra Pradesh.Indced, from the eighth through the twelfth cen-turies the two areas seern to have forrned asingle complex. Most notably, the site of Sali-hundam in Andhra Pradesh has yielded stonesculpture almost identical to examples foundin the Asia Hill range in Orissa. Thus, to fully

Page 45: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

understand the Buddhist art of orissa, it isnecessary to look not only to Orissan traditions,

but to those of contemporaneous Andhra Pradesh,wbich in tum greatly depend on the Ikgvakuand other early traditions,

Four sites in the Asia Hill range, near the

Virupa River, are among the best known later

Buddhist sites in Orissa, namely Lalitagiri (or

Nilitagiri), Udayagiri, Ratnagiri, and Vajragiri.Because so little excavation has been done at

these sites, a firm chronology ofthe monumentsand their srylistic developments cannot be es-tablished, nor have the stylistic distinctions from

site to site been determined. Therefore, thepresently suggested dates are based on com-parative stylistic and iconographic relations withother sites in South Asia.

The excavated ruins of Ramagiri have pro-duced an enormous quantity of sculptures datingfrom the eighth t}rough the twelfth centuries.Presently situated in the shrine of the uihara isan approximately eighth-centufy Buddhist trin-ity (Fig. rg.aa) consisting of Sakyamuni under

ORISSA AND RETATED REGIONS 445

the bodhi tree in the center, attended by Avaloki-teivara to his right (Fig. r9.a5) and by Maffju6ri-Vajrapani to his IeFr. Each bodhisatrva carries afywhisk (carrl) in addition to distinguishingflowers and attributes. Technically, the figure ofSakyamuni illustrates a number of interestingfeatures. It is pieced together from separateblocks of stone, a technique also seen at Sirpur(Fig. 19.6). The massive block from which thelower portion ofthe figure is carved is by far thelargest, and the head is carved from a smallsquare block surrounded by several other piecescarefully joined to form the ptabhaman{ala be-hind the figure. The fact that the prabhamatldolaitselfand thc halo superimposed on it completelylack detail suggests that these were originallypainted. The damage to the face is typical ofthateffected at the time of the Muslim conquest whendeliberate defacement was carried out. Stylisti-cally, the figures have a heaviness and massivequality reminiscent of Vakaqaka art of thewestern Deccan, although a historical connec-tion is not known. The bodies and heads are

ir rulers wered to flourish:rs. Archaeo-re l1tas con-

l. and this isll as by theo rvas wellrddhist mon-rrs from thet .

in Orissa hasairely relatedua Pradesh.nlelfth cen-'e formed asite of Sali-

ielded stonempJes foundrus. to fully

19.44. Sakya"'uni Buddha at-tended by bodhisattvas Avaloki-teivara and Menju6ri-Vajrapeti.Ramagiri, Orissa, India. Ca.eighth century.

Page 46: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

446 LATE.I l . NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r9.45. Dctril of r9.44, Avalokitcavare. Rauagiri,

Orissa, India. Ca. eigh$ centtry.

roundcd and yet thc features of thc faces, the

snail-shell curls of the Buddha's hair, and the

outlincs ofthe figure are very crisp. The Buddha

wcars such a diaphanous garmcnt that it is barely

visible cxcept for the thin diagonal across his

chcst. The Lo,lhisatt,r"s also have a soft, fleshy

qrr.rl i ty. crpeci:rl ly in tlte w.ry th.rt t lrcirlbdomens

h.ng ou"i rlreir girdlc, rnd in th" fullncss oI

their cheeks.A four-arncd figure of Klasarpana Avaloki-

tcivara at Udayagiri illustrates the late ninth- or

tcnth-centtuy style (Fig. 19.46) The figure is

rnore attenuated and slender, starTds i\ t bhaiga

posture, and is n.ruch more highly ornamented

than the earlicr examplcs. Standing graceful and

relaxed, the bodhisattva is surrounded by a

carvcd back-Jab the t dep ic ts ] t i ' n tounta in

abodc, Potalaka. A host of beings inhabit a

rocky landscape to the sides of the figure and

r9.46. Khasarpana Avalokite6vara, dcpicted as if rvithinMoult Potalaka. Udayagiri, Oriss:r, India. Ca. latcninth tenth ccntury. Spccklcd beige stone. H: ca. r8ocn, as seen with bottorn buricd.

vuious other xttcrdants end worshipcrs fill the

stele. Even the halo around his head is decorated

along thc rim. The figures includc tl.re scven

rzanrgl Buddhas along the top and Tara and

Bhrkuti flanking his halo.

As in Bengal and Bihar, nurnerous Tantric

sculpturcs havc been fotnd in Orissa. An irnagc

of Samvara found at Ratnagiri, perhaps of the

elever.rth century, follows thc dcscription found

in the MspnrrnayoSri-rali . ' lmosr ex.tctly (t ig.

19.47)26. Tlre deity carries the uajra and gha\ta

in his crossed hands (,ajrahnfikara mufua), thc

(anartr (drttm), paraiu (axe), kattrt (k:ntfc),

trijnln (tridcnt), Lapala (skull), taitapvla \noose),Bra,ltrra kapala, and the bhatuaiga (stafl:-). Instead

of embracing a female companion, he carries a

sta{l'(ia&rl), which is thc synbolic counterPart

of the fernale form. Tucked into thc crook of

his left arm, it takes the place ofthe female, who

, {I

. . _ i - f l

Page 47: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

i :s ifrvithin:: : Ca. late: . H r ca . r 80

r9.47. Sanvara. From Ratnagiri, Orissa, India. Ca.eleventh century. Speckled beige stonc. H: tr8 cm.Patna Museum, Patna.

is almost without exception placed to the lcftof her male consort in South Asian art. Theja&tl is held to Samvara's body by the hands tiratdisplay uajrahaitkarc nudrl, further suggestingsextral connotations since thc uajra symbo\zesthe n.rale whilc the ghaga denotes the femalc.Thus, the god, with the iafttl held against hisbody by a pair ofhands forming the aajrahuhkara,nudtu, syrtbolizes the obliteration of dualitythat is the Buddhist goal. Although thc Buddhistsmust certainly have known that the Hindu term,ja,trl, lvhich refcrs to the Gmale energy, wasequivalent to their own te n, Fajfia, it is uqcer-tain whether a homonymous play o11 thc term-iaftti, as both the spcar and the female essence,was intended in the lluddhist context. Thearch bchind the head supportcd by the twouppermost hands is a schematization of theelephant skin that Samvara uscs as a cape. He

ORISSA AND RITATXD REGIONS 447

wcars as ornaments tltc sa4nudr?, thc six boneornaments of Tantric yogitts. Itt addition, hcwears a garland, prcsumably of fifty heads,eacl.r one corrcsponding to one of tl.re syllablesof thc Sanskrit phonetic systcrn. He stands inali/ha posture on Bhairava and Kalaretri and issurrounded by thc cosnic fire that consur.ncs theuniverse at the end of thc con. The complcxityof this figure is charactcristic of thc decplyinvolved philosophies of Vajrayana Buddhisn.rpredominating here and elscwhcrc in SouthAsia at this tirrre, and yet such a figure can beread easily by initiates who have learned themeaning ofevery elen.rent. Thc presence ofsuchfigures in Buddhism has given rise ro a con-siderable number of academic argun.rents regard-ing thcir source of origin. Son.rc aurhors seetheir bcgimrings in Saivitc cults that rl,'ere as-similated by the Buddhists. Odrers hold thatthese figures are,Buddlist in origin and wcreIa tc r acccpted in Sa i r i sm. I t j s cur ious ro nore inthis respect that the elephant skin held aloft, thcmultiplicity of arrns, the stancc, and indeed thevery character ofthe figure are strongly suggcs-tive of forn.rs like Siva destroying Andhakasura(Fig. 16.6). Stylistically, thc figure of Samvarais columnar and in spite oflis stance, static, andit lacks the lithc attcnuation of carlier imagcs.

Theremains of the AsiaHill range indicatethatthc nrosr advunced lorms of Tantrism ,,rcrepracticcd in this region. Just as i[ the cases ofSarnath and thc Bengal/Bihar rcgions, travelersfiom China and Tibet visited thcsc sites andccrricrl back wirh rhem to tlrcir o.,ln counrricstl.rose belicfs and practices that were to perpet-uate Indic Buddhisra, although not within theIndic boundarics. In addicion, a strong rclation-ship visually r.nay be seen betr,veen many of theBuddhist works fror.n Orissa and carvings from

Java ofapproximately the samc datc,2? suggestingfurthcr international ir.nplications for Orissanart. Sincc it is known that the royal fan.rilies of

Java and Orissa were linked by marriage, furthcrinvestigation of each of the art traditions willundoubtedly lcad to clarification of the othcr.Fullcr study of thc Orissan Buddhist rcmainsprotrises to providc n-ruch inforr-nation regardingan important chapter in the history of Buddhistart.

:ers fill tl.rei: Jecorated: ahe scvenr l are and

.-:' Tantric. -\n rnagei-.:ps of ther:ion found

rnJ gna\ta' ' : i !dra

) . tne-, . IL- ; f " \

j j . . ' (noose),

:e carrics a:l: lnterPart.' crook ofr::alc. who

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4I8 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

C o N c L U s r o N

The eastern Indic artistic traditions maniGstedin Orissa and adjacent areas are among the mostclearly perceived of the Indic developments.Temples and sculptures were produced in stoneat least since the seventh century, and the tradi-tion may be traced in observable, identifiablestages through a rather linear development toabout the thirteenth century. Developmcnts ofthe temple style ovcr t ime include increasing sizeand elaboration and multiplication of uaits com-prising the rnain building of the temple, amongothers. Orissan architecture has been looked toas a model of clarity in the evolution of the

Hindu temple because of its progress along this

rather linear continuum. Within this highly

ordered tradition, however, can be discerned a

considerable variety. Our knowledge of Orissanarchitecture is supplemented by the eistence of

valuable texts that reveal many ofthe theoretical

bases ofthe art tradition.Because of the strength of the Hindu artistic

tradition in Orissa, the Buddbist remains have

often been overlooked. Yet, the abundant ma-

terials, particularly in the Asia Hill range, in-

dicate a vital and significant Buddhist tradition

in the region.

Page 49: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

'ess along thisL this highlye discerned age of Orissan: existence ofhe theoretical

thdu arristicremains havebundant ma-ll range, in-hist tradition

Detail oJ 20. J6.

CHAPTER Tw'ENTY

North-Central and Northwestern India:

The Art of the Rajput Clans

The history of northern India from the death ofHarsa in 647 until the Mughal dominationbrought about by the Muslim emperor Akbarin the mid-sixteenth century is flavored by thecharacter of the numerous Rajput clans, theircourts, art, legends, and social customs. Whilethe Rajputs are commonly remernbered for thcminiature painting schools that flourished underthem both during the Mughal period and aftcr,the monumental religious architecture andsculpture they produced prior to the sixteenthcentury cornprises an important chapter in thehisrory of South Asian arc. These crcarions arein many respects the culmination of the stone-working traditions that had been developingfor centuries throughout ancient India and thefulfillment of a major northem Indian-styletemple tradition.

The Rdjputs themselves are believed to havebeen relative late comers to India; thelr ancestorsincluded peoples who came inro pre-Gupta

- , . , - , i .India (Parthians. Sakas. and Kusanas) as well asthe Hunas, who helped annihilate the imperialGuptas at the end of the fifth century. Byintermarriage, often with brahman wornen, andperformance ofreligious rites that enabled thernto become part ofthe Hindu fold, these foreign-ers gained position and strength in Indic society.Ultimately, a large number of separate Rajputclans developcd. coming ro control dt t imes signi-fi cant portions of northwestern and north-centralIndia, including Rajputana (modern Rejasthan),which is narned for the Rajputs and was theirheartland, Gujalat, and other regions. TheRajputs, who clairr-led descent from the ancientSolar and Lunat k;atriya lines of India, or al-ternatively, believed themselves to have arisenfrom a new, pure k;atiya order created by thegods at the fire pit ofthe sage Vasi;tha on MountAbn, rarely presented a unified front, evenagainst comrnon enemies such as the Muslims.In their art as well as in their history, in spite of

449

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IMPORTANT SITESOF THE RAJPUT CLANS

N O R T H ' C E N T R A L A N D

N O R T H W E S T E R N I N D I A

C I B C A 8 T H 1 3 T H C E N T U R I E S

li o",d' ^($ o

".''J'11,1i11 *"\,*"r

o BhanwarMewasao

sokansd o OGdnlokor.syar

O (alawar

o Kiidarkhera

4R4B/4/v

Page 51: Art of Ancient India Ch 9

vtNlatow1 .chrror oeor

_-]

I