THE ART OF

ANCIENT INDIABuddhist, Hindu,Jain

by Susan L. Huntington

with contributions by John C. Huntington

.WEATHERHILL ;gl;;r+l;"4

New York - Tokyo

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments and Credits

A Note on Pronunciaiion and Transliteration of Sanskrit

Introducrion

Geographical Consideradons, xxiii , The Problem of Dating, xxu , Art andCalarq xxvi

Panr ONs. Foundations of krdic Civilization;The Prehistoric and Protohistoric Periods

Antecedents of Indic Civilizatiorr

Stone Age Painting and Sculpture, 3 . Early Neolithic Art, 5 . Conclusion, I

The Indus (or Harappa) Civilization (ca. z3oo to r75o B.C.)

Tfie Cities and Towns, r o . Sculpture, lz . Seah, Y8 . fon"Iy, z4 . T'l-te Eclipse of

tc111

xxnl

3

2

the hrdus Civrlization, z5

The Vedic and Upanisadic Periods (ca. r5oo to 45o B.c.) z6

The Indo-Aryans, z6.Literary Evidence: The Vedas (ca. r5oo to 8oo a.c.), 27.Literary lvidence: The Upanigads (ca. 8oo to 45o n.c.), z8 . Other Literary Evidence:The Purenas and Epics, 3o . Mahavira, Sakyamuni Buddha, and the Rise of Magadha,.3r . Archaeological Evidence, jj ' Other Indigenous Trends: Megalithic Remains ofSouthern India, j4 . Conclusion, 36

PARr Two. Period of the Early Dynasties

4 The Maurya Period (ca. 323 to r85 n.c.) 41\\ Edicts and Pillars, 43 . Rock-cut Architecture, 46 . Other Aiokan Monuments, 5o .

lttl

CONTENTS'

Maurya-period Sctrlpture from Palaliputra, 5t . Maurya-period Terra-cotta Sculpture,54 . Conclusion, 55

5 The Sufrga Period and Related Developments (ca. Second Cenruryto First Century n.c.) \ ,.. 56

Vidi(d in the Suaga Period, 57 . The Mafura Region During the Suirga period, 6o .,.Siiddhist Arr of the Suirga period: Free-standing irchi

"",*J Mooo-"rrts, 6r . Rock-

cut A_rchitecture of the Suiga Period: The Westem Deccan, 74 . The Eastern Deccan:The Andhra Pradesh Region, f5 . Suirga-period Terra Cottas, 88 . Conclusion, 89

6 Regional Developments (ca. Late First Cenrury B.c. ThroughFirst Century a.o.) go

The VidiSd Region: Sancr, 91 . Buddhist Rock-cut Architecture ofthe Western Deccan:Bedsa, roo . Eastem India: Khar.rdagiri/Udaya giri, to5 . Concluson, rod

7 The Saka and Parthian Kingdoms in the Indic Sphere (ca. FirstCentury n.c. to Mid-First Century a.o.) 1o9

Introduction to the Bactro-Gandhara Region, to9.'fhe KapiSa Region, trc.-IheGandhara Region, 116. The Swat Valley (Ancient U{diyana), rr9 . Northem India(The Mathura Regi on), tzz . Conclusion, rz3

8 The Northwest and Northern Regions Under the Kuganas (ca. LateFirst Century to Third Century a.o.) n5

Royal Shrines, tz6.'Ihe Ba'ctro-Gandham Region: Architectvte, 130. The Bactro_Gandhara Region: Sct pture, r37 . Northern India: Mathura and Related Sites, rjo .Non-Buddhist Sculpture at Mathura, t 59 . Concl:osion, fi z

9 Regional Developments in the Deccan (ca. Second and ThirdCenruries)

The Western Deccan Caves, fi j . The Eastern Deccan: The Andhra pradesh ResionUnder the Later Satavthanas and Ik5vakus, r74 . Conclusion, r83

Panr TnnEr. Dynasties of the Middle period

g/ The Gupta Period (Fourth to Sixth Cenruries)' Hindu Art ofthe Early Gupta Period, 188 . Buddhist Art of the Fifth Century I North_

Central India (Sdnc\, 196 . Buddhist Art of the Fifth Century: North IrLdia (Mathuriand Sarnath), zoo . Buddhist Art in the Northwest, 2r5 . Hindu Temple Architec-tute, zo6 . Brick Temples and Tesa-cott^ Att, z 13 . Metal Images, z rg . Conclusion, zr 6

rr The Gupta Aftermath

The Disintegration of the Empire, 220 . Ootgrowtll of the Gupta ldioms (ca. 55o to

163

182

220

CONTENTS

7oo), zzz . Eastern India, zz3 . Buddhist Art in the Xast, zz j . Hinda Art in the East,zz7 . Westem Indian Developrnen*, zzg . Conclusion, z j6

Jz- Buddhist Cave A:qhitecture (Fifth Through Seventh Centuries). 2jg

AljxtjS, zjg. Bagh, z6o ' Kenheri, z6z . Ixtangabad, 265 . Ellon,268 . Conclusion,274

Hindu Rock-cut Architecture ofthe Deccan (Kalacuri and EarlyWestern Calukya Phases) zZ5

The Early Kalacuri Peiod, z7 5 . Caves ofthe Early Westem Calukyas, z8z . Conclusion,290

Southern Developments Under the Pallavas and the Pandyas zg1

The Pallavas, z9r . The Early Pandyas, jt9 . Conclusior., Tzr

The nady Western Calukya and Related Schools ofthe Deccan jzz

Structural Temples ofthe Early Westem Calukyas, ,22 . The Xastern Calukyas, 337 .The Nolambas, 336 . Conclusion, j4o

Hindu Rock-cut Architecture of the Western Deccan 141Illora (Rastrakata Phase), j4t . Conclusion, 350

Panr Foun. Later Northern Schools

Ka(mir and Related Schools j5J

Pre-Karkoqa Remains, 354 . The Karkola Period (ca. 62J to 8jJ), j57 . The LJtpalaDynasty (ca. 855 to y9), 3{ 5 . The Two Lohara Dynasties and the Last Hindu Kings(Tenth to Fourteenth Centuries), 368.Kairnhi lvories and Metal Images, j68.TheArt of Adjacent Regions: Western Himdlayan Foothills and Westem Tibetan CulturalRegion, 374 . Conclusion, 385

r5

I6

"J8.' Biher and Bengal Under the Pala and Sena Kings

Buddhist Art, 38g ; Hindt Art, 407 . Conclusion, 4r3

19 Orissa and Related Regions 415Snpura (Sirpur) and Rajim: Madhya Pradesh, 4r5 . Hindu Art and Architecture ofOrissa, 4zr . Buddhist Art of Oissa,444 , Conclusion, 448

20 North-Central and Northwestern India: The Art of the Rejput Clans 44gThe Gurjara-Pratiharas of Kanauj (ca. 73o to tozT), 452, The Haihayas (or Kalacuris)of Tripun, 462 .'fhe Cand,ellas of Bundelkhand, 466 . ThePanmaras of Malwa, 480 .

j87

2 I

CONTENTS

The Solankis ofGujarat (ca.9Jo to r3o4 196r-l,2441.1),483 . The Gahadvalas ofVararlasi(ca. ro75 to rzoo), 499 . Manuscript P ali\ting, 500 . Conclusion, 5oz

Panr Frvr. Later Schools ofthe Deccan and the South

The Cola and Related Schools of the Tamil South (Mid-Ninth toThirteenth Centuries)

Conclusion, 538

Later Deccan Schools

The Western Gangas ofTalakad (Tenth Cenrury), 54r . The Later Calukyas of Kalyani(973 to

" . tfig), S+l . The Yadavas of Devagiri (ri9i to r3rr), J48 . The Kakatiyas of

Hanamlor.rda and Warangal (ca. Mid-Eleventh Century to ca. :.1'25), 549 . The HoysalasofSouthern Karr.rataka (ca. roo6 to \46), 555. Conclusion,5Tz

The Vijayanagar Period (ca. r336 to rJ6J)

Conclusion,536

The Nayak Period

Conclusion,6oo

The Kerala Region

Conclusion, dt5

Afterword

Notes

Select Bibliography

Glossary

List of Maps

Illustration Index

Index

Colot Plates appear Jollouixg pages t6z, 4oz, and 594.

509

540

z3 ) / )

6 tr

6 t 9

659

715

7'33

735

567

6ot

2+

25

A Noie on Fron'unciationancl Transiiteration of, Sansl.-rii

rhc sl l ic oi siupl ici tv ;rrr11 corrsislcrcv,

-rcvcr lppropri l te. r leirv nanrcs. rcl igioLrs

::. Irs, ,rncl orhur tachnit:el t .rrns hl l . : L,: :c] l

- 'n irr thc S.rnskrir (Sarrrslrra) l .rngurqc in

L.ook. A Serrkri t trensl i telet ion lncl pro-: i i r t ion guicle is -qiven bclrr ' , . Trensl i tcrerioir

: , ,1 oLl icr Sarrsl<ri l ic l ,rnqLreq..r\ (Hir( l i . P.Lir iabi.

l i r l lorvs t lr i : \xn1c systa!r1l l )r :r l i r l i rn l .rrr-

. - r s (Ten r i l . Me le l ' a1 ln r , r t c . ) , e r c r r ens -

: rtccl lccor. l ing to t l is s,vstcrn \\ l lcrc\ cr

,Lble. Prorrunciat ion oi thcsc l lnquagcs vlr ir- 's

: ' rr lcr lbl! rLrd no : l tr :cnrIt hrs bccn nr. ir ]c

rroviclc e Ir1)nrnrci l t ion gLri. lc tol thcm.: , ' r ' J ; r r gL r l qcs (Pos i : r n .

' l i b c re r . c t c . ) . : L :e

rr l i rr ' r l tct l :rccorcl i lg to sturrr l l rr l . t stcnrs.' ' ' ' ' " - . 1 l ' . ' b . ' r r \ . r . . , r : ; I

- W.rdc Cilcs ststclu iD t lr t tcrt , bnr thc, i i t rolnrniz:Lt iorr is prLr ' ' iJcJ in prrclthcsi-s,rr." ' iug rh,-: rvor:, :L i l r l rc inr lcs.

.)r iqinrl ly JcscribcJ in i1 svstcl i l r t i2cJ rr:ui lrcrft ' thalr 2. ior i ) ,cirr\ xqo br nncicnt Int l lc

:.un:rLirrns, inclLrr i ing the t 'el l Lnot.n l ' lniui

lburtL ccnturv B.c.), Sirn\kri . is thc inr

::queqc kno*n io h:rvc bccn en,r lvzeri l inr lLris-: , , l r ' ; i t rcl to huvc bcclr givcrr :r mcrlrorl o1'

: : lnq srr icr lv besc,i on e scicnti iLc clr-script iorr' . ,ctue1 plonunci;rr ion. Cercfnl r1, 'scl ipi iorr of' .nurlci .r t ioD s"rs r lc 'srr,rblc. lor ' . i i prrr crs l cr, :

:c clTc'cr ivc. thc prorr lrrrciat iou ol r l l i t t nenres:,1 r iru:r l i rcenterions. inclLr, l inq l ; to-. arrr l;rr trrrr, lur l to bc corrcct. l i rorn . i r t : l igir ,r ls encL

" . l r t r ' \ . r ' r r " r , l

: . L r t i r c sou rds o i t hc SensL r i t s \ r s t l r l L . r r e cDL l -. t I I . L t . , , . r . , . o . L -

::- 'qrrrhncl

of skul ls" ( l ,qrr lairrr irr :1 lom rr. , ,

j ) . ! , r i l , , i j L l j .

some f igLrrcs ol thc Tantr ic tr rcl i t ion in bothBLrcl i lhisnr and Hrn.luirru (scc Fiq. r8.r l , rt lcL:r i l of u,hich : ippc:us ,rbo."-r:) . Alt lLorrgh t l icpronLrnci:r i iorr s\.srcm lrrs rrrcn.Jcd ro pror ' ic1c' , , r ' f 4 , \ " I 1

( , ' , l . ' ' r r j ( . r - r . \ . rrcel]r ' c--rtclcLcrL ircyond thc rrLrc S:rDskrit icspclkcrr ancl \ , :rs probi lbly lroi u'hol ly corrsistcutcvclr xnlong ihcal.

: . r r r ' r i I r , . . . f ' r l . 1 . . 1 . ithcrc rvcrc f ir .c pl lccs o{ ert ir :ol:r t ion oi souncl,end cl:rssif icd ihc -rouncls usccl irr thc lenqurgc,

. - , ' . - : . '. - . ' . ' , .

,f, A NOTE ON SANSKruT

and thereby the characters which represent bral), and dental. Today, Sanskrit is most

*::.^:::5:::::9--r]l: Ilf Sanskrit iystem commonly written in the Devanagari ,""p;;;itnus groups sounds mto rhe iollowtng categories: the characters are arralged and trlnslteraied inguttural, palatal, labial, lingual (reirofex/cere- this order:

-t aole r

-r-soli---d/

^5er<s*" s* os'

Gutturals

Palatals

Linguals

Dentals

labials

ratt

,!tl,i1

b

ja

da

da

ba

ta

ha

Ibl

I

TA

fia

t!a

n4

ma

^g,p

,o' ^o

h

ghc

jho

dha

dha

bha

ka bhq

ca cha

1a ;hd

td tha

pa lho

r l

t 1

u u

vr

I

* .# * !^9={ *t.$- 9x^-

"C A' f,

A'S?

cghn

j jhn

d 4 h t l

d d h n

.F "F

F-.,'N$ x" -ds' A\ r" ,9sjv ss,kkh

c c h

t th

t t h

pph

"true" vowels

"mixed vowels"

nasal "modifi er" (anusuera)

aspirate "modifi er" (aisarga)

guttural consonants

palatal consonants

lingual consonants

dental consonants

]abial consonants

semivowels

sPrran$

aspirate

[aspirate "modifier" (upadhnaniya)]

a a e qis

A fuller classification of the sounds of the language is usually given thus:

J. aote 2

5 A{v 'g

cy_ . ! ry5 $

hl

J

I

J

Ib'lNote: The anusuata (tit) is not traditionally included in this classifrcation sysrem.

t- Viserga 3. "E' and..ai', are gutrural and palatal.z. Upadhndniya 4. "O,'and .,aa,

are-labial "nd

sutt.rral.

o ax4

The characters for the consonants. semivowels.spirants, and aspirate h are pronoutrced assyllables containing the inherent vowel soundofa, and, as in the filst table above, are properlytransliterated with an a following them. Theinherent vowel is transcribed following thesecharacters in the transliteration of whole wordsunless otherwise indicated.

The vowels a, i, i, u, u, e, ai, o, and ax, arepronounced as in either German or Italian. Theshort a is a neutral vowel and is pronounced asthe a in brt- Thus, sa#za is pronounced "sutwu."

In traditional Sanskrit phonetics, both e and oare considered diphthongs, and, regardless of.theform written, are pronounced as long vowels.

There is evidence that the vowel I was at onetime pronounced as the er in butte/, but at leastas early as the begiming of the Christian era itcame to be pronounced as "ri" (as in river).lnus- llrsna rs bronounceo ltr$nna. rnevowel I was originally pronounced as the /e inbottle but is now pronounced as "lri" (as inaxle-tim)_. It is rarely met with and the longvowel, f is actually a grammarian's artifact,invented for symmetly, and does not exist inthe language.

. The modiliers include the axusuan (ry or th)and the dsarya (l). R"th"r than representingindependent sounds, these symbols indicate somemodification in the realization of the characterwith which they are written. The axusvdraindicates a nasalization of a preceding vowel sothat, for example, sdtiNsara is pronounced "sun-saru." The anusudta is also often used, thoughincorrecdy, to replace any of the five nasals(ir, a,4, n, n) when they are followed byconsonants of their own class. The vkarga (b),occuring at the end of a word or syllable, is anoticeable exhalation of breath, frequentlvfollowed with a slight echo of the precedingvowel, much like a very soft grace note at theclose of a musical phrase. Another aspirate, alsotranscribed as L, is known as the xpadhmaniyd;since it is a variant of the uisarga, it is oftenomitted from the list of characters and has beeuplaced in brackets in these tables. (A third variant,the jihuaunhya, is not usually included in chartsof the script.)

Most of the consonants are pronounced much

A NOTE ON SANSKRIT X'TI

as they are in English. However, kh, gh, th,and pl are given a noriceabJe aspirarion. incontrast to English. Tl is not pronounced as inthe English word rlink but rarher as in goat-herd. Ph is not as in plone but is pronouncedas in stop-lim. C is pronouaced almost exactlyas is the cl rt church, wbie Sanskrit ci is givenan even stronger aspiration. hr early translitera-tions, this led to ch ar.d chh being used to repre-sent the two letters. However, the desire forparallelism in transliteration has superseded theattempt to suggest pronunciation through Ln-glish spelling. Accordingly, caxdro is prorotxrced"chundru" and Sanskrit words with clr, such asthattro, are given even more aspirarion.

The distinction between the retroflexes anddentals is extremely dificult for the untrainedear to hear, and, for all plactical purposes, maybe overlooked in ptonouncing words. Theretroflex t and / resemble t and I in English,while the dental t and / are essentially similarto the t and d in Italian. Techrically, in thepronunciation of the retroflex, the tonguetouches the gums just above the teeth, whilefor the dental, as its name implies, the tonguesquarely hirs rhe back of the teeth.

The nasals of each category, h, fi, 4, n, andm, offer no special problems. AI is pronouncedas ng in song and i is pronounced as 11 in canyon.

Two spirants, g and J, were originally distinasounds, but merged in later times, The writtensymbols for them are sometimes used inter-changeably in inscriptions. Both are pronouncedsi. Thus, Sesa is pronounced "Shesha."

Due, in large part, to extensive publication inEnglish on the Indic religions, many SouthAsian words have made their way into English-language dictionaries. For example, abhi5ekaoccurs as "abhiseka" and, although the pro-nwrciation guide suggests how it be spokencorectly, the likelihood is that the Inglishreader, seeing the word in context, will pro-nounce it without the sft sound; a more readableEnglish spelling might have been "abhisheka."Because of problems of this sort, it was decided,for the most part, to ignore the English-languagedictionaries with regard to South Asian wordsin this book. Thus, tech:rical terms in Sanskritand other South Asian languages will be treated

,fTii A NOTE ON SANSKRIT

as foreign words. As there are many more suchwords in this volume than occur in the Xnslish-Ianguage dictionaries. this also allows lorconsistency of usage. "Karuna and, upaya ascomponents of bodhi," is jarringly inconsi.tentand, -'.'harur1a and, upaya as ."omponenrs ofbodhi," has been preferred. Moreover, thisallows an emphasis on the technical words thatare a necessary part ofthe study of South Asianart and permits usage of these words accordingto their meanings in the lndic context, and no;as- popuJarized or limited by English practices.The notable exceptions have bein the use ofBuddha (not buddha) arrd bodhisattva (not lo-dhisattua). Normally, we have chosen to splitcompound Sanskrir terms into reparare words.However, when the joined version is morecommonly seen in English, we have followed

that pattem (hence, dhermacakta has been pre-feted to dharmd cahra). When the first of iwoSanskrit words ends in an a or a and the secondin the series begins with o or a, we have joinedthe words to deter pronunciation of thi finaland initial vowels as distinct sounds. Thus. wehave given padmdsana instead of padma asana,bur dharmamkrc nudrd remains iplit. In thecase of place names and other geographic ternrs,diacrirics have been used wiieniver possible.with. the exception of Pradesh (nor irade3a),which appears in several modern state names,When authorirative spellings couid nor be found,the rerms have been given without diacritics.No diacritics *.." or.J on the map names, norwas it possible to standardize the spellings ofmap_words which reflect the many languages ofSouth Asia, according to a single iystem.

Introduction

For millennia, the peoples of South Asia haveproduced works of art in seemingly endlessquantity and of virtually inlinite diversiry. Suchobjects were frequendy materializations of theircreators' highest religious and philosophicalideals, yet they could be interpreted on manylevels by individuals at various stages of theirspiritual development. On one level, the artexDresses conceDts so abstract that the mostcomple* philosophical language of the world,Sanskrit, had to be developed to give them fullverbal expression; at another level, the artconveys the sirnplest devotionalism, indicative ofthe belief that an of,ering and pure faith could

assure the material well+eing of humankind.Through the creation of religious buildings andimages showing beings who personified aspectsof the universe and its irrevocable truths, thepeoples of South Asia were able to interact dailywith celestial beings as if they were near neigh-bors, The art works, then, are not just aestheticexoressions or exercises in color or form but arevisualizations of the transcendent, btought intothe range of human understanding. By studyingthe art ofSouth Asia, it is possible to gain insightinto the ohilosoohical and humanistic ideals thatthis sreai civilization has held for millenda andcontinues to hold to the present day.

GEo cna pnrc l r , C o wstoEnar ro Ns

The South Asian subcontinent, roughly corre-sponding to the area occupied by the modemnations of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,tcomorises what mav be called "ancient India."Althoush the influence of the Indicz culture

""t.odJ f". beyond these limits, outlying re-

gions form the subject of what would have tobe another, more extensive, survey. Yy'ithin itsboundaries developed one of the wcirld's mostancient civilizations, which, unlike others of itsday, still flourishes. Although it was open tocontact with other cultures, such as those ofChina, Western Asia, Inner (or Central) Asia,and Southeast Asia, the Indic civilization also hadan insularity that nurtured the developrnent ofits unique features. This insularity was due inpart to the region's natural barriers-the ruggedmountains of the high Himalayas and otherranqes in the north, and the Arabian Sea, Indian

Ocean, and Bay of Bengal in the south. None-theless, the role of these features as "6lters"

of Indic culture should not be overestimated;mountain passes and sea routes easily linled theregion to the world beyond throughout history.Therefore, the history of Indic art is a continualdialectic of indigenous and iniported elements.

Although it was unified by broad culturalpattems, the South Asian region is by no rneanshomogeneous. Archaeologists have noted thatcultural pattems visible as early as prehistorictimes and continuing to the modern periodclosely follow t}re natural geographic divisionsof the subcontinent. These regions are broadlydefined by mountain ranges and river systemsand are characterized by a variety of climaticcondirions. The resulting geographic units usu-ally are defined as the northern, central, andsouthern regions. The northern region extends

xxul

AFGHANIST

GHINA(TIBEIAN PEOPIE'S AITONOMOUS REGION]

/to ̂ - '"',- "€- ,O

^- - i -'.. 4l n '^A'*

<\ 9(TTflI^XDU

SOUTH ASIAP O L I T I C A L D I V I S I O N SWITH SELECTED CITIESAND AFT SI IES

n'u' "u

G U J A R A T . M o d h a m

. e " s h _ . M A D I I Y A P R A D E S H

F"'%;,I'gjjB I H A R

'N , " - '51 i i3 " " "b**F . i - \ ^

1r .r/ j *"*0"'.

rr'F \'.'- i.:*::*"1"

'rl 'r.

R A D E S

ftom the northwestern lands watered by theIndus River in Pakistan and actoss northemh&a to include the northeastern region of thesubcontinent watered by the Ganges River inBangladesh. The central region, commonlykrown generically as the Deccan, is in krdia aloneand includes the hill and forest zones furthersouth, extending into the peninsula and includingthe Deccan plateau. The southem region includesthe southernmost regions of the nation of Irrdia,primarily the lower peninsular portion of thesubcontinent. Each of these divisions is notablefor its variety, both physical and cultural, yeteach is unified by broad linguistic, racial, andcultural associations.

While these lateral geographic zones broadlydefile cultural patterns within the subcontinent,

INTRODUCTION ,C'CII

they are not inviolable. For example, along theeastem and westem coasts, associations exist thattranscend arbitrary divisions between the north-em, central, and soutlem regions. Thus,"eastem" and "westem" traits may be observedin Indic culture in addition to those of the threelateral zones. The story of South Asian art,then, is one of regional or local developmentsset against the broader spectrum of the cultureas a whole. Regional forms may share generalfeatures with contemporaneous developmentselsewhere while bearing distinctive features thatunmistakably link them to the site of theirproduction. This is even true of what have beencalled "pan-Indic" phases, such as the Mauryaand Gupta periods covered in chapters four andten.

Tnl Pno l r r l r oF DATTNG

Although the Lrdic civilization has developedalmost uninterruptedly from its inception to thepresent, it is difrcult to reconstruct a detailedhistory and chronology ofevents in every period.This difrculty is due to several factors. Archae-ological fieldwork at prehistoric and proto-historic sites has not yet revealed a completepicture of early pattems and developments. Forhistorical times, there exists an abundance ofdocumentation such as inscriptions, texts, andcoins, but this evidence is frequently arnbiguous,contradictory, or misleading. Further, manysystems ofcalculating time were used throughoutthe subcontinent's history. Most of these datingsystems were based on the accession ofindividualkings and thus applied to a lirnited region ortime span. Manv such eras have not been cor-related- to the ihristian era. Thus, even whenart works or written doctrments were givenspecific dates by their makers, the dates do notalwavs inform us of the time of oroduction inrelation to our calendrical system.

Because of the dificulties of reconstructinsthe chronology of Indic hisrory and culture, iris not easy to find a format for rhe presentarion

of Indic art which provides clarity, coherency,and accuracy while reflecting the vast panoply ofSouth Asian art, This volume uses a chronolosi-cal approach whenever possible, interweavingregional, religious, and cultural trends. Thechronological alrangement is expresed largelyin terms of political dynasties, the most commonscheme for the periodizadon of South Asianhistory. This scheme has inherent limitations,for it seens to imply that art styles rose and fellwith the fortunes of specific ruling families orthat the dynasty that lends its name to a phaseoflndic art supported or encouraged its develop-ment. While these situations did occur, they arenot to be inferred automatically from thepolitical designarions. Instead. the dyrustic namesused in this volume reflect the fact that beginningin the historic period, primarily with the Mauryadynasty, the South Asian region consisted ofnumerous interrelated but separate kingdoms.These kingdoms and their interraction left alegacy of complicated linguistic, racial, andcultural patterns that are in turn refected in theimpoftant artistic schools of the South Asiansubcontinent,

,T'TII INTRODUCTION

ART AND Cur runn

Religion was the major force stimulating thecreation of art and archirecture in ancienr Ldia.According to most systems of Indic thought,the phenomenal world is illusory, perceived

-and

interpreted by the senses, which yield data of apersonal ra[her than o[ a universal nature. Theprimary illusion is the belief in a separate, egoicexistence. Most Indic religions seek to eliminatethis illusion and to foster the realization ofuniversal unity and of the understandine thateach seemingly separate enriry is but a minifes-tation of the One. Ultimate Truth is consideredto be, transcendent, inrrinsically beyond ourIrmrted means ol acquiring knowledge. How_ever, a number of syrnbolic devices (whichindicare the Trurh not by revealing ir bur byreternng [o it) may point toward rhe goal ofrealizing rhe undifferentiated state. Amongthese ̂ re mantras (verbal formuiae o, in."nrr]ions), yaxtras (mechanical devices such asgeometric diagrams), and nurtis (images, icons,or scutDturesl.

Thesi laner two devices, yantras and, murtis,comprise rhe main subjecr of this book. Whatwe call the art of ancient India is, in fact. thereification of certain rnetaphysical concepts, rhepurpose of which is to enable the relisiousdevotee to more easily inrernrlize rhe,rlt i-n,"teTruth. Many Indic plins of buildings and otherarchitectural forms creared for religious use arebased upon yantras, which makes them meteri-alizations of complicated abstract ideas. Theirnages (nurtis) which adom such sructures oroccur in other religious contexts also expressreligious concepts. To rhosc rrnfamiliar with rheIndic world, it_mighr be surpriring to leam rharrhe use ot such images is rhoughr to be leastappropriate to the Truth itself since irnages haveform and Truth is formJess. Nonerhelesl to rheworshiper, an image is a useful tool that rendersthe abstract, transcendent realm nrore compre-hensible and approachable. An image, then. isa kind of meraphor for somerhing rhar can onlybe undersrood direffly but cannot b. troiytranslated into any form, be it visual, verbai,or other. ln spite o[ the Gct rhar an imaqe isnot the same as rhat which ir represents. images

are believed to embody tremendous religiousenergy.

_ Through the process of viewing animage, the devotee gains spiritual power. InJeed,the emphasis on dariana (viewing) in rhe Indicculture, which requires only seelng and beingln rne pfesence ot somethlng or someone greatto gain merir. has lent the visual arts an impor_tance never exceeded elsewhere in the world.

In light of these religious views, it can beeasily understood why the principal aim ofIndic art has never been ro captule rhe likenessof the physical world or its iniabitants. Systemsof perspective, concem with detailed anatomicalcorectness, and use of naturalistic coloration-as well as other arlistic devices rhat convey rheappearance of the phenomenal world, arenoticeably lacking in South Asian art. iadividualportraiture aimed at physical likeness is rarelyencountered in ancient Indian sculptures andpainring. And subject matter docs not generallyaim to record the daily life or customs of theIndic peoples. Often, works of art specificallvcontradict the "facs" of tbe physical worlj.For example. figures are frequendy shown inhierarchical scale, measured on the basis of theirreligious achievement, not thet physical size.

This lack oC emphasis on n"ru..l irrn do",not indicate that the Indic artist did not Dossessskil l. ralenr. or creariviry. Rather, his immenseability was channeled into the expression ofconcepts beyond rhe l imits of rhe phenomenalworid, Slch representarions mighr incorporatethe artist's individual beliefs or perceptions, butthey were not meant to reflect his personality orto serve as monuments to his individualitv. Few'names of individual artists have survived to thepresent, but this is not particularly lmporraur nthe Indic context, since iorks of

"r. -"." ,rr."rt

to serve in the communication of universalreligious ideals and not as vehicles of eeoisticexpression. Nonerheless. many arris6, ;hileworking-in what today can only be recognizedas parr ofa "collective" rather than "indiridual,,style! were great masters and innovators whodeserve the same honor accorded to those whosenames and artistic contributions are knownelsewhere in the world.

For the rnost part, the Indic artist based hisvisualizations on the human form-its omamen-ation, poses, and shapes-and the translation ofits familiar characteristics into the multiheaded,multilimbed beings who iniabit realms beyondhuman existence. Visual formulations sometimesreflected nascent religious concepts that had

yet to be expressed ftrlly in words, while atother times they were based on textually elabo-rated doctrines. In the Indic contexq wherewords and visual forms were both consideredto be symbols of the Truth and not the Truth '

itself, neither had any special primacy.Although religion was the single most impor-

tant factor affecting art production in ancientIndia. it was not the sole determinant. Secularevents exerted a major influence on the creationof art. A great deal of art patronage resultedfrom wealth gained through military and politi-cal conquests. Ancient Indic kings commonlysought to extend their domains by annexingneighboring regions. Booty obtained from ex-pansionist campaigns was often spent on con-struction of religious architecture or on theenhancement of an already existing shrine. Avictorious king could thereby legitimize thewealth and position he had recently acquired.Secular events also affected the transmission ofart styles and iconographic patterns. Marriagealliances, brought about by attempts to con-solidate empires or check an enemy's power, attimes infused new life into regional art forms.Victorious monarchs returning to their capitalsafter military carnpaigns sometimes emulatedand competed with the building achievementsthey had seen during military ventures in enemyternrory.

'Works of art that at first appear to be solely

religious in purpose sometimes also glorify aking or embody double meanings that incor-porate events or persons from the secular sphereinto the religious symbolism. In tum, kings orother secula( figures sometimes reborrowedfrom religious imagery, seeing their owrt actionsand attributes as reflections of the divine. Inmany cases, religious ideals are expressed inmilitary terms. The achievement of the trans-cendent state-the goal ofmany Indic religions-is frequently described as a victory. In both

INTRODUCTION'T'T', ' I I

Buddhism and Jainisrn, someone who has at-tained that state is described as a jina (victor).Religious attainment is often expressed in termsof the defeat of an enemy, that is, a personifica-tion of ignorance or another obstacle to therealization of Truth. Accordingly, many re-ligious personages and deities are shown in artnampling upon a defeated foe or in combatwith the obstacle-as-enemy. Many religiousfigures bear weapons such as the discus. bow andarrow, or sword, indicating the power at theirdisposal and the vigor with which they pursuetheir goals.

The materialism of human society was alsoincorporated into religious symbology. Jewelry,for example, is worn by nearly all figuresdepicted in the art, and sometimes such adorn-ment signifies spiritual achievement. In Bud-dhism, transcendent knowledge is described asa gem; the five classes of omaments (crown,gorget, anklet, bracelet, and girdle) frequentlyrepresent the five highest meditational attain-ments. Further, in each of the major SouthAsian religions, Buddhisn, Jainism, and Hin-duism, personifications of wealth or gods ofwealth offer material rewards along with thewealth of spiritual achievement to their pro-pitiants.

Transmission of artistic styles and iconographicpatterns probably was effected primarily bypilgrims and merchants traveling along wellestablished routes to different oarts of thesubcontinent, helping to creare what sometinresbecame widesoread artistic stvles. These travele$mav have our-chased works of art in the courseof their trivels, which could then be seen byDotential Datrons or artists in other locales. Inparticular, religious pilgrims who visited tem-ples, shrines, holy sites, and famous teacherswere instrumental in the dissemination of artforms throughout the subcontinent, for theybrought back paintings, small sculptures, manu-scripts, and iconographic texts to aid in theirreligious devotions. Craftsmen, too, may havernoved along trade and pilgrimage routes toolaces where their services were needed tocarry out the grand schemes devised by wealthypatrorx. In these ways and others, ideas andart were disseminated widely, contributing to a

,CXliJi INTRODUCTION

congruity in art styles and forms from regionto. region in many periods of Sourh Asian"arr,while never obliteradng rhe distiactive localcharacteristics that typify the various artisticscnools.

The ffeatmenr of South Asian art in thisvolume refects the current state of knowledgein the field, and hence, certain inequities

-of

coverage are -necessarily present. Many crucial

ar[-yretdtng sltes have never been excavared orstudied from an art hisrorical point of viewbecause condnuous inhabitation or use over thecenturies has prevented the usual methods ofscholarly research while others remain to bediscovered by the archaeologist. If studied. therntormanon such sites could reveal wouldmdoubtedly necessitate a revision of aspects ofthe current overview of South Asian artisticdevelopments. Similarly, whole periods andreglonal srylistic complexes have yet to bestudred and contextualized within Indic arthi-story. When this occurs, it is likely that someof.the subjec* that have been

'emphasized

traditionally because of the availability ofmateriak might recede ro their approiriateposition in the overall picture. Because oi theotten provisional narure of the state of knowl_edge in the field, it has been necessary to distin_guish clearly what is known from what issurmised in the text.

Even if all of tle extant art works from theSouth Asian subcontinent could be studied andplaced in. rheir chronological and culturalcontexts, these works must be seen as only asmall portion of the corpus rhar once exisied.l nus, a specttlc example may or may not truly

retlect the period of its production and thegeneral cultural trends of iis milieu. The oftenrepeated clich6, that works of art made ineasily perishable rnaterials must have constitutedan cnormous proportion of rhe total an pro_duced in. any given period, is notjust a facileexcuse fabricated by art hisrorians ,o h.lp ,h"*prove or disprove certain theories. Insteid, thisstatement is a bold reminder to anyone whoh3q3s to stldy the material products of anycivili"ation that he has at his- disposal ody Ifew clues, rvhich may or may ror^b" ,.p..rLr,_tatrve. to the complex subjecr before him. Even.

the fact of survival itself is often mislea&nq.While it is sometimes true that rhe *;;;l;:ponant srtes were preserved because the greatestcare was lavished upon-them. equally im"portant

:l.r y.t: rhe^targers of desrruction by enemies.

.t he choice of materials might often iaue been

based on availabiJity. cost. or aesrhedc appealrather

"dran durabiliry, which would pr.serve

tnem tor tuture qenerations.

^ Although the Ltanr arr monumenrs fiom

South Asia may represent only a fraction of thetotat once produced, the actual quantity ofmonuments is rruly staggering. Those presentedhere iave been selecred in an attempr to providea. balance between those wo.k, ti"t

"r'" mort

characteristic .of

the period in which rh.y w.reproduced and those that wele most distinctive;between those that demonstrate the continuationof earlier formulations and those th"t ,apr"r"rrtthe vanguard of their time; berween those thatwere mundane but highly favored and rhose rhatwere the most exalted and ambitious of rheirtime; and berween those that

"r" b"rt pr"r.*"J

_","i S*. that.are the only knowa examples of

..,r.7p:. It is.hoped rhat togerher they wil lpro!'r"de the..beginnings of understanding of thearr o[ a civi]ization whose roots are as ancientas any knowa and yet that is still vital today.

rhe arr to be considered in this volume isessentially rhat ofthe aristocracy ofborh religiousand secular spheres. A major portion oi therftrc_ cuttule throughour history has consistedof what_rnight be called the foll element, andmany of the objecrs produced in ancient Indiawere srmpJe anicles for daily use. AJthoughgr.eat progress has been made in studying tLfolk art of the lndic regions, ir remains a sJbjectseparate lrom the present concem, which is anattempt to portray the artistic dimension ofancienr India's highest intellectual and technicalachrevements, Throughour the world, the pro_duction of arr. generally religious art, hasaccounted for many of the greatesr expendituresot,manpower. money. and creative abiliry. Theculrure of ancient India -a,,ro a*"ap,ior, tothis practice. Many of the architectural andartistic creations intended to honori,di,id,"i,' ;i;;, ";;;#TIJ1T:'T;schemes beyond *h"r one perion could iroduce

or pay for and required a Pooling of creativeand monetary resources, Thus, while expressinguniversal themes and truths, tle art works ofconcern here are not the objects of daily life

INTRODUCTION 'T'cI'C

created by and for the majority of the populace;they are the products of the skilled craftsmen,the leamed intellectuals, and the princely pursesof their time.

P A I { T O N E

FOUNDATICNS OF INDIC CIVILIZATION

The Prchistoric and Protohistoric Periods

,. ",. ;,,-;::""ff-*::r:4"*-\ffi ', I

PREHISTORIC ANDPROTOHISTORICSOUTH ASIA

T H A R( I N D I A N )D E S E R T

.*. EXTENT OF HAFAPPAN CULTURE-EXTENT OF NOFTHEFN BLACK POLISHED WAFE..-EXTENT OF PAINIED GREY WAFE

BLACK & RED WARE FOIJND THFOUGHOUT

O NEOLITHIC SITES 'EABLY CITIESo HARAPPAN slrEs . EAFLy BlJDDHrsr slrEs

.OTHER SITES

Detail oJ r.4c,

CHAPTER ONE

Antecedents of Indic Civilization

S ror . r r Acr PAINTINc, t ro Scutpr :un t

Although human beings have lived on theSouth Asian subcontinent for hundreds ofthousands of years, very litde is known abbutthe naterial culture of the early inhabitants.The earliest preserved man-made objects inSouth Asia, as in other regions of the world,are the multitudes of stone tools by whicharchaeologists define the Early, Middle, andLate Stone Ages of the subcontinent.l These,however, represent only one type of productcreated by early hunans. Prior to the develop-ment of stoner rorking technology, and along-side it, the early inhabitants of South Asia musthave created vast quantities of material goodsmade of bones, branches, animal skins, grasses,and other easily perishable materials. While thefull range of such ephemeral objects will prob-ably never be known, the abundant stone toolsthemselves serve as a haunting prefiguration ofseveral millennia of artistic developments in theIndic regions, for it was stone that served as the

artistic rnedium for so many of the gigantictemples, excavated caves, and sculPtures of latercenturies,

Some stone tools, mainly from the Middleand Late Stone Ages, suggest that aestheticconsideration was given to asPects of their crea-tion, such as selection of stone and precision ofcarving facets. The survival of a few early caw-ings made of shell and bone also suggests thatthese early humans were concemed with morethan pure utility in thei! carviug efforts. How-

ever, it is in the rock shelters associated withpeoples of the Middle and Late Stone Ages thatthe earliest significant corpora of Indic art maybe found. More than a thousand rock shelterscontaining paintings have been identified in Indiaproper, over halfofwhich are in the north-centralregion, within about a r5o-kilometer radius ofBhopal. Not all of the paintings in these sheltersbelong to an early period, since the creation ofrock art has been continuous in Indic culture

4 FOUNDATIONS OI rNDIC CffIIZATION

r . r . Pregnant cow. (Enhanced phorograph.) Rock paint_ing at Raisen, Madhya Pradesh, India. Ca. 8ooo_zSoo

t-.:. Zebu.- (Enhanced photograph.) Rock painring rrKhervai, Madhya Pradesh, India. Ca. 2Jor3oo B.c.

.l

I

even to the present day.z But the archaeologicalconrexts !f some of the paintings suggests-rhatthey, and others executed in similar sryles. weremade as long as ren thousand years ago. Cluesto the sequence of styles, and hence to thcirchronology, are provided by the painringsthemselves, for in many of the cave shelteisnew compositions were continually ,oO.r_imposed over older ones tluouehout the ien-turies, thus preserving the order o'f their produc-tion. In paintings from Neolithic timesr andlater, comparisons with contemporaneous pot-tery designi are also us.ful for d"ting po.poses.

_ At least twenty sryles of rock p"intings havebeen identified on the basis of tichniqule, pig-ment, and subject matrer.4 Many of tLeiepictures were made by "crayoning"s sxghql 6h2na true painting technique, since lumps of pig-ment were probably used to draw directly onthe rock surface, although painting with waterand a brushlike tool m"y a|so have been done.The principal rninerals identified in extantpictures include hematite and iron oxides toproduce yellow, orange, red, and brown;calciurn and kaolin, white; manganese, purple;and copper, black and blue-green. Mosiof-thecompositions consisr of animals, or sometimeshumans, alone or grouped. The animals in therepertoire of these early artists include elephants,antelopes, lions, monleys, and especially bullsand cows, to name just a few. One example,trom B.aisen, near Bhopal, rnay be among the

oldest of the.surviving rock paintings, posiblydahng lrom the penod ca. 8ooo_2Joo 8.c.6 (Fig.r.r).? The animal is a pregnant cow, ,holno, i"oan outline form that becomes a solid, silhouettedshape in the depiction of the head, legs, andtail. A series of lines indicates the bone stiuctirreof the creature. This so-called "X-ray style',8thus provides a view into the animai, revealinqits skeleton and. in this case and others wheripregnancy is being depicted, an unbom animalwithin. The calf is drawn in a similar combina-tion of solid and linear forms, although thearrangemenr of bones differs from that-of itsmother. The meaning of the pregnaDt cow cano y be surmlsed rn tfus context: some relation_ship to concepts of multiplication and fertilitymust be implicit. However, whether suchnotions had any significant bearing on the laterdevelopment of.Indic religious ideas about birthand rebirth or related concepts is unl<nown.

A completely different style may be seen in are?resentation of a zebu (Bos indiar) b,a1l atKharvai, also near Bhopal (Fig. r.z), which hasbeen dated to the period ca. z5oo-3oo n.c.s lothis case, the form has been created by the use ofwhite kaolin ro define the silhouemed shape o[the animal against the darker color of the rockwall. The suggestion of naturalism rs grearerhere than in picrures in the X-ray style. since thesilhouette techaique lends soliditv to the form.ln addition, the roundness of the'animal's bodyand rhe swell ing hump indicate a rype of ob-

, rrvatiotr that irnticipates later naturalistic repre-' r t J l r o r \ o f r n i l r ] . r 1 . i n \ o r r t h A ' i a .Thc popularity of corvs

"nd bulls as subjccts

r:. early rock paintings, such as thc trvo cxan-iplcs::st rliscussed, sllggcsts th:rt tl-rc larcr cr-nphasrs on:ovinc crcaturcs in Indic culture h:rcl its bcgin-: ing in the Stone Agcs. Florvcver, it is dif icult:-r dctemine if rhcse paintings l\ 'ere mcent.l lply to record l i l i or if they served rcliglousr megical purposcs xs s'cll. Thus, rvhilc it mey

--.- sugacstcd thet the relationship betrveen thc...rly depictions ancl latcr cmphasis on thc,-rbjcct is urore than merely coincidcntal, the,'..ecial significancc of cows and bulls at an:.Lrl y clate reruains spcculativc.

Although paintines ir-r cavcs ancl rock shcltcrs:.re found throughout the uorlcl es lecords of

r . . . . - . . . - : : - . Ur l t Ar i . r su . l r, ,rrks miglit be said to havc special sisnificar.rcc.lnc of thc Dr:rjor art lorms of the Indic rvorld-

' l - , r r . . ' r , I ' i r , c t r . r , , n . l i . , 1 , . ^ r . . i . r l r )r an orltgro\!-t l1 o[aspccrs ofthis c:rrly prlcticc.

.,. l i i lc thc lctual historv of rock-cut architccture, . i . . , . r , . l i . , . . . , l , . , - l . . l f ^. r ( . ( r l l l i . l l . l l l i ) l . r \ \ ' l l . r ' l , , r r c l g l l i i l l l \ ( l l L \

' r r . - t l r . M . r L r r ) 1 , r " 1 . p , r l ' , 1 . r l r , p r . , , r i ' c

,.:rtcLl thc necds of an alreacly cxistrne ancl vcry:ong predilection.Sculpturc rvas also protlucecl by thc Storc

-:c drvellers of ancient India, as cviclencecl by::r ' ivine cxamplcs in bonc, shcll, stonc, ud::r.-r matcri l ls. Onc characteristic t l pc of sculp-: e is the so-called "rock-brirising,"r0 r-hich s

I . r r ' / l . r c r r i . r ' r r ' I r c \ r r r ' . . g r , r . , c L . o

:.t a pxttcrn is crcatcd dr-re to thc chengrngr ' ' f t l r , ' L r ' 1 . c , . \ I I ' 1 , ' l r , r ' i

' r r r , l L r . i s

. ,:ntially sculptural, thc rcsults arc nrl inly nvo-: ::rcnsionrl ancl thcrcforc rclatcd ro printine.

.in rock-sheltcr paintini:s, both animals andr:r1ans :lre shorvn in rock-bruisings. bur thc

: ri co111n1o11 subjecr is cf,tt lc. A1l cr]nlplc: :n Maski in northcln Karn:rtlka dcpicts

lcd cattlc in both silhoucrc :rn.l c,,., i l ine

ANTICIDINTS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION 5

t .3. Aniurr is. "Rock-bruisnrg" :rt Maski, Karnarrks,L)dix. Various drtes.

forn-r, sregcsting rclationships to carly rock-shcltcr paintinqs (Fig. r.3). As in thc crsc ofn r o \ ' r o . k - . l i , J r . r 1 i r r r r ' 3 ' . ' l ' , . l c , i f i , r , c , i " sare clcarly distinsuishccl rncl thcrcfore idcnti-f irblc, despitc thc sorncwhat schcnetic renderingof thc forms. Thc scp:rratc subjects iu this panel,including both aniural ancl hurnln forms, r'crenot cxccutccl ls e single unificcL compositioD.Insterd, thc lrrangencnt as it appears toclay isthc rcsuit of neny scparrtc incidcnts of carvingand thc cumulativc efforts of a nutibcr of indi-viduals. As in thc crsc of rock-shcltcr paintings,it is diffrcult to assess the clate of any spccific ex-xnple;11 solne of thc carvinqs in this group lnaybc cxtrcrncly old, rvhile others lnxy havc bccnnudc only a fc$,' cen tr.rrics ago. Likc Stor.rc Agepeirtines, such cxamples rcilcct t irc persistenceo{ Stonc Agc prttcms of l i fc aloncsiclc thcmainstrcarn of Inclic civil ization tlrroughout thecenturics rvli i le xt thc samc tir lc providing someinsight inro possiblc sources lor hrclic culturcitsell

E a n l y N E o r r r H r c A n r

.-.itc of t l ie l ' icle-ranging cvicle'ncc of Stonc: popuiations throughout thc Soutir Asi:rn

iontincnt for tens of thousends ol- ycars,

thc oligins of r'het erchacologists clcfinc as true"civil izetior" arc sornervhet clrrsivc, :rs is thed c f i r t l r n t r o r c i v i l . z . , r r , , r r i r * l t . l t t r r r . , . r . " -

6 FouNDATroNs oF rNDIc cwrlrzATroN

counts, the term implies the use of agricuhure,domestication of animals, urbanized parrems ofexistence, t}le evolution of a political structureand, important for our purposes, the developmentof specialized crafts, Because of the concentratedarchaeological research in this region, most ofthe known settlements that are a prelude to thecomplex patterns of life that characterize thecivilized state have been found in the far north-west of tlre subcontinent, such as at Mundigakin southeast Afghanistan and in northern Bal0-chistan in Pakistan. The recent excavations atMehrgarh in nort!.ern Bahchisten in particularhave revealed Neolithic pattems of life as earlyas the sixth or even seventh millenniurn r.c.,that is, contemporary with the Stone Agepatterns that were flourishing elsewhere in thesubcontinent. Later settlements have been identi-fied further south, in southem Balnchistan andSind, again in Pakistan, and even later in thePafi.jab region of Pakistan and in Rajasthan,krdia. The geographic distribution of theseearly setrlements has led to the supposirionthat stimulus toward a settled existence wasprovided by contact rvith the westem Asiaticworld and gradually spread southward andeastward. However, this viewpoint is not ten-able in lieht of recent discoveries in the centralGanges rJgion of northern India, where, at sitessuch as Koldihwa near Allahabad. settled pat-

tems ofexistence have been traced to the sevinrhmillennium r.c.13 This suggests that furtherarchaeological work will greatly alter our under-standing of early settlement patterns and of the"origins" of civilization in South Asia.

No single excavated site provides a completeprofile of the emerging pattems of life or theartifacts produced by these early peoples. Sincethey created and used pottery, however, a fullerranse of their matedal culture is known thansurvives for rheir Stone Age counrerparts.

The pottery unearthed at the northwesternsites reveals a variety of vessel shapes and colorschemes, along with a well-defined vocabularyof abstract and geornetric designs. In general,greater re{inement in technique and designdeveloped over the course of centuries so thatthe earlier, hand-built pots were graduallysuoerseded bv wheel-formed vessels. The wares

range from simple monochrome or bichromecompositions to complex polychrome designs.Some levels and sites have yielded pots withgeometric and abstract motifs, while othersshow the popularity of more naturalisric motifi,such as vegetal and animal forms. In some cases,geometric forms such as zigzags, triangles,ovals, and bands create abstract pattems like thatseen on a shard fiom the Quetta Valley ofnorthem Baluchistan, Pakistan (Fig. r.4a). Thearrangement of such moriG sometimes suggestsa scene. For example, step-pyramid forms and aband of chevrons combine to create the efectof a landscape with mountains and a river on apot from Mundigak in southern AQhanistan(Fig. i.ab). Animals, such as the ibex (Fig. r.4c),and vegetal morifs, such as the pipal (Fi.usrcIigiosa) (Fig. r.4d), have been recovered fromlater levels at Mundigak. These laner rwo motifsare noteworthy, for both have been identifiedin the same level at Mundigak and are thereforepresumed to be contemporaneous, yet the ibexis associared with the wesrem Asiatic ootrervcultures, while the pipal l^ter became a majorsyrnbol in South Asian Buddhist art. Thus, rheirjoint occurrence seems to document the coexi-stence of ties to .western Asia and strongly in-digenous developments. The meaning of theseand other motifs employed on early pottery'can only be surmised. However, it is likely thatsome symbolism, whether conscrous or un-consclous, was Present.

A very fine example of a painted pot comesfrom Damb Sadaat (Pl. r). Dating fromaround zToo-z3oo 8.c., the vessel represents thefinal stage ofthe prehistoric period in the QuettaValley. The shape of the pot, with its narrowfoot, rounded bowl, and gently fladng rim,suggests both the technical skill ofthe potter andthe highly developed aesthetic principles govern-ing the creation of pottery during this period.The painted design, which consists of bands ofblack encircling the bowl arid bulls with widearching horns, combines both abstract and natu-ralistic elements. While the animals are clearlyidentifiable and have counterparts in the naturalworld, the painter has embellished their formsby exaggerating the contours and adding geo-metric patterns to the surfaces oftheir bodies.

ANTICEDTNTS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION 7

L4. Pottcry rnotias. A) from Querta Vxlley, Norrhem Balarchisran,Pakistan; B) fron Mundigak III, Afghanistan; C, D) from Mundi-gak IV, Afghanisten. Prc-Flarappa phase

r.5. Figurines. From Mchi, Pakistan. Kulli Culture associarion. Ca.2Joo rgoo B.c. Tcrra cotta. I{: ca. 5-7 cm. Archaeologicai Surveyof India, New Delhi.

Ierra-cotta figurines have also been un-:::rhed alongside the painted pottery in carly:'.'.is of sites in,the northwest. Tluce small male:-rrines frorn Mehi display the abstracted and

:::plified body forms often characteristic ofi:r pieces (Fig. r.5). Recognizable as hununs

r-- rre because of the upriglrt posturcs andj .. elied ornaments than due to verisimilitude in

:.:icting body parts, the figures havc a lively: ,omewhat illogical appcarancc. Hand-formed

and often very crude, the figurincs rnay someday provide valuable clues to the developmentofcultural and religious concepts that evcntuallymanifested in latcr Indic civilization. Bothanimal forn.rs (most commonly the bull) andhun.rans (most oftcn the fen.rale) are foundwidespread throughout the rcgion, althoughthey arc notably absent &om at lcast two com-plexes.la Thc femaie figurines suggest sorrretype of female cult, often identified as mother-

8 ToUNDATIONS OF INDIC CMLIZATION

' ' . . . ' - . . . ' . : . ]r.6. Bull sculptute, From Periano Ghuo. {ai, Zhob

district, Northem Bahchisten, Pakistan. Ca' thitd

millennium e.c. Clay. American Museum of Naturrlllstory, New Yotk.

goddess worship. While the poPularity of the

female and the later importance of female and

goddess imagery in Indic art might suggest

such a concept, the term "rnother goddess" is

perhaps too strong, since we know neither

how these sculptures were used nor what theyrepresented; we cannot say whether the female

is a goddes, nor even a mother. Bull sculptures,

too. Drovide a link with later Indic culture,

since . as will be shown, the bull came to haveimportant economic, symbolic, and religiousmeaning in the Indic world. Bull imagery alsoindicates a possible linl with the Stone Agedwellers for whom bovine creatures apparentlyhad great importance. An example may be seen

in a representation from the Zhob Valley (Fig.

r.6).

CorcrusroN

The study of the prehistoric period of tlle

South Asian subcontinent is still in an early stage,and vet these phases must not be overlooked inreconstructing the region's artistic past' While

the creation of rock art, terra-cotta {igurines, andpainted pottery are in no way uniqle 1o the-In-ii. *otld but are common signs of the earliestbeginnings of civilization droughout the world,they may be said to have a particular importancein this region due to their persistence. Rock artperhaps provides evidence of an early Predilec-ti"n -hich culminated in the monumental andelaborate rock-cut caves of the Buddhists, Hin-dus, and Jains. The subjects that appear in suchcomDositions as well as in terra-cotta sculprure

and on painted pottery of Neolithic peoplesare possible linls with later Indic thought. Bulls,females, certain plant forms, and other motifsthat appear in early lndic art not only Persistedbut became prominent, recurring themes inlater periods. One might even say that theabstract motifs so commonly represented onear\ pottery find their counterParts later inyaxtras and other abstract or geometric con-trivances used in Indic art and religion. Suchties are further suggested by the fact that im-portant religious sites of historic times rnayoften be identified as important prehistoric toolsites, indicating strong continuity between thetraditions.

l i

D , t r i l , I , . t J .

C H A P T E N ' I ' ! q O

The Indus (or Harappa) Civilization

(ca. z3oo t -o r75o s.c . )

)htinctivc sctdemcnt Pattelns acconPanicd by

--.: lrLrrl l lnd tcchnologicai developrl ents are rvell:lcumentccl from atr clrly datc in thc nordr-.'. cstem rcgions of thc SorLth Asian subcontinent::r.1 havc rccently bccn iclentificrl in the Gangcs','.r1lcy.

Hou'cvcr, the carlicsr known lnclic

:rmplex rvhich cln be tern-rccl "civilization"l

::r thc strictcst scnse of thc u' 'ord is t ltc lndus,,r. as it is:rlso called, thc Harappa civii ization.

>incc carJy invcstisators originally thouglrt t lutrc cit ies and torvns ofthc cultrue wcrc cruslereo'niv ir.r the Indus Rivcr Valley of Pakistarr, it.'.'es calied thc lnclus civilizrtion, a name u'hich:r 1ro lonqer considcrccl trr-rly dcscriptivc. For. r 'oscqucnt t l iscoveries of sites belonging to:.ris cultnre havc cxpancled its knorvn gco-

' p r i . l o r r r . r i r r t o i r r . l r r , l , . . r e . . : t u r r . r p p r , ' ' i -l l telv the size of rvestem Europc, rcaching::onr northcrn Alghalfstan and the border:-.etrvccn Pakistan and Iran on thc rvcst, soudr..long India's l\ '-estern corst to thc Gull 'of

Cambay, east into thc Gangctic hcaclwatcrs,and nortlr to the footirills of thc Hir.nalayas. Itis fully expected that futrlrc research rvill extenclthe boundaries and definitiots of this cultureeven further. Thc city of Harappa, rvhcrc thcciviliz:rtion r,vas first discovered, has lent its nameto thc rlternatc clcsignation for this culturc.Horvcvcr , t ] r i r n . ,n rc a ls . , h . ' , l ' rn r r - t ro r ' . ' i t r ce

over one hundred fift1' sites fror.n this civilizationl r r r c b c , n l o r r r r d . f i r e o ' w h i c l r m r 1 b c , . r 1 l c dr i t i e , r n t l t - p r o p ( r \ c n . c o f t l ' c t c r r n . T 1 r u . . l l l ecity of H:rrappa is not to be consiclcrccl a uniqucq116,1 'Jc . nor necLr . . ,n ly .ver r o r r , t l p ic . r l o f t l r ccivilization as a *'hole .

Althoush crtcnsivc archacologicai explora-r i o r , . r n J . n r d 1 l r , ' b c q n c . , r r i , . l c r t - . r r H . r r . r o p asites for much of this century,2 infornation, L b o r r t r l r i . . . r ' . i e n t , r r l t r r r c r . . r l l J i r l i r c d : ' n , n i

basic qucstions abor-rt the people, thcir beliefs,and pattcrns of lile rcmain unanss'ered. Muchof rvhat is surmised about tl.re civilization is

.lO IOUNDATIONS OT INDIC CIVIIZATION

derived from our understanding of what occurslater in South Asia (we thus "read into" Indusphenomena) or from cross-cultural analogies,primarily with the flourishing civilizations ofcontemporaneous Mesopotamia, with whichthe Indus peoples were in contact, This latter,while comprising an importairt analytic tool,should not automatically suggest an indebtednessof the Indus civilization to those of Mesopo-tamia.

Because.iites showing experimental or forma-

tive stages of development for the Indus culturehave been &ficult to identify, the antecedent5of the civilization remain elusive. ltr some cases,fooding and the rise of the water table have

obscured the lowest levels of Indus sites and

the early stages, which may have been theformative ones, are inaccessible. For example,

it has been estimated that at Mohenjo-Daro, oneof the great metropolises of the Indus civiliza-tion, the lower third of the site is unavailablefor study because of ground water. It is possiblethat some sites will eventually reveal develop-mental stages of the civilization while other sitesthat do not might refect the spread of theciviliiation at an advanced stage and its super-imposition on other modes of life.3

Indus-type artifacts have been found in reli-ably dated Mesopotamian strata ranging fromapproximately 23oo B.c. to about r8oo r.c.4However, based on radiocarbon datess andother archaeological evidence, the culture's r4qinperiod of forescence, its mature or urban phale,is now believed to have taken place betweenabout 2roo l.c. and rTJo s.c.

Tnr Crr rss AND TowNs

ltr

I

i

Many cities and towns of the Indus civilizationwere laid out on rectilinear grids, with steets

oriented on north-south and east-west axes(Fig. z.r). Such standardization implies a great

degree of civic plaruring and organization, as

would be necessary in an urban environmentwhere large populations lived in relatively srnall

areas. The cornmon building material at Harap-

pa sites was baked brick.e A remarkable aspect

of the bricks is that they conform to specific

standards of size and quality throughout the

known geographical and chronological extent

of the culture. This uniforrnity indicates a high

degree of cenralization. as well as continuous

contact between various sites. Houses varied in

size. Some were probably several stories high.

Most display a similar plan with a square court-

yard surrounded by a number of rooms, a

format which persists throughout South Asianhistorv and was later incorDorated into both

domertic and religious atchiiecture. The walls

closine off the houses from the streets were

often -high

and apparently plain, broken only

by doorways, insuring the residents' privacy andprotection. It is interesting to note that doorways

Lading into domestic compounds invariably

occur along small lanes or byways and are never

located along the main streets or thorougMares.It is possible that the monotony of the walls wasrelieved by pahting or by other decoration

which has not survived. Houses had bathrooms,and the cities had sophisticated metho& of

drainage. Apparendy, the urban citizen of the

Harappe culture led a comfortable life, even

by modern standards.In addition to private dwellings and shops, a

number of large, apparently public, structures,

including granaries and citadels, have been

identified at various Harappt sites. At Mohenjo-

Daro, a tank, generally called the Great Bath,

has been unearthed (Fig. z.r, left). Because we

know that in later Indic life and religion,

bathing is essential for ritual cleansing, it has

often been suggested that the Great Bath had

religious significance, but there is no direct

internal evidence of this. At Lothal, on the

western seaboard of India, a large structureoften identified as a constant-water-level dock

has been excavated. If this intriguing but con-

troversial? structure is a dock, it would represent

an engineering feat of great sophistication'

Further, it would provide concrete evidence of

a means of sea trade between the Indus and

other civilizatioru.s That Lothal miqht have

THE INDUS CIVILIZATION I -1

: i1 a trading port city is further evidcncccl by: location of thc shops of mct:rlstriiths, bcacl-..:ts, sl.rell rnd ivory workers, ud other:kers in cr:r{ts thcre.:: iLging lrom the rrchacoloqical cvidcncc, the

- :: lcs of the Indus civil ization havc bccn saidvc en j . len . , p , . , , f i r l , r i ' cc t rcc . r ' r . t r [ cw

:.rrs poscd from the outsiclc. Scholars have. . r , t . - - . , ^ , , , . . . . - . . i , - , ; r , . r i o n , . r n J r h c

l:re and strcrgth of thc r,vcapons rlur hlvc-:l tbund, but, hckine any historical tcxrs, it

:r[possible to meke an accurate sti ltelDcnt:.rrJir.rg thc rclative peecefulncss of Harappa

l l r , I n ' i r k c - l I ' , r n . r g e r r r i r t o f r . r . ' n 1 ' f t r c::: lucts clocs sccrn to sLrqqcst thxt thc socrcty-,:rl incd stablc ovcr e long periocl of t inre, a

r . r . ) ( r j o n r l ' . r , r ' , r I r d r , , t c . ' l t i : 1 , I c r . : r c c: irrsularit,v arrd the abil ity to cluicklv absorb

' r , l i l l i r r r r r ( l n r ( I r r ' . I l o l l ' ( . , . , , r , . , ' lr rh. Whilc rnlny distinctions c:ur bc uradc, it:::r also be nored that in nine excevatccl lcvcls

\,iohcljo-L)aro, ibr cxrmplc, no significent:,nqcs ir1 thc t1'pc l l lcl charlctcr of menv::rircts, such es brick size, occLrrs. rrrrl icaring

:--' iLt co1lstx11cy 1or scvcnl ccnturics- Si]lce this\ . ' , l . ' r ' - . . , l n ' , , t . , " r r ' r o g u . r - r : r . t

:-rrln D.rturc itscif, futurc rcscrrch nuv holcl'mc important ans\\-ers. It is possiblc tl i :rt

,:rrny of thc cnrbcll ishrucrrLs that could rlcmon-

z.r . Vie\ t . of s i re shorvrDg Grc:r t Barh. Mohc jo- l ) i ro, Pakisr ;Ln.l l3rappt pcnod.

stretc the pcrsonxlitv of the culrure ancl iDclic:rtcgrc:rtcr clillererlces were mede in easilv pcrishablcmatcrials and ]rave been lost. McasrLrcrrrcrrrs oDexcrvatcd skelctal renains havc shc,wrr urat atlcast four clifcrcnt racial typcs livccl et Moheir.jo-D. r r . - ' .e and r l tu . con ,p l " te l to tno lc t 'e i ry r r r t l resocicty is not to bc crpcctecl. I11 fict, archae,

ologists are increasinely able to makc distinc-dons frorn sitc to sitc atrcl ovcr the coLlrsc ofr i n r L . Y c t . r l , . ' ' . r , . l ' , . l r l i l J : r p r ( s . i u r c i \ c nby the buildings an.l stnlctures of the Harappasites is th:rt of a controllcrl, cor-iscrv:rtive. well-orclerecl, honogcncous socicty r,vith l centraiizedgovcrnnlcnt,

Althougli thc Great JJ:rth et Mohenjo-i)eronray havc had sonrc ritual purposc, : inc1 thecxistcncc of religions cercnrolics is :rlso suqgcstedb 1 ' h , l i ' , v , r y f . , [ c s f i r , r / r . . r ' . ' r l l . , . r o p rsitcs, the lack of :r nejor Fhrapp:i stmcturethat cln bc iclcntif icd positivclv rvith relisiousccrcmonics, such as e templc, is puzzling. Surcemost of latcr lndic rhought, art, rncl l i fe isdornirurccl by rclieious conccrns,:rncl sincc nrostothcr civil izaticus in comparlblc st:rgcs ofC . \ ( ] u p r r . r i r i , l . l . r o , n t ' t , n r . t i . ' n ^ f r , r - i o L r .bclicls, this is surprisiuu. Ciues to sonrc oft l r . L u r L . p t . f L r r r d . . r ' c l r r l r o t l r c l l i , . r . p ( ' ' I . (do exist, horvever, in thc scr-rlptr-rres ancl scalsthat have been fbund.

12 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVILIZATION

2.2. Bcardcd rnan. Fron Mohenjo-Daro, Pakisten. Mature Har-appt period. Ce. 2roo-r7jo B.c. Lir11estollc. H: 19 crD. NatioDalMuscum, Karachi.

S c u L P T U T x

The sophistication and technologicai advance-mcnt evidenced in the organization and structureof thc citics of the Harappa civilization arc alsoseen in sculptural works. Asidc ftorn seals andterra-cotta sc[lpttrrcs, so fe$i stone ancl mcta]scr r lp r r r re ' h rve cornc ro J ighr in e \cav . r f ion \(less tl.ran two dozen are known) that the suryiv-ing examples must rcprcsent only a tiny fiactionof thc objccts once produced. A sculpturaltradition using n-rore ephemeral matcrials, suchas wood, must havc cxisted alongside of, andccrtainly prior to, the use of stonc and metal.All of dre sculptures founcl thus far are small(thc largest is only about forty centimeters ligh),and even those that are brokcn would not havebeen sizable r,vhen con.rplete. Interestingly, thereis considerable varicty in the types of stonc usedeven among the few surviving cxamples, sug-gcsting that the materials were sclccted becauseof their intrinsic beanty, not because thcy wcrewide ly . rv . , i l . tb le in t l re reg t . , t r . In fac t . thestones used generally r',,erc not local to northwestIndia and Pakistan. It is likely that small piccesofdifferent stones were imported through trade,pcrhaps as highly covetcd raw materials.

The purposes of these small sculptures are asunclear as thcir stylistic origins. It is not knownr'herher thcy were made for sccular or religionsncccls, nor can thcir stylistic origins and prccc-dcnts be determined at prescnt. In general, theydo not appear to be thc tcntativc formulationsonc would expect in a beginning art tradition.I{athcr, they reflect a mature stagc of artisticdcvclopr.nent in which problems of proportion,scale, rclation offorrns, and surface enhancemcntare all carcfirlly worked out. While the formativcstages remain undetermined, thcse works can becontextualized by comparison to Mcsopotan.rianexar.nples as well as to later Indic art.

Onc sculpture rcvealing some afinities toMesopotamian imagery is a carved limcstonefragurent shorving thc head and shoulders of abeardcd man. It was found in one of the laterHarappa-pcriod lcvcls at Mohenjo-Daro (Fig.z.z). Some scholars have suggested that theindividual depicted might be a forcigner,perhaps a Mesopotamian, since the high, straightnosc whicir blends alrnost in.rperceptibly intothe forehead, the full lips, and the narrow,slitlike eyes (one of which was still inlaid with

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shell when it was found) do not seem to reflectfacial types characteristic of the South Asiansubcontinent or that occur in later hrdic art.The treatment of the beard (itselfnot a typicallyIndic fashion) and hair also dif,ers from anyextant examples in South Asian art in thestricdy controlled striated patterns that reveal apropensity for linear rather than sculpturalforms. This linearity and abstraction is evidentalso in the treatment of the ear as a whorllikeconliguration on the side of the head. Thecostume worn by the figure may betray furtherassociations with westem Asiatic culture. Forexample, the garment that covers only theleft shoulder is a type commonly seen in Meso-potamian art, though the popularity ofa similarone-shouldered garment in later Buddhist cos-tume suggests that it may reflect a purely Indicstyle of clothing. The trefoil design on the gar-ment reinforces the suggestion of western Asiaticcontact, for this pattem is found occasionally inEgyptian, Mesopotamian, and Minoan art, butnot in late( India, although it does appear else-where as a motif in Haraooa art.10 In thiscase, the trefoil patte.tt, whiih is slightly raisedftom the surface of the sculpture, was {illedwith a red paste wherr the piece was found, sothat it contributed to a polychrome effect forthe sculpture. The headband wom by the figure,with its ends hanging down the back of thehead, is a type seen in later Indic art, but usuallyreserved only for "foreign" types. Together,these features, which have no known precedenton the South Asian subcontinent and do notseem to persist as lndic characteristics, suggesrsome westem Asiatic associations. However,direct contact between the cultures at this timeis not the onJy possible explanaton for theshared characteristics. Similarities may illustratea common debt to an uaderlying or preexistingcontinuum of ideaslt that was important in theformulation ofboth the Indus and Mesoootamiancivil izations.

The individual portrayed in this sculpture hasoften been called a priest, an assertion based onvarious factors. The presence of headgear, inthis case a headband, suggests that he may bea person of ranl, for in later Indic art, thewearing of turbans, crowns, and even simpler

THE INDUS CIULIZATION 1?

2.3. Seated figure. From Moherl'o-Daro,Pakistan. Mature Ha?ppe period. Ca.2roo-r7jo B.c. Alabaster. H: z9.z cm.National Museum, Karachi.

headgear is generally associated with high-ranling individuals. The meaning of his one-shouldered ga(mert is unclear in the Induscontexr, but it may have had religious associa-tions as suggested by its popularity in laterBuddhism. Further, the halflclosed appear-ance of the slidike eyes has led to tbe-sug-gestion that the individual is practicing medi-tation, perhaps of a type Lnowa in later Indicreligious traditions. But such an identificationmust remain speculative rmtil a fuller pictureof the Harappa culture emerges.

Another sculpture from Mohenjo-Daro, madeof alabaster, .shows further associations withMesopotamian art (Fig. 2.3). This male figurewedrs a garment that completely masks thelower portion of his body. His seat€d posture,obscured by the garment, seems to be a cross-legged pose witb the le{i knee dightly raised orheld high by the left hand. The body is quitethin, and the arms and hands in particular lacksubstance and solidity. While the head is mising,a strand falling behind the right shoulder suggestslong hair or a wig. At first glance, the figureindeed seems to resemble a number ofsculpturesfrom Mesopotamia. Closer exarnination r.uealsthat the rounded forms, the posture, and thetreatment of drapery and hair, while possiblybased on similar or common aesthetic predisposi-tions, cannot be mistaken for Mesopotamian

51ght--i lnlo

I4 IOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIYILIZATION

2.4. Male figurc, lllree views. Fron Harapp:, pakisran. MatureHanppt period. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c. Red stone. H: 9.3 c1n.National Museum, Ne rv Dclhi.

rypes. Yet, like the previous sculpture, thiscarying does not suggest thc forms of laterlndic rrt, either. Thus, while apparently relatedto western Asiatic traditions, both seem toexpress an aspect of the Harappa civilization.

In striking contrast, other sculptures have'been found at Harappe sites that bear noresemblance whatsoever to western Asiaticfornrs. lhese u orls. along n irlr rhe vast majoriryof Harappa artifacts, clearly document thecultural independence of thc civiliz:rtion. Fur-thermore, many of thcsc objects offer intriguingevidcnce of continuiticc bcrwcen Harrppdsculpturc and later Indic art. Perhaps the besrfigurative examplc showing both the independ-ent tradition of the Harappans and its ties tolater Indic art is a sraall red stone statue of anrrde rrralc figure rlr lr w,r. fotrnd at HarJpp.r(fig. .:.a). Un[ortun Lrcly. bec.rrrse rhe piccewas not excavated under controllccl conditions,there is no archaeological proof of its carly date.Sone have claimed that it dates from a laterperiod.12 Howcvcr, several cogent argumentsfor a Harappa-pedod date havc bcen put forth,inciuding thc fact that the sculpture has drillcdsockcts to rcceive dolvels for thc attachment of

the head and limbs. This feature rs not secn rnlater Indic stone sculpture, but is a commonHarappa terra-cotta technique. The carvingrelatcs styiistically to somc later Indic works,but distinctions are also present. Thus, thc workrnay bc accepted rvith somc certainty as a pro-duct of the Harappa civilization. Hopefully,future scientific excavations will unearth similarpicccs to verify this.

Pcrhaps the nost striking aspect of this sn.rallstatlrc is its naturalism. The body is subtlynodeled and softly contourcd. Gentle transi-tions bctween one part of the body and anotherare crcated through sculptural means, rathcrthan with the use of line. For example, theabdoniual and pectoral regions su'cll in a three-dirncnsional nanner and are not defined by anyoutlinc or linear den1:trcation. In contrast to thepreccding examples of Harappa sculpturc,thcrc is a total absence of linear design, abstractpattcrns, xnd other surlace enhancement. Inmr.rch of latcr Indic sculpture, whilc somel i r re . ' r p r r re r r rs n r ighr bc p rcsenr . \ucn a \ indrapery depictions, a major enphasis is on theforns of the body, achieved, as herc, throughsculptural mcans.

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THI INDUS CIVIIZATION 15

2.j. Female figure, front and back views. Frorn Mohenjo-Daro,Pakistan. Mature Herappt period. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c. Bronze.li[: rr.{ cm. National Museum. New Delhi.

Although from the front the figure seemsstatic and fiontal, the asymmetry of the backsuggests that the figure was meant to be sholynas if the weight of the body was more heavilyresting on one leg than on the other. Thiscreates a Geling of implicit movement throughirnbalance and thus orovides a sense of anirna-tion that reinforces the overall naturalism of theDlece.

The unadomed nudity of this 6gure hasgenerated a great deal of discussion, The merefact of the nudiw and the depiction of the malegenitals does not necessarily i;dicate sexuality orGrtility. The same would be true of femalefigures whose hips and breasts might be apparent.To not depict the sexual features of the humanbody would signify a deliberate artistic choiceand a negation. To represent them is simply todescribe the human form, unless, of course,undue attention is placed on their depiction. Inany case, the reason for the nudity remains amystery, for in both Harappa art and laterIndic art, total nudity is by far the exceptionrather than the normal manner of presentingthe human form, although the clinging gar-ments characteristic of manv stvles of South

Asian art almost suggest nudity. It is perhapsbecause of the nuditv. as well as the accident ofhaving lost the limbs and head in both cases,that this figure is so often discussed in relationto the Lohenipur torso of the Maurya period,around the third century n.c. (Fig.4.rr). Thiscomparison has been emphasized by those whofavor the view that the piece from Harappa isnot a product of the Harappa civilization. Thepoints of comparison are superficial, however,for in technique (the Maurya piece has a. char-acteristic highly-polished surface), the method ofdepicting body transitions, and the presence ofthe sockets in the Harappa piece, the sculpturesdifer. The nudiry of the Maurya sculpturemight be related to a specific religious cult.Whether this is true for the Harappa piece canonly remain speculative at this time, for we donot know who the sculpture represents or whatpurpose it served. In later Indic contexts, when afigure is shown without clothing, as in the caseof Digambara or "Sky-clad" Jain figures, itis generally not for the purpose of glorifyingthe hurnan body, but rather as a symbol ofworld renunciation and victory over the usualneeds of the physical body. It is possible that

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'6 TOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

a similar reason explains this fgure's nudity.A well-preserved statue of a female figure

provides a rare example of metal sculpturel3ftom the Harappa civilization. Quite differentin style from the red stone torso, it also showslinks to later Indic art (Fig. 2.5). Found atMohenjo-Daro in one of the later strata, thissmall image is probably of a date late in thehistory of the site. The piece is stylisticallyquite unlike either the westem. Asiatic-typeforms or the more typically Indic forms thusfar described in Harappa art. It may representstill another strand in this early arr tradition.Like the red stone figure, the body is nude, buthere the bodily forms are abstracted into long,thin, pipeJike elements and have none of theso{ily modeled feshiness of the red statue. Theelongated, lanky limbs seem to show a disregardfor natumlistic proportions, yet the overalleffect is one of liveliness and animation. Thisefect is largely achieved through the jauntyposture, with both legs bent and the left legplaced slighdy forward while the bent rightarm rests on the right hip. This vitality has ledto the common assumption that this figurerePresents a dancer, a suggestion colored byattempts to interpret early Indic works in lightof later Indic civilization. It would be of sreatinterest if rhis figure is a dancer, for tfus w;ulddemonstrate a precedent for the later emphasison dance in South Asia. However, such anassertion is strictly speculative, for it is imposibleto determine whether the implied movement ofthe figure is that of a dance.-

Although the girl is nude, she is not un-adomed. She wears a necklace and has numerousbangles on her arms. While it is most unusualto find an unclothed female in the whole raneeof Indic an, jewelry is almost universally woinby figuies-both Gmale and male-throughoutthe many centuries oftraceable Indic art. In gen-eral, it is the absence, not presence, ofjewelrythat is the more notable condition. A lack ofjewelry is often a deliberately chosen rneans ofmaking a statement about an individual, suchas, for example, the fact that he or she is areligious mendicant. (The absence of jewelrymay thi$ provide a clue to the meaning of thered torso from Harappa.) Jewelry eventually

came to serve both decorative and symbolicfunctions in lndic art, but wherher anythingmore than simple adornment is intended heriis unlcnown. As in the preceding sculpture, thenudiry does nor necessarily imply sexualiry orfertility, since there is no emphasis on se'xualclaracterisfics. (Perhaps because of her adoles-centlike lanhiness, no one has suggested thatthis girl is a "urother goddes.") Other featuresof interest include the hair, which is tied into abun at the nape of the neck in a sfyle similar tothat wom by many South Asian women eventoday, and the 6cial characteristics, includinsthe heary lips and higb forehead. These physicalGatures are often said to be tvpical of theDravidians, the people who are piivalent rodayin south Iadia and who mav have been theprincipal inhabitants of the Haiappa civilization.Thus, this sculpture documents different formsand trends than do the stone sculptures andfurther suggests the breadrh of Harappa art.

Numerous terra-cotta fiqures have beenrecovered from Harappa sites, but these dif,erconsiderably in style and decoration from thestone and metal pieces. The terra cottas areusually more crudely executed and, since they,are far more common, may represent a popularart form. If, as has been suggested, stone forsculpture was often imported, the use of thatmore precious material, and of metal (whichwould require a relatively sophisticated rechnol-' ogy), may have been associated with the elite ofthe society, while the ubiquitous rerra co![acould have served the artistic needs ofthe peopleas a whole.

A common subject in terra-cotta figures isthe Gmale. These sculptures bear little resem-blance to the metal girl just described, but it isimportant to remember that any apparentdifferences have not yet been correlated topossible artistic developments over time andfrom place to place within the Harappa civili-zation. The most common tvpe of Grnale haswide hips, pelletlike breasts, iobular limbs,

"ndabuadant jewelry adornments including neck-lace, girdle, earrings, and frequendy an elaborateheaddress (Fig. 2.6). Terra-cotta figures aregenerally small and schematically rendered. Liketheir pre-Harappa counterparts, these are often

: : t l lc

. , . 5

:.6. Female figurc. From Moheqjo-Daro, Pakistan.-\larure Harappa period. Ca. 2loo-r7jo B.c. Tcrre;:rra. H: ca. 15 crn. National Museum, New Delhi.

;lled "mother goddesses," though the aptness--i this designation is questionable. When, as.xcasionally occurs, a small child appears on thel:ip or at the breast, or a bulging abdomenu:qgests pregnancy, at least the concept of=otherhood may be verified. One might even

:o so far as to say that implicit in every female:gure is the concept of motherhood, whether:: is actual or potential. However, the assessment-.j rhe divine nature-the goddess aspect is-supportable at this date. Perhaps it is best to;i ume that the popularity of the Gmale as a::bject in terra-cotta art from pre-Harappa;:rd Harappa times is associated with the ideas:i nrotherhood and hence Grti l i ty. procrcation,;:d the continuity of life, although the presence:: any divine status is unl(nown. It is true thatj---:s early emphasis on the Gminine aspect mightl.e a strong basis for the later importance placedca women in the rnajor Indic religions, andc:Dsequently their prominence in Indic art.\-.netheless, the meanings associated with female::agery at this early date remain uncertain.

A potential emphasis on the sexuality of the::=ales depicted in the terra cottas is reinforcediv other objects recovered from Harappa

THE INDUS CNIUZATION 1Z

sites. A definite reFerence to procredrion seemsto be intended in a number of carvings thatlepresent the phallas (linga). While some ofthese are abstract and may only be inferred to.represent the phallus, others are quite natural-istic (Fig. 2.7). Ring stones believe<l to representthe female generative otgan (yoxi) also havebeen found. Since few havc been unearthed inspecific association with a, liiga, some scholarshave discredited the interpretation of theseobjects as liigas ar'd yonis. However, a convinc-ing alternative hypothesis has not been offered,and because li igas and yoars are conrmon inlater Indic art, these objects may be accepted asearly examples, A religious emphasis on pro-creation is a phenomenon associated with earlyagricultural societies dependent upon the bountyof nature for their well-being and survival.

Judging from later Indic iconography, it is alsopossible that "eternal" or "universal" symbolismis intended by such objects. The loai rnightrepresent the door through which one is "born

again," thereby relating to the concept ofcountless rounds of rebirths (sathsAra), whichfigures in later Indic thought. The litga wouldrepresent the procreative, aspect of the universe(later, of the Hindu god Siva) and the means bywhich the endless cycles of birth, death, andrebirth occur. The realization of nonduality,symbolized by the combination of male andfemale principles, represents one of the essentialgoals of later Buddhist and Hindu thought.

2.7. Lihga. Frc'J. Mohenjo-Daro,

Pakistan. Harappe period. Ca.

23OO-L7SO R.C. Stone. Where-abouts of original unknovn.

: --_3re

: - , - : : h e

_- : : I

: :a

1E I ]OLNDATIONS OT INDIC CIV]LIZATION

:.S. Bull. Frorrl Nlohcnjol)aro, P:rkistan Malure

Har lppa per iod- Cr. 2roo-17Jo R.c. Tcru co! t3. H:

. r . 7 . . , \ , r : . r | \ 1 . r ' . , r r , . \ ' n D . j " i .

?crhaps such synbolisnl grc\r' out of bclicfsdistrtg,.rishablc as eerly as thc Harappe civiliza-tton,

Anothcr rspect of fer:tility syn.rbolism in thc'

Har:ippa culture sccnls to exist in thc rDan!

reprcscntations of bulls. On Indus sca1s, bullsor-rtrumbcr a1l odrcr motifs. Bulls arc com-

monlv for,rncl rs jsoletccL sc,-r1pt,-tlcs as \tcii (Fig.

2.8). Oltcr, thc rcpresentations erc highlvnarurll istic. Scveral clifferetrt verictics ol bovineanirl l. ls are easily clistingr-rishablc. Thcse ma,vrcprcseut sonrc of the clourcsticetcd eni]n:rlsth:rt \\.crc liighlr. veluctl iu society and thatcemc to hlr 'c qrcart ecdlolnic iurportance tothcir orvncrs. The bull, as potenti ir l sirc ofgclrcriltions of oillpri q, nrigl-rt havc corllc tcrhavc l sytrbolisrr associntccl lvirh both rvcrlthancl lcrrilit,v. Thc in.rportauce of this alriruajnay bcst bc crpleinccl 1-r1'eremininq somc ofthc seels thet h:rvc bccrr recovercd fronr variousHrrrppa! sircs.

a,

S r a r s

Over tlvo thousend seals ltrcl scal inprcssiotrsbave becn found at I larappa sitcs. Thi: mejoritv

of seals ,rrc ruacle of stc:rtirc tlut hes becu coetccl

with an rlkrli an.l thcn firc.l to ptoducc a r,vhitc

Iustrous surfacc.t4 Usually. t irc scals xre squarcin sl-Lapc ancl heve a pcrforete.l boss et thc beckfor han.ll irrs anrl suspttsion (Fig. 2.9). The,v arc

gclLcmll,v srn,rl1, xvcrxginsl cll v. f.rr! centi l l lctcrsacross. I)cspitc thcir srl l l l sizc, seals solrlctinlcsheve elatror;rtc intaqiio dcsiqns shorving :rtri lrrls,

plants, .elconrctric forurs, ltrd even icctrcs rvith

humerrs or hirmenoicls, as rvcll ls l r it inq. Thc

dcciphcrrncnt of the l 'r it ing rl1) thc LlLlLrs sc.rls

is pcrhaps the nlost vcrinq problctn for thc

intcrprctcr of this atrcicnt civil izxtioll, tbr tts

dcciphcrmcnt coulcl sutriru:rri lv provc or dis-

pro\c thc'numcroLLS thcorics that havr: bccn putforth eborrr thi: culturc. Approximetclv four'

hnnJrccL dilTelcnt sigtrs h,rvc bcclr cateloquccl lor

Lhis ,rpplrentlv picto*lap|ic script. To cli i tc,' r " r . l ' . . b . . t t ' o . ' t r n r r r ' . | . 1 . . p r c r r . r ' r .

although ruany anlLoLincenlents to th.t cllirctl , r . l ' , , r r r r r . ' . 1 . . - l l , . . ' - 1 . . i .

" f r l , . ' r p r

. , r l . . r r r t . , - ' l \ r r l p o r r . r i L . c r l r . . t r l t . r ! ( u l

{ irrn thc idcntirv of xt IciLst solric of t l ic I lxr:lPP-

pcoplc. For cxaurplc, if i t rcl:Ltcs ro the I)r.rvi. l i : inlenqulqcs, it r,r-orrlcl sLlpport thc conrmottly

hcld vicrv : lbout :r [ iurport:u]t l )r lvicl i l rr conr-

ponent of thc civi l izet ion, t l io,rgh this rvoulcl

txrt prcc1u.lc thc cxistcncc of other l ingLtist ic

aucl cthnic groups xnrorg thc Harappl peoplcs.

Thc clccoclecl langrLagc t.riqht :Llso proviclc a

kc1' to thc intcr ' l rctrt ior l of the scels arrd their:

dcsiqns. I Iolvcvcr. thc seels nlay hrvc bcen

usc.l :Ls drc pcrsonxl rr lxrks of iclcnti l lc l t ion of

thcir ol 'ncrs lui l ml1' conteiu otr l ,v proPcr nir lncs

or t i t lcs oi i trcLividue]s r:rthcr !h;1n exPl:rnirtory

nrxtcri :r l . As f ir es catr bc ( lcrcrrninc(l . t l lc scriPt

es i t survivcs t l id not clcvclop ovcr thc cclrturies

in rthich thc Hlrepp:r cnltrLrc l lourishccl. I ts

origins autl clcvclopurents :Lrc thcrcfofe rs

ct igrnatic rs t ]rc Nords i t rccorcls. lr i

Elcplunts. rhinoccroscs, xnd othcr aninlal\

, l " . r r , . . . . , . . . I ' r r l 1 r , I . r ' i r ' r t z o o -

norphic rnori f is e prof i lc rcprcscrl t :r t iol l of xn

eninr:r l strn,: l inq in f iotrt of sf i :r t l t rs bccn crl led

l ruirnqcr- (Fiq. : .ro). Sincc thc enimrl rPP!-arlog

or sLrch \cr ls is r lcpicte. l rvi th otr l-r ' onc horn, i t

hes oftcn bccn iclcrrLi ccl ls r Lr11icorl1. Akhotiqh

thc Inrl ic contcrt r locs proviclc some vel icl i t ,v to

thc irLcnri l lcet iotr. for e onc-honrct l crceturc

(r la-irr iga) is knou,t i i r thc lr tcr Jr11I rcl iqion.r?

drc f. icr that t l ic hcad of the rnini,r l is invrr iebly

dcpictcrl ur l srr ict prof i lc, stLgl lests thlt thc two

THI INDUS CIVILIZATIC]N 1 9

+, 1'- 'r!, . - r.t ' ,

:,v_lt

- is

:IS

:::rs of the animal simply ovcrl.p, and that x.::::corn is not being silown at all. Indecd, thc

. - , r , . . . . . l L r . . : _ l : - . r l r . r t i i i , . r- ' , ine creaturc! rcqarcllcss of any pecLrli lr ity in: - number- of horns.

. " r r r n 3 . r " i , . r l ' o d i r f , ' r l r r o l r r c r p r c r . r o r:' -'crs of this type havc not yct bcen lbLrncl iri

: : . 'r ic^vations of Hellppa sircs. lt ney havc. .rr usccl in religiors cereruonics or slcrif iccs: ::uv silnply heve been a lccdinq trough. 1'hc

- ications of the doublc-ribbed pa.1 or lurncss: .rcDtly sho\\[ across thc s]roLrlclcrs of thc

r:: ' ,al arc- l lso unc]clr.,:r this scrl. thc sLrbtlety of rnoclelins ancl rhe

':::omicei prccision cviclencecl irr rhc bcsr scllsr:lcarly visiblc. Intcrcstinglv, netur:rl isrn

:l; to bc rcsclvc,:l for thc clrviuqs of lnimels:: : re scels, rvhilc hnrl:urs are nornrall l dcpictccl. schcmetic rnd abstrlctccl f ishion. Ycr, es

. cviclcnt f iorl the srnall rccl nrl lc statuc,: r:r ' ;r l ism could also be e clurectcrisric oi thc

:.:::r.tn fignrc, lt lcast in somt Herepp- con-: .::.. Obscrvlt ion of natl iral lorms is l irrt l icr

:: in rhc cliffcrcntiatiorr of \':lrior.rs bovirlc::::,; ls on Inclns sc:rls. lor lt ]clst drrcc othc.r

: -rrrc.rl ly Jetrncd n'pcs rppcrr. Thc l irsr is e. l : - .

- . ' i . . t . r , r r ' . l i , i , r i r ' , i t j r ' , t i r i -

: : , : - .pe cavc pr in t i rq as nc l l (F ig . r . : ) ; d ic., : ' ,d is l bisonlikc crclturc commonly shot'n

::-i i . 'c1ing l ionr a trough, though rrot in thc:: r::p1c shorvn (Fis. :. r r) ; thc t1)ird is a sclclorl.:. ' :cnted rypc rvith r., 'rdcspreatl, arching

z.ro. Scal rv i th horrcd anir r ra l . f ron Mohcnjo-Daro,Pakistxn Mrlurc Hrrrpp:r per iod. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo R.c.Ste:r t i rc . Hi J.7cnl . Nar ional Muscunr, Nerv Dclhj .

: . I t . Sc. t l shot rnq bLrJ l . Frol r N{ohcnjoJ) l ro, l , rk is tan.MrtLrr f l lxmppr per iod. Ci . :Joo rTjo B-c. Stcar i ! . .H : . . l r r \ , , l V r . r , h , r .

. ls

',n

..d:19it

l l 'to

.1rc

.L?

. t w

20 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

horns. perhaps a water bufalo' These tiny

carvings are often executed wlth great vensl-

miLituie. indicating the artisti intimate visual

f...*t"Jn. of the L"tomy of tho anirnals and

,-hJ. pori"rrion of sophisticated artisdc methods

of mod.ling their fotms'- il.- .-if."tit on bovine. animals in the

H"r"ppa "iiili""tioo

may Partly be explained in

..."lfu" terms. An agricultural society -wouldhave depended heavily on such animals as a

,our.. oi -ltn, posibly meat and leather' and as

beasts of burden. The Gmales of the- species

would be important as proPa-gators ol tuture

g.n"r"tiorr, "od

,, i"'utitt of wealth's abun-

f,"nce. Nonerhelest' bulls rather- than cows are

l"""ti"Uf" depicted on the seals and in free-

,,Jirrn 'H"t"pp,

sculpture' We know from

t"* Ui"tao i.ooography that the bull became the

"ri;.1, t ut"*r) ir

'Si"t

"oa also a symbol of

,ou"l *iov-.rrt. Therefore, perhaps the prow-

.,. of th.'bull is also used in the Harappi

context ro symbolize procreative and progenitrve

ol*.r, "ndih. r"rult"nt abttndanc" of the herds'

t -ih" pottibl" association between early depic-

tions ofiulls and later Siva forms is strengthened

by the occurrence of liigas in the Harappa

.6nr.",, fo, drc linga eventually, became an

almost universal sign of the god Siva Also' a

number of male figures on several Harappa

seals have characteristics that suggest assoda-

tions with lat"r Siva imagery' Thus' it is posrble

;;- ;;" bf the beliei and practices of the

fl"r"opa .i"illt.tion served as a foundation for

".o..lt' .f f

"* Indic religion' The bestrxample

of- what has been called the "Proto-5tva on

Indus seals shows a miLl-figure. "!e'aLed'- ur 'a

o.tit* *i,lt the solg' ofks feet p-ressedtogether'

iti, Ggr ,gl"y;a-.to each.sid: (Fig' 2'r2)'. lhe

,r-r'.*,.lta "*"y frorri.lt6e-body and the

thumbs rest on !r!s !'-grqes while the fingers point

do;w";d:Neither the leg position nor the

arm .p6iiiion is one that someone would

""r""fiy ".*-". Rather, these -are highly formal

gestures and may- rePresent a sPecrhc 'is4ll4 ano

nitdra, The retm asdflr lurerarry "seat") refers

td the different leg positions or-sirting postures

oruliiu ,ttu-"a bi "

ptrson petfotming -+i:1-

iJ'it .,fto .eligioi's pr"itites in later Indic

*f,rt. rft. ,rri ^'ia refers to the hand

z.rz. Seal showing a yogin. Ftorn Mohenjo-Daro'

Pakistan. Mature HaraPpt Period' Ca 2roo-r7Jo D c'

Steatite. H: 3.4 cm. National Museum, New Delhi'

gestures used within the same context While

i"ndirrdual asanas and mudtds came to have

specific communicative content, it is dificult

to go beyond the simple observation that this

"rrioth"i figures on seals in similar or related

configur"tiois may be performing a religious

.*"r."ir" o, ritual. Meditation and the use of

asanas arrd mudtas ate usually associated with

vosa and yogic practices Yoga, which means

ii. i"ttv "to voke," reG.s in the broadest sense

ro belieFs and practices by which a practidoner

attemDts to "vok." ot unify himself with rhe

divinJ or universal. It is a Pan-sectalian concePt

associated with -virtually

every major lndic

rJlgion, it "lodiog

Buidhism,- Jainism, and

Hinduism. Thus, the apparent retelence to yoglc

practices in the Harappa civilization does not

iecesarily signify the roots of any one specffic

sect; it might rePresent a common source ror

all. It is irn'ponant to note- that tbe yogic co.n-

ceots. as well as tbe use ol asands and t udtas'

pr'ob"bly ,.fl..t indigenous developments in

il"r"oo, ".,.

rarher than any that can be

m..i? *"t,.t" Asiatic sources' Because these

,."^ ro o".u. in a weJl-deveioped stage when

first encountered in Harappd art' it must be

i"^"a ,U", a lengthy pi;"d of evolution

oreceded them' In

"orrrr"r,, a few elements of this seal suggest

"ffini,i., ,o concepts and forms. found through-

out western Asia-. For example, rhe figure is

$own either having homs (in which case, heright !s x composite, part-human, part-animalereature) or wearing a headdress, which is com-pised of homs, implying the adoption of some

the beast's characteristics. The figure mighta "bull-man" in concept, if not in actuality,Mesopotamia, the wearing of a horned head-s by a ruler was believed to impart power oriniry to him; the homs shown here may thus

still another tie. even ifindirect. betweenIndus culture and ancient Mesopotamia.tripartite form seen here seems to be

; Harappan, and, as has already beenhorned creatures clearlv had srearclearly had greatin Indic culture. even in pre-Harap-

times, in contexts like the Stone Aqe rockpaintings, which do not necessarilywestem Asiatic contacts. Thus. it is

not to overstress such possible con-or to infer from them an indebtedncss

one culture to the other., A .

Sbce the larer llindu god Siva is srronglyiated with the bull, the horned headdress

THE INDUS CIVIIZATION 21

the dais upon which the figure sits is primarilyassociated with later Buddhist iconography.The seat itself, and its more elaborare counrer-part, the throne, is used in later Indic religions tosigni$' the high rank of the person who sitsupon it. It is probably most accurate to assumethat the "bull-man" and rhe accompanyingelements of this famous seal relate to manyconcepts found in later Indic religious systems,including Saivism, but that these ideas are notyet exclusive to any one of them. As such, theseal is an important document of a whole rangeofconcepts fundamental to the religious outlookof a nurlber of Indic sects. What is especiallvimportanr about rhis seal is rhar, in.onir"sr rothe individual sculptures found at Harappasites, whose meanings could only be discussedin the most speculative terms, in this smallcomposition, we have definite proofofHarappareligious practices, involving perhaps an earlyform ofyoga and possibly identity transGrral inwhich a human takes on certain, probablysymbolic, characteristics of other creatures.

It is notable that while the designs of some ofthe bull seals, or those showing other animals,repeat among the corpus of Indus seals, thisexample and others showing human-type figuresin which religious activity is definitely portrayed,seem to have been unique. As a group, suchseals comprise only a handful of the thousandsof seals that have been unearthed at HaraDDasites. Perhaps these were th. pe.ronal propi.iyof a few high-ranking individuals in the society,while the others may have been a generic typecommon to whole classes of oeoolc.

Another seal shows a fisure-with a similarheaddress standing in

" rli[lp.d i'*(Fig. z.r3).

The leaves are ihosi of a pipal tree, which occurson pottery as a motif as eariy as the pre-Harappdperiod. However, while the meaning of thistree in earlier contexts is unJ<nown -it mayhave been depicted only because of the beautyand symmetry of its leaves-it might be assumedthat its depiction here is more significant. flepEal tree is one of the few identi4able plantri?.ie, on Harappa seals. hs persrsrence as a= - - . - r : i . ' ;symboJ in Sourh Asia, particularly in Buddhism,wherein it became Sakyamuni Buddha's rreeofenlightenment, may not be merely accidental.

$'hile:c have

c ffcultprt this

,r:elated=:grous

:se of: rsithtrleans

*nse

riL the<lncePt

Indicand

-r- roglc

0:.6 not

roecficlw-.e for

con-

r lent support to interpretations of this figurea prototype of Siva. In addition, while it is

to discern these features on such a tinyit is possible that the figure has three

is ithyphall ic. and either wears a tiger skinhas a tigerlike upper torso.lE Each -of theseures again can be relared to later Siva ico-

. as can the facr rhat the figure seemsbe involved in yogic practices. Further, ther animals surrounding the central figure, an

lnt, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a, buffalo,been related to Siva's Paiupati aspecr. in

is important to remember that many of theseacteristics are not exclusive to the god Sivr.

this early date, they might indicate a com-pool of religious ideas from which many

rhe Indic systems developed. For example,arransement of the four animals around the

figure suggests a mat1lala, a cosmologicalr known in Saivism and other Indic

ions.le The specific placement of a pair of

he is Lord of Beasts.While many of these features seem to provide

arguments for relaring the seal toiconography-and indeed it probably doesandrds,

ln

,=l be

rlese'rshen

zi$ be

suiudon

FggesI:nrough-n-"sre is (one of which has broken off) beneath

22 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

2.r3. Scal showitlg cererlrony with figures and bull.From Mohenjo-Daro, ?akisran. Mature Harappa period.Ca. 2loo rTJo B.c. Stealite. H: ca. 3-4 crD. NationalMuscunl, Karachi.

Wlren used on seals, thc plpdl seems to appearin religious contexts.2o In this seal, for example,a complex ceremony is taking place, in which akneeling devotee propitiates the horned figurein the tree. Thc kneeling figure also wears ahorned headdress, which suggests that he maybe assuming some of the charactcristics of theIigure in the tree perhaps a dcity-by meansof identity transferral. Bchind the kneelingfigure is a bu1l, whose role here is unknown,but the bull's presence reinforces a religiousassociation for bulls (as do the horned head-dresses) in the Indus context. Thc row ofstandingfigurcs along the bottom of the seal may also

be participants in the events and they too wcarelaborate headdresses. If idcntity transferral, bywhich the devotee seeks unification with ad iv ine essencc . i . c ru ly ind icared by a compos i -tion such as this, this would indicate a verycarly source for thc concept of union betweenthc individual and the universal that pcrrncateslater Indic thinking. In fact, this conccPt sostrongly relates to the philosophical thinkingexpressed in a body of texts known as theUpanisads, beiieved to have been con.rposed

around 8oo-45o 8.c., that it r.night bc suggestedthat the Upanisads could rcllcct the finalization

of conccpts that had bccn extallt since HaraPP-

tirnes.21A small faicncc seal is also startling fo! its

apparcnt relationship to latcr Itrdic concepts

2.r4. Seal showing serpents and figures honoring a/ogl,r. Fron Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistai. Mature Harappeperiod. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c. Faiencc. H: ca. r z cm?Present whercabouts unknown.

(Fig. z.ra). In this case, the seated central figureappears without headdress but in thc sameyogic posture described in Figure z.rz. He isbeing propitiated by two kneeling figures, oneto either side, both of whom are backed byscrpents rising up fiom the ground like cobrasabout to strike. The obvious resemblalce of this

group to later Buddhist votive scenes in whichserpent deities (nagas) pay homage to the Buddhahas been noted.22 Indeed, the parallcl is so closethat the iconographic format must have con-tinued from this early clatc to later Pedods,although the specific mcanings might have

chrngcd.Another seal that poses many qucstions and

ollers intriguing possibilities depicts an anthro-pomorph and a zoomorph, each of which isa composite of several forms (Fig. z.r5). The

zoomorph is essentiaily a homed tigcr with

clearly defined facial features, felinc paws andears, as well as stripes and a tail, while the an-

tl.uopomorph seens human bccause of its uprightposture and the use of its forelimbs like armsrather than like the legs of a quadrupcd. Thelowcr half of the body, including the clovenhoofs, the tail, and thc horns on the head, allappear to be bovine, resen.tbling those featuresof rnlny brrl ls ot' orher re*ls. Bccatt.e its gestures

might be interpreted as an attack uPon the

zoomorph, it has been suggested that this scenerepresents an cvent in the Sumerian Gilgarnesh

-r I

S,rr;

trEt ltr@

!tr- ,

...ln

I

I r d

rlt,:!r@

,atir-l

a,"c

tll

I

t:tEa

i:t''|!

epic, in which the bull-man Xnlidu attacks abeast. However, since the precise form differsftom the motif as found in Mesopotamian art,this interpretation is unverified. Furtler, breast-like forms on the chest suggest that the figure isfemale, which would make the identification asEnkidu impossible. In any case, the tree at theside, along with the two composite animals,was undoubtedly carefirlly selected to commu-nicate an event outside the normal scope ofeveryday experience, though its meaning isstill enigmatic.

Two other seals further demonstrate t}recomplexities of Harappa iioriography. Thef,rst shows three tisers interlinled in a circularform (Fig. 2.16), ;ih the cential shoulder missof tlie three animals-ileveloped inio a complexpattem. That a speci{ic diagram was inten?edmay be inferred by comparing this seal with oneof a number bearing abstract designs. The exam-ple chosen shows a szasti&c (Fig. 2.r7), but other

Fttems are also found in which forms radiate&om a center, like that formed by the tigers'Soulders, In later Indic art and architecture.directional and cosmic significance is attached tosch forms. The presence of the szasri&a is iniself noteworthy, since ir i-

-syiibofcoh-

morJy used by the Aryan peoples usually as-sociated with post-Harappa times in SourhAsia. Yet its appearance in a context prior torhe presumed date ofthe Indo-Aryan migrationsinto ancient India suggests that the motif mayhave been borrowed by the Aryans fromHarappan usage, or more probably, that con-acts between the Indo-Aryans and the Harap-pa.us commenced much earlier than the derniseof the latter's civilization. Indeed, it is possiblerbat lndo-Aryans were among the peoplegnpulating the Indus civilization.

Regardless of how plausible some of theinterpretations of Flarappa seals and art ingptreral might seem, without written vedficationor other substantial proof of the conrinuitybetween the Indus civilization and later lrrdicculrure. all of rhese irterpretations must remainir the realm ofpossibility only. tn this discussion,i has not been possible to take into account therclative chronological position of the objects,&velopmental aspects of the Indus religion and

THX rNDUS CI!r'TLTZATION 23

2.rJ. Seal shov/ing composite creatures and tree. FromMohenjo-Daro, Pakistan. Marure Ha$?pe period. Ca.2roo-r7so R.c. Steatite, H: ca. 2-4 cm? NationalMuseum. New Delhi.

2.16. Seal with interlinked tigers. From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan. Mature Hara?pa period. Ca. 2roo-r7JoB.c. Steatite. H: ca. z-4 cm? National Museum, NewDelhi.

2.r7, Seal with sl'astika design. From Mohenjo-Daro,Pakistan. Mature Harappe period. Ca. 2roo-r7jo B.c.Faience. r.5 x r.6 cm. Department of Archaeology ofPakistan. Karachi.

24 FOUNDATIONS OF rNDrC CIVIIZATTON

culture, nor even interregional ramifications of

the developments. The iange in style of tht

seal sculptr-ries alone sugges$ chronological and/

or geogiaphical variatjons..Ii ,o"*" .rr.r, such as the representations of

the bulls (l-igs. z-9. z-n), Harappe seals show a

,em"rk"bi. i.qr.. of naturalism thar reflects

close observatiJn of the physical world' Other

seals, such as those depicting composite animals

(Fig. z.r5), demonstrate that the Harappe

people were concemed with ideas that go

L"uorrd "u.rvd"v

experience even though they

-"u h"t . borrowed ie"vily from ir. These rwopreiispositions similarly coexist in the fabric of

i"te. indic thoueht. While thiy might now

appea! to be coitradictory, it will be shown

tiit th"y "."

not. In fact, their reconciliation is

one of the hallmarks of ancient India's artistic

and philosophic creativirY.

Porr rRY

The same complexity and multipliciry of inter-

pretadon seen in th. ,.ulptut" 'nd seals of the

indus civilization is encountered in the study of

designs ranqe from simple to complex and

frori "brtr"-.t

to tipresentatiooal. the motifs

are often crowded into an overall Pattem on

the surface of a.vessel, An intersecting circle

design (Fig. z.r8a) had grea-ilopuliriry. Further,

th. --otif

,pp"..otly Persists' For it resurfaces in

monument;f architecture of the Maurya period

in the third century B.c. (Fig. +.8), suggesting

the basic continuiry of Indic civilization' Leaf

motifs, especially the pilal (Fig.2'r8b), suggest

ries to both pre-Harappa and later lndic forms

and mav have b..n ut"d symbolically.

2.18. Pottery motifs A) Intersecting circle motif on painted pot'

fro* uol!.t;o-O".o, bakistan. Harappa period B) Peinted pot

(black on red)-wirh pipai leafdesign' Harappa period'

THE INDUS CNILIZATION 25

THE Ec l rpsE o r rHE INDUs C tv r t l z , t t l o t tltri: go

fi"yNo one can say for certain what caused thedemise of the Indus civilization. Most probably,

scveral factors, including the natural process ofcultural evolution, combined to elGct its end.Some outposts of the society outlasted others,end no single fate was responsible for the denrise

of all settlements in this widespread civilization.'While

a general date of around rTio B.c. maybe cited as the end of the civilization's matureor urban phase. activity at some sites, particu-brly in the soutlem regions of the Harappa

rohere. seems to have continued to about 8ooic. It has been theorized that desiccation and&forestation of the lower lndus region madefre land less habitable, possibly causing popula-tions to miqrate to the east and south. Whetherdimatic chinges did occur and whether theywere man-made or the natural result ofgeologicalchanges are still highly arguable points.2a AtMohenjo-Daro, flooding apparently had been apeennial problem; there, it is likely that theSreat of continuing severe inundations heralded&e sradual abandonment of the site. Archae-ological evidence reveals that the last Gwgenerations of inhabitants at Mohenjo-Darosrf,ered from frequent fooding. Each time,de damage' was repaired or the dwellingsrebuilt in a shoddier manner, suggesting a&cline in the urbanized civilization itselfin what

has been called a "oost-urban" ohase.za Othersites seem to have been abrupily abandonedwith no obvious signs of rnaterial decline priorto desertion. A comrnonly supplied explanationfor this phenomenon is that increasing numbersof foreigners came into the area, causing a shiftin oooulation distribution.

S.hol"rr h",r" debated the exact nature ofthese rnigrating peoples, but most agree thatincursions by peoples from the northwest oc-curred around the second quarter of the secondmillennium n.c., regardless of whether theycontributed to the demise of the Haraooacivilization or not. Most probably, these incur-sions did not come at once, nor did they repre-sent a rurified effort by the newcomers or onemarked by violence.z5 Rather, it is believedthat these shifts in population took place over aperiod ofseveral hundred years, affecting variousplaces unequally. Of the several ethnic, racial,and linguistic groups that may have beeninvolved in the displacement of the Harappapeoples, at least one component was made upof Aryans who probably entered the Indic landsfrom the Iranian region. The heritage of theseIndo-Aryans or hrdo-Iranians26 eventually be-came a dominant aspect of much of subsequentIndic civilization.

of: f,ow

ilr\ln

c,:o is

r rndr.xGc l O n

;rcledrr,r:s io

rrRlt,fuaAata€?te,trtaamaaargfr?nrttaaak

i

I

CHAPTER THREE

some objects and have concluded that evenarchaeological excavations should not be ex-pected to reveal significant material remainsfrom this period. It{ore probably, importantdiscoveries await the archaeologist. It is impor-tant to remember that before the accidentaldiscovery of the Indus civilization, the existenceof this vast, early culturewas not even suspected.Thus, the gap in our knowledge is perhaps notpermanent. Given the richness of the literaturesurviving from this period, afruence in materialaccoutrements would not be surprising. Al-though the contribution of the Indo-Aryansto the material culture and art of ancient India isunknown, their literature became one of themost important and enduring infuences onhrdic civilization.

z6

Detail of a \g Yedt' nanl$tiPt (t 7 I | ; cowtes! Btitish

The Vedic and Upanigadic Periods

(ca. r5oo to 4Jo B.c.)

THn INDo-ARYANs

The Indo.Aryan newcomers did not come intothe Indic lands all at once, nor did they settle in asingle place. Within broad limits, the migrantshad two lines of advance moving in successivewaves, one to tlte south of the great Thar Desert,the other to the north.l While a Gw character-istics of the material culture and technology ofthese people may be identified, very little isknown about them or the objects they produced.No evidence of civic planning, enduring archi-tectural structures or art of the quality andcomplexity seen in the Harappa civilization hasbeen discovered that can be linked to theIndo-Arvans of this oeriod. Some scholars havesuggested that theii apparently semi-nomadicways were not conducive to the construction ofmonurnental and lasting buildings or curnber-

TI{E VEDIC AND UPANITADIC PTRIODS 27

LrrxRARy Evrlrrqcr: Tnr Vroas (ca. r5oo ro 8oo n.c.)

importance of the newcomers far surpassesidentification as an intrusive element in

Indic subcontinent. for thev are creditedthe composition and perpetuation of one

de most important bodies oflndjc iiterature.{our Veda Sathhitas (Collectiorns of Know-

These ooetic hvmns in the Sanskritgive linguistic, religious, historical,

rd sociological information about the peoplerbo composed them. More important\ for our

they provide a foundation Gr manyt-he religious concep* that pervade later

Asian art.The Vedas are said to be divine in origin, re-

raled by Brahman, the Self-Existent and All-fnov/ind, to a group ofinspired sages (rss) whorre charged with transmitting this divine giftr others, also specially selected. On this pre-qrposition, the Vedas have been passed fromgeaeration to generation until the present day,ad access to reading the Vedas or to hearing&cm recited has remained restricted to certaindeses of people in Hindu society. In spite offris beliel which implies that the Vedas werepesented to the rgis in a complete and un-'fr.nging forn, analysis of the texts clear\ndicates that they were not compiled all atoce nor by a shgle author. Rather, they wereom.posed over long periods of time and trans-nined orally for many generations before theyrere finalized and ulrimately given written6rm. As a result, the chronology of the hymnsir each Veda, as well as the relative dates ofeacho{ the Vedas, remain quite problematic. As agroup, the Vedas are generally ascribed to thepoiod berween r5oo and 8oo a.c.,z with the'

4g Veda uually accepted as the oldest of the6ur.

The earliest concepts contained in the Vedasnust have been formulated before the advent ofde lado-Aryans into the Indic sphere. However,nme verses in the Vedas clearly recount eventsdat took place on Indian soil. For example,rictories over a people called the Dasas areGequentlv mentioned, Described as "not-sacri-f,cing," devoid of rites, addicted to strangevows, god-hating, and those "whose god is a

phallus,"a the Dasas are generally identified asthe earlier inhabitants of the regions accessionedby the Indo-Aryarx-in short, the Harappans.a

Further insight into the possible interactionsberween the Indo-Aryan newcomers and theearlier inlabitants of the Indic regions is sug-gested by verses in the Vedas which describe theAryan perception of two separate primevalworlds and their subsequent confluence. Theseideas are central to the Vedic cosmogony, thatis, the Vedic perceptions conceming the creationof the universe.s Vedic texts describe a sacred,primor&al world of potentiality, one that wasnot created but simply existed. hr this realm wasthe germ of life, characterized by complete,undifferentiated uniry. Associated with thisphase was a group of gods, the qsuras. A secondstage in this development was marked by thebirth of the god Indra outside this prirnevalworld. Indra acted as a catalyst on the primevalworld toward the creation of the world of in-dividual forms,6 that is, the world as we know it,with all of the identifiably distinct categories ofobjects and beings within it. Along with Indracame a host of new gods, the /rzas-in essence,the Vedic pantheon. During repeated strugglesbetween the detas and the esuias, some qsurasjoined the ranks of the /eaas; while others "con-tinued to exist beyond the pale, as a constantmenace to the existence and coherence of theordered world."? This descripiion seems torefer to the superimposition of the hrdo-Aryanreligion upon that of the indigenous inhabitantsof t}re northwest Indic lands. The opposition ofdeuas and asuras is a popular theme in laterHindu religion and art. Indeed, in later Indicreligious texts, such as the Pura4as, the termasxra is used invariably to describe a demonlikecreature who personifies a negative characteris-tic, such as ignorance, but who is vanquished bya deva- Thus, one of the essential themes oflaterHinduism, the adversarial roles of devas artdax,ras, may have arisen from an early interpreta-tion of the historical interaction between twogroups of early peoples.

Aside from providing interesting informationabout the possible interminglings of the Indo-

28 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CNIIIZATION

Aryans and earlier populations of the subcon-tinent during this period, the Vedas set forththe basic religious beliefs of the Vedic people,which have little in common with the religiousideas assumed to have been prgvalent in theIndic regions prior to their advent. Since theVedas do not develop a single narrative line whenread sequentially, it is not possib.le to under-stand many ofthe basic presuppositions ofVedicthought without extrapolation and analysis,Further, Vedic ideas were not frxed, but de-veloped over the centuries and thus any trueunderstanding of Vedic thought must eventuallytake chronological factors into account.

The Vedas present a pantheon of "thirty-

thr.""s gods belonging to the terrestrial, aerial,and celestial realms. Some of these deities areprototypes of gods or aspects of gods who areknown in later Hinduism. The nature and pur-pose of worship is to ask boons from the godsfor primarily material blessings, such as pros-perity. Therefore, Vedic worship has beencharacterized as worldly and mercenary ratherthan Denitent and ascetic. An emohasis on them"tei"l world is a logical extension of theconcept of the world created by Indra, which is,after all, a world of forms and objects, a worldof differentiation, not unity. Eventually, materi-alism became an extremely important aspect ofsome of the Indic religions.e Many of the Vedicgods represent aspects of nature and their per-sonification, such as the sky, thunder, moon,sun, {ire, wind, water, mountains, and ri]/e$.Others represent ethical concepts, such as truth,and some manifest a combination of nature-basedand ethical ideas. Vedic deities were worshioedthrough sacrfice, prayer, and offerings. Ceremo-nies took place in an altar area which, in con-

cept, ultimately served as a source for later Hin-du temple architecture, Animals, such as goats,oxen, cows, rams, horses, and even humans,were sacrificed to the gods. Fire, personified asthe god Agni, was the vehicle of transmissionof the oferings to the gods, and was to be"fed" with grain, milk, butter, fesh, and othermaterials. Through fire (Agni), the sacrifice(yajia) was transported to the gods. During thecourse of a sacrifice, an elaborate ritual meal towhich the gods were invited might be servedand hymns ofpraise would be sung. Such cere-monies were undoubtedly a sovce for prtja,a later Hindu method of worship, which in someways might be described as a hospitality ritualinvolving the offering of foods, water, andfowers to a deity.lo

The final codification of Vedic rituals andceremonies is found in the Brahmagas, a groupof texts comDosed later than the Vedas. TheBrahma4as seived as textbooks of ritual for thepiesrs (brahnan)rL who were rhe rransmirtrrsof the Vedas. Priests were believed to have thecapacity to infuence the gods directly and visiblythrough the performance of sacrifices andceremonies. Thus, they began to assurte influen-tial positions in society as important individuals,including chieftains and other leaders, musr havesought, through the priesrs, to win the gods'favor. Secause of th e impottance of the brahmansin the Vedic religion, it is often referred to asBrahmanisrn. Individual priests and their sons,whose future patronage depended on the eGfectiveness of the hymns and ceremonies theyperformed, developed their own ritual techno-logies, which theyjealously guarded from otherPnest grouPs.

Lr r r r .qny EvrnrNcr : THE UpaNr$ADs (ce . 8oo to 45o n .c . )

Vedic beliefs were not universally accepted inancient India. In the Vedas. there are hints ofdissent among people who questioned theirauthority, denied the existence of the gods, andfelt that religion served the ptiestly bnhnansmore than anyone else, These individuals, the

ndstikas, or deniers, are contrasted to the Astikds,or asselters, who accepted the Vedas and allthey entailed. The nastikas paved the way formuch of the thought found in Buddhism,

Jainism, and other Indic schools that rejectedthe Vedic presuppositions. It rnight even be said

Ed

cc

-.te' :f,e

Erl*- l

dat ftom a very early date, these two divergentyiewDoints, Vedic and anti- or non-Vedic,darJcterized the fabric of Indic religious6ought, becoming the orthodox schools, which

hased their authority on the Vedas, and theheterodoxy, which questioned or disregardedde Vedas as a source of knowledge.

In spite of the fact that Vedic thought, orBrahmanism, came to be a very importantaspect of the later Hindu religion, its dominancewas eclipsed for a thousand years or more, an

eclipse heralded in during the carly centuries

ofthe first millerurium r,c., when another groupof texts, the Upanisads, was composed. Thesetexts replesent a reaction against the sacrilicialreligion dorninated by the increasingly powerfulpriest group. They emphasize philosophical,speculative questions. k is likely that many ofde ideas that were formulated, and perhapsfirst preserved, in the Upani5ads, were not newat this time. Sone may represent the resurfacingof ideas current in ore-Vedic tirnes. while othersmay reflect alternative views of people livingduring Vedic times. The heartland ofUpanigadic&ought seems to have been the GangeticValley, an area which was not dominated byVedic culture. Eventually, in later Hinduism,the Upanisads, despite their anti-Brahmanicalrlought, came to be considered the philosophicalportion of the Vedas. Both the Vedas andUpanisads, in spite of their apparent contradic-tions, were melded into part of the textual basisofthe Hindu religion. ln addition, the Upanigadswere the fountainhead for the non-Vedic, thatis, heterodox, thinking of other hrdic religions,including Buddhism and Jainism.

As in the case of the Vedas, the Upanigads donot present a unified, cohesive view, nor do,they have a single date. They represent severalcenturies of philosophical speculation. One ofthe main concems of Upani5adic thinking is therelationship between the individual being andthe Universal Being, between the particular andthe comorehensive. Two famous and oftenrepeated expressions characterize the Upanisadictheoretical dilemma: Atman : atmafl aftd Tattvaw asi.ln the former, Atman, or Brahman,*the Universal Principle, is eqtrted with atman,

THE VEDIC AND UPANIIADIC PERIODS 29

rhe individual being. Specifically. Atman. orBrahman, is the supreme essence of the universe,which manifests itself in the various creationsof the physical world, or the individtal atmans.In the second phrase, Tat tvom asi, literally "thatthou art," an identical meaning is implied.Thar is, the individual rs the Universal. Theindividual's reintegration with the Universal-realization of oneness with the Universal-became the major concern of most Indic reli-gions, including Hinduism, wherein it is calledmok;a (release), and Buddhism, wherein it iscalled niruarla (extinguishing). Unity had to berealize d and implemented, not merely intel-lectualized. In Indic religions, the goal of uniryis often pursued through yoga practices, sug-gesting ao underlying relationship betweenUpanisadic thought and the Harappa civiliza-tion. It is also interesting to speculate on therelationship between this line of thought andthe cosmogeneric accounts of the Vedas, forthe Upani;ads seem to seek a departure fromthe material world of the Vedas (hrdra's worldof differentiated form) and a return to theundifferentiated. nondualistic world described inthe Vedas as existing before Indra's advent.

Tbis suggestion seems jusrified by examiningother Upanisadic concepts, particularly that ofmaya, the illusionary nature of the phenomenalworld. This concept theoretically negates Indra'sworld of individual forms by asserting that thedifferentiation perceivable in the physical worldis contradictory to the real, ultimate truth*therealization of the Atman : dtman eqtation-andthus the universality of all things. Perceptionof the differentiated forms of the physical world,then, is an impediment to the true understandingof the undifferentiated state.

Of the many concepts found in the Upanisads,two others are also important to an understand-ing of later Indic religions and religious an.These are the concepts of karma and sathsara-The doctrine o{ hatma is explained in theB1hadarcnyaka upanisdd: "As he has acted, ashe has lived, so he becomes; he who has done

*The impersonal world-.essence, not to be confusedwith Brahma, the Vedic and Hindu god.

,0 FoUNDATTONS OF rNDrC CMTZATION

good is bom again as a good one, he who hasdone evil, is bom again as an evil one. llebecomes good through good action, bad throughbad action."12 Karma is predicated on the belief'rn

sahsaru, often translared as transmigration,but referring to the metempsychosis or countlessrounds of rebirdrs that an individual being ex-periences upon each death in a potentially endlessseouence of liva. Kdrma. often translated asreuibutiorr, is more correctly the action anindividual might take, especially in hope ofrccompense in a future life. Thus, korme de-termines the form in which the individualbeing will be reborn. All actions and thoughtsof an individual being-a term not necessarilyrestricted to humans-whether punished orrewarded during a particular l iGtime, are takeninto account in this system of justice. Thus,responsibiliry for one's thoughts and actions arethrust upon each being.

Through the realiz ation of the Atrian : 6tmft,equation, an individual would cease to be

subject to finite existences and the cycle ofsathstua. The desire to know, and thereby tobecome unified with, Brahman (Atman) becamemore important than improving one's materialposition or physical enjoyment for Upanigadicphilosophers. Reintegration with the Universalbecame the highest and perhaps sole purpose oflife. Irr Buddhist thought in pefiicnlr', maya(illusion) was seen as an obstacle to this under-standing of the oneness between the individualand the Universal.

In general terms, one can say that the story ofIndic thought, art, and life, whether orthodoxor heterodox, from Upanigadic times onward,is dominated by the goal of unity and releasefrom the realm of sathstua- hr fact, the nexus ofshared concem among the seemingly disparatehrdic religions is the theme ofextinction throughreinteqration. Sectarian differences within andamong the Indic religions consist to a largedegree ofthe different methods and ideas appliedtoward seekirs this end.

O r H r n L r r r n a n v E y r D E N c x : T H E P U R A N A S a N D E " r c s

In addition to the Vedic and Upani;adic tradi-tions, which provide some record of the historyand thought of the period from about rJoo to

45o 1.c., other literary works survive that il-luminate aspects of the early periods of Indichistory. These texts, mainly the early Puralrasand the t'i;vo major epics, the Mqhabharata andthe Ramaya4a, survive in forms that werefinalized many centuries after the events theyrecord. They ar'e being considered here asdocuments that provide insight into the earlyhistory of the Indic world and not as literarytexts. As in the similar case of the Vedas, it issometimes difiicult to assess the historicity ofthe events as they are recorded.

Most early Pura4as did uot take their presentforms until the fourth or fifth century a.o. orlater. Although imperGct as historical records,they provide a great deal of information aboutthe history of the Indic world, idcluding theprehistoric periods. They record a catastrophicfood as well as a king, Manu, who alone was

saved ftom the inundation and thus became the

progenitor of the human race.l8 From Manu

issued the solar and lunar d1'nasties, as well as

some ofthe royal lineages ofancient India, whosegenealogies are given in the Pura4as. The

Pure4as preserve what may be important his-

torical data about early Indic heroes, includingKrsna (Krishna), the cowherd who later becameone of the most popular Hindu deities. Further,they describe and relate numetous stories aboutmany other Hindu gods, whether historical ornot, and thus serve as vital sources of icono-graphic information rhat aid in the inrerpreta-tion of art. The Puranas seem to record a non-Brahmanical view of history, which may refectsome of the religious beliefs current amongindigenous, non-Vedic peoples.

The Mahabharcta and the Ramayatla alsoprovide glimmerings of historical informationabout this meagerly documented period. Likethe Vedas, Upanipads, and Puranas, these textsare compilations assembled over long periods of

I I

r JE

-reby tobecame

Cc,:_S material

br *-p:aisadic=; Universal

:-,ir- fl4y4

:: rmder-:;ividual

t iory of:ciodox:orvard,

u.: :eleasear-s of

time and are known from a number of differentrecensions, Though the events recorded in theRamayqa took place after those o{ the Maha-bharun, the surviving texts of the Rantayoltawere finalized before those o{ rhe Mahabharum'The central event of the Mahabharata is a greatwar which probably occurred between 9oo arrd65o r.c. The war, for which little archaeologicalevidence has been found as of yet and whichforms the background of the Bhagavad Gtta,was fought between the Per.rdava and Kauravaclans, who, though once believed to have beenpure Aryans. are now thought to have beenion-Ary*t, or perhaps mixed Aryans' Theevents of the Rauaya4a, mainly the story ofRama, the abduction of his wife Sita by theevil Rava4a, and the war that ensued, also seemto refect the history of non-Aryan populations.Both epics are popularly illustrated in laterHrnd art.

The early Purar.ras, the Ranayaqa, and theMahabharata are tJrerefore important to theunderstanding of the early periods of Indic

Thus far, in the discussions of the developing

Indic civilization, it has not been possible to

provide the name of even a single individual

whose historiciry can be verified with any

accuracy. Not one of the religious concePts

expressed in the early religious literature can be

ascribed to the authorship ofa specific individual,nor are the names and personalities of any of

the political leaders known in any way that

can relate them to a concrete context. However,

for the late Upanisadic period, available histori-

cal information is comparatively accurate and

specific. The names of kings and orher persons

living within the society, including a few

important religious leaders, are preserved. As in

the case of other early literature, many of the

textual records that reGr to this period were

either compiled after the events they record or

have come down ro us in a version that was

finalized long after the period of their concem.

However, there is considerable concordance

MaHlv iRA , SArYeuu Iq r BuDDHA, AND THE R Is r oF MAGADHA

THE VEDIC AND TIPANIS,ADIC PTRIODS

"history for which we have onJy a very incom-

plete picture based on archaeological evidence.

It is. ofcourse. often &fiicult to disceln histori-

cal fact from embeliishment in these texts, as is

the case when studying the Vedic materials.

Nevertheless, they are vital in providing a more

balanced view of this period, since they seem

to record history from the non-lndo-Aryan,

non-Vedic point of view. (It is notable in this

regard that- the Pure{ras often place the Vedic

gods in positions subordinate to other gods.)

Further, the Pura4as and the epics, along with

the Vedas and Upaniqads, became part of the

central core of textual materials of the Hindu

religion and provide important iconographic

information for the interpretation of Hindu art.

It is dificult to say just when these various and

often conflicting traditions merged into what

is now called "Hinduism" (a date around the

beginning ofthe Christian era is often suggested),

but together they form the basis of the con-

slomerate known as Hinduism.

about many of the developments during this

period from texts. Thereforc, the texts may

supply a relatively reliable overview. The major

sources dealing with the history of this period

belong to the Buddhist and.Jain canons, for it

was during this period that Sakyarnuni Buddha

(ca. 563-483 l.c.) and Mahavira (ca. 54o-468r.c.), two important "perfected beings" of

their respective religions, lived.Since both Stkvamuni Buddha and Mahavira

practiced their religions in Magadha, an ancient

region in the Gangetic valley equivalent to

oortions of the modern Bihar state, infonr.ration

is -ost co-plete for this region. We leam, for

example, that Magadha was one of sixteen Great

Communities (Malajanapddas) and, that it qqick-

ly assumed a leading role in the political and

economic spheres of the subcontinent. The

stimulus for developing these centralized Great

Communities may have come from contact

with the Achaemenid Persians, who had annexed

E trIC

lXEurI as

D.'E€

rle

-85-

nlrilt{$liliii l,iI

I

i

'2 FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

portions of the northwest region of the Indiclands in the sixth century s.c. and who hadalready developed a complex system ofkingshipand statecraft. The rise of the Magadha king-dom in particular is also l inled to economicdevelopments resulting from demands for metal,for the region was rich with iron and copper,A network of trade routes leading to and fromMagadha, including the famous uttarcpatha(northern route) that linked the region withwestem Asia, began to develop. The GangesRiver became a major artery unifying Magadhawith other north hrdic regions from west toeast. The result was that Magadha became themajor economic and political center of ancientIndia for many centuries, particularly duringthe Maurya period in the third century B.c.(Chap. a), when Magadha dominated the sub-conuneru.

The foremost historical personages of thisperiod are Mahavua (Great Hero) and Sakya-muni (Sage of the Sakya [Clan]) Buddha (En-lightened One), both born in k5attiya (warrior-caste) families in Magadha, the heartland ofUpanigadic thought. While they are oftenmistakenly believed to have founded theirrespective religions, Mahavira is accepted by

Jairu as the twenty-fourth in a lir,e of jinas(victors), and Sakyamuni is numbered by Bud-dhists as the fourth or seventh (depending uponthe tradition) of eight nanuli (mortal) Buddhas(buddhas). 'fhe

ideas they propounded were notsolely their individual and original creations, butrather refect concepts that had been circulatingin Upanigadic society, some of which may haveoriginated in pre-Vedic times. The strikingparallels between Jainism and Buddhism refectthe common intellectual milieu in which theyboth fourished.

Mahavira and Sakyamuni are generally char-acterized as Upanigadic thinkers. hrdeed, manyUpani5adic concepls, such as katma, saitshra,at\d maya, are central to Jain and Buddhistbeliefs. The goal of Buddlrism, xirvatla, is rcleasefiom the cycles of sathsdra, a goal which can bereached when the individual fully realizes hisown IJniversal nature. The Jains also seek asimilar end, although the Jains define theiroursuit as the desire to free the individual soul

from matter so that it may become pure andenjoy eternal bliss. Both religions are heterodox,since they do not accept the authority of theVedas. Both religions opposed the Vedic castesystem and meaningless rituals and propoundedethical systems in which noniolence (ahitusa)was a major element. They are both nontheistic,in contrast to Vedic beliefs. Thus, Buddhistsand Jains do not propitiate the gods for materialboons in the Vedic sense. While it is true thatlater images of Sakyamuni Buddha, Mahavira,and other individuals, both historical andconceptual, important to the two religions aredepicted in art, these are not representations of"gods" in the Iiteral sense. Instead, these imagesserve a vadety of purposes. For example,they often represent personifications of reli-gious principles that are to be meditated uponor provide examples of persons or ideas to beemulated.

Although Buddhism and Jainism share manyfeatures, each has a distinct history. Tainjsmseems to have changed comparatively litile dur-ing its long history, while Buddhism underwenrnumerous significant developments, marked inthe early stages by a series of four Buddhistcoulcils,l4 which were attempts to uniryschisms. In general, Buddhism is described ashaving three major divisions: Hnayana(Smaller Vehicle), Mahayana (Greater Vehicle),and Vajrayana (Adamantine Vehicle). None ofthese terms is truly descriptive of the manyvariant forms of Buddhism usually groupedinto these three broad catesories. The term"Hinaydna" in particular, orid to reGr to anumber of important rypes of Buddhism,such as Theravada, is much criricized, for it wasinvented by Mahayanists and has pejorativecourotations. These forms of Buddhism andaccounts of the lives of Sakyamuni Buddhaand Mahavira will be discussed in relationto artistic developments. In this volume, greaterattention will be given to Buddhist art thanto Jain art, for it was not only the moredominant and popular of the two religions inSouth Asia, but it was widely adopted through-out Asia and became a religion of importantinternational scope, in contrast to Jainism,which remained confrred to the Indic resion.

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The limited information about Indic societyduring Vedic and Upanisadic times thus fardiscussed has been largely gleaned from textualsources. This is because archaeological evidencefor this period is scanty and incomplete. How-ever, some verification of the pattems discemedis preserved in these meager archaeologicalmaterials. For example, two apparently distinctbut parallel cultures existing in ancient Indiaduring this approximate period have beenidentified through pottery types. The first, char-acterized by a pottery known as Painted Grey'Ware,

seems to be associated with a late wave ofIndo-Arvans. Some Painted Grev Ware sites arefound in northern Rajasthan, but the potteryis mainly known from sites in the Pafijab region,Haryana, and especially western Uttar Pradesh,which essentially comprises the ancient Vedicheartland. Despite the lackluster name, examplesof Painte d Grey Ware are often extremelybeautiful (Pl. z). These fine, wheel-made vesselsbear designs painted in black or brown insimple, geometric patterns such as c rs-cross

lines or rows of dots and dashes. These designsmay be simplifications of earlier, but by thistime familiar, symbols which carried specificmeamngs.

The second culture is identified archaeologi-cally by a black-and-red ware that has muchwider geographic distribution and a lengthierhistory, for it precedes, coincides with, andoutlives the periods of Painted Grey Ware pro-duction. It is found as early as the Harappacontext and survives in certain parts of Indiaup to the early historical period. Its distributionis considerable for it has been found virtuallyall over the Indic regions, even alongside thePainted Grey Ware at most Painted Grey Waresites. An examination of this type of pottery(Pl. 3) reveals that it is flot a two-colored warecreated by two colors of dip or from painting.as the name might imply. Its coloration wasproduced during firing in an orygen-reducedatmosphere, creating the blackened areas, espe-cially in the interior of the red clay pot whichis inverted during firing.

The widespread distribution of black-and-red

ware in space and time, has led to alternativetheories, One presumes that the ware representsa "floating" technique that was used widelyand not limited to any culture. The other, per-haps the rnore likely, holds that it signifies anidentifiable, though perhaps loosely associated,cultural unit that is distinct from that of theIndo-Aryan groups but may be tied togetherover space and tirne throughout the prehistoricperiod.

Though the evidence is still somewhat unclear,there is, however, archaeological support for atheory of nuvo distinct cultures existing side byside with little interaction, one reflecting perhapsan intrusive people and the other largely in-digenous or assimilated groups. It is interestingto note that Upanigadic thinking reached itsfullest fruition in the Gangetic region and inMagadha in particular. This region is a dis-tinctively black-and-red ware area, therebyreinforcing the view that Upanigadic thinkingrepresents an essentially non-lndo-Aryan devel-oomeff.

The rise of the kingdom of Magadha, whichoccurred during the late Upanigadic period, isalso associated with a pottery type. This ware,the Northern Black Polished ware, began to bdused around Joo B.c. but was apparently dis-continued after about 2oo B.c. The center ofdispersal of the ware seems to have been theGangetic plains, possibly Magadha, although itis found widely, overlaying earlier pottery,throughout both the Painted Grey Wareand black-and-red ware areas. This deluxe ce-ramic is invariably of fine quality. Its lustrousblack or blue finish (sometimes ranging tosilvery brown, red, or gold) resembles metal.It is always found as a minority ceramic ratherthan the dominant type, suggesting that it wasrestricted in use or that it was not rnade locallybut imported (from the Gangetic region?) andwas possibly costly. This latter possibility maybe inferred since many excavated examples hadbeen repaired during their lifetime of use ratherthan discarded.

This ceramic mav reDresent a combination ofthe Painted G.ey iv"t. and the black-and-red