art. 6 classroom, forum or arena

7/31/2019 Art. 6 Classroom, Forum or Arena

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Classroom: Forum or Arena?

by Dimitrios Thanasoulas, B.A.

Abstract

It is very often the case that the teaching-learning situation may not be commensuratewith the participants' expectations and goals, and become an unrewarding experience with

far-reaching pedagogical implications. The present study will focus on teachers' and

learners' roles, while providing a description of the current "state of the art," as regards

the difficulties and problems encountered. In other words, an attempt will be made to

trace some of the intrinsicfactors that, either positively or negatively, affect teaching and

learning habits, with a view to fostering a holistic approach to education and forging

constructive, interpersonal relationships in the classroom which can facilitate the

educational process. Moreover, some of the extrinsicproblems relating to infrastructure,

classroom environment and equipment, etc. will be discussed, as they too play an

important role in the teaching-learning situation, whether this is viewed as a process or a

product.

1. Introduction

In the last twenty years or so, we have been inundated with various new techniques and

methods that purport to make the teaching and learning process more interesting, thought-

provoking and insightful for both parts involved in it, i.e. the teacher and the learner.

Admittedly, the non-human components, that is to saysyllabuses, have so far made a

significant contribution to foreign language learning, whether we refer to thestructural

syllabus, which was in its heyday in the 50's and 60's, the notional syllabus, or the

notional-functional syllabus. We will not dwell on this any further, since in-depthexamination of the various types of syllabuses is not within the purview of the present

work. Yet, we have to note that, among the wide diversity of approaches that have

permeated foreign language learning, the Communicative and Progressivist Approaches

are of particular importance and value. The philosophy underlying the former approach is

that language is to be viewed as a vehicle for communication; a conduit through which

people express feelings or exchange information and opinions, in a given social context.

In short, the tenet that informs its structure and methodology is embedding language in its

situational context. It is perhaps a modern recasting, so to speak, of Saussure's parole.

The logic behind the first approach is that language is a

means of communication in a social environment and we needit in order to use it when we are discussing certain topics

/ themes or when we find ourselves in certain situations.

With its appearance in the foreign language teaching scene,

there was a move away from focusing on language as a system

of autonomous meanings, expressed by its formal properties,

to concentrating on language in operation, which implies

that meaning is dependent on the context of situation and

on the speakers using it (Dendrinos, 1992: 116).

The latter, i.e. the Progressivist Approach, takes a holistic view of the teaching-learning

process, with the aim of fostering the student's development of the wholepersona in anunfragmented way. Consequently, the pupil is no longer considered to be a passive


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subjectthat is called on to function in a predefined, systematic way; on the contrary, he /

she is looked upon as a self-actualizing individual whose cognitive, emotional and

educational needs are to be respected and promoted. As Dr. B. Dendrinos notes,

progressivists consider learners as effective participants

in the process of learning and responsible for its outcomesand the teacher as a guide and facilitator who creates

conditions for the development of an inventive, problem-

solving capacity (ibid., p. 131).

However, no matter what kind of approach, design or procedure we may resort to, it is an

indisputable fact that, unless human interaction, inside or outside the classroom, leads to

authenticity and self-fulfilment, the whole process is bound to fail. There has to be room

for both teachers and students to grow into. In this kind of relationship, methods and

techniques are merelyfacilitating devices, whereas the cognitive, affective and social

growth of teachers and learners is the keynote. In light of this, we will endeavour to shed

some light on the role the aforementioned participants play, and address ourselves tosome of the most besetting problems confronting both parts of the educational process.

2. On "authority"

Clearly linked to the problems that vitiate the benefit that would, in an ideal world, accrue

to those who actively engage in educational programs, methods and techniques, is

inescapably the controversial issue ofteacher authority. As a matter of fact, "authority"

has been endowed with various meanings yet remains elusive of any definition

whatsoever. Some people associate it with the teacher's elevated cognitive, intellectual

and social status and his / her concomitant primacy over the students, while others tend to

connect it with such an unnerving feeling as arrogance and a supercilious observance of

rules and norms that are laid down by the teacher her / himself - and the institution within

which he / she is authorizedto teach - and mustbe taken at face value. It is with both

connotations that we will be concerned.

2.1. The teacher's authority and its effects

There has always been a tendency, on the part of the teacher, to claim superiority over his

or her students and, consequently, to lose sight of his or her role in class. The teacher who

evinces these characteristics keeps on blaming the students for their aberrant behaviour

and "unsatisfactory" performance; he hardly ever bothers to make a probe of the students'cognitive, emotional and psychological background. He is an arrogant automatonwho

asserts his authority over his socially unauthorized, impotent and inferior students in a

most undemocratic, uncivilized way; an "educated" person who supposedly strives to

inculcate values and ideals but who is "conspicuous by her absence" when it comes to

fostering feeling and creative thinking. No doubt, the teacher is conditioned to function -

or rathermalfunction - in this way but let us not get bogged down in further details as to

the causes. Nothing could extenuate this kind of behaviour, after all!

This arrogant, unapproachable figure, with his high-falutinideas and pompous language,

is as often as not a formidable barrier to language learning. Not only his personality and

his intellectual and linguistic abilities but also such paralinguistic features as facialexpressions and bodily position in the classroom may exert an immensely negative


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influence on the student's cognition and affect. Experiments have proved that four bodily

positions of the teacher, i.e. left /right,front / back, elevated / non-elevated, and

standing / seated, have each been associated with a certain degree of social dominance.

For example, a teacher who, most of the time in class, is standing, elevated and occupies

the foreground on the right side, is perceived to be dominant.

The data indicated that 75% of the time the elevated person

was perceived as dominant and only 29% of the time the non-

elevated person was considered so. Similarly 61% of the

time the standing person was perceived as dominant(Schwartz,

Tesser and Powel, 1981: 47, cited in Papaconstantinou, 1991: 64).

We can imagine what a real strain on the pupils this must be. Consciously or

unconsciously, the teacher's posture and facial expressions exude a certain air or mood

which often builds up tension and aggravates interaction between teachers and students,

and among students themselves. This discrepancy between "bad mood" and the

educational objectives relating to cognitive development and emotional equilibrium is initself pernicious and unprepossessing to cope with, mainly on the part of the student. How

can the student feel secure and confident in a hostile, unpredictable environment, in which

he / she is to be "seen but not heard"?

He (Paul Ekman) [my parenthesis] argues that facial

expressions for primary emotions, such as surprise, fear,

anger, disgust, sadness, and happiness are universally the

same and are consequently cross-culturally

perceived(Papaconstantinou, 1991: 65).

In all likelihood, a grumpy and severe teacher will produce grumpy and severe or

refractory students.

As is evident, a teacher who speaks ex cathedra, exercising his requisite authority to lay

down rules which the students must adhere to unquestioningly, does his cause a great

disservice. Many generations look back on their school days with a measure of fear and

contempt because they believe that learning means hard work and sacrifice, and teachers'

job is to reward or punish. Legitimate though it may be, this belief should be de-

suggestedby realizing and assuming the correct and healthy role as teachers and learners -

a task which will be our concern in the following chapter.

3. The roles of the teacher and the learner

One can hardly envisage a language learning situation in the absence of an interaction of

the student with his / her fellow students, the teacher and the textbook. Every time the

student interacts with any of these sources, she makes various hypotheses about what she

is learning, and accepts or rejects them, trying out new ones. In her attempt to learn the

foreign language, she is dependent on her co-interactants, as she develops a wide range of

strategieswhich will be tested only in a communicative context. Strategies can be

distinguished in three categories:production strategies, comprehension strategies and

interactive strategies. We will not explore any of these in the present study. We should

only point out the importance of human interaction in the classroom as a condition forsuccessful language learning and intellectual, emotional and social development.


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3.1. The role of the teacher

As has been intimated so far, language teaching is a complex issue, encompassing

linguistic, psycholinguistic, sociocultural, pragmatic, as well as instructional and curricula

dimensions. There are a lot of factors contributing to the dynamicsof the educational

process, such as internationalism and the pragmatic status of the foreign language (e.g.,English), teaching and learning styles, and program characteristics. For example, the

general expectation by students, parents and teachers that learners should achieve a high

level of proficiency in English when they leave school influences both language policies

and how foreign language learning will evolve. Furthermore, the teaching-learning

process reflects different cultural traits and traditions. In some cultures, students tend to

feel more at ease in the classroom, expressing their viewpoints and agreement or

disagreement; in others, a "passive" attitude towards the teacher and the target language is

more common. For instance, Greek society and its educational system favour rote

memorization, while western countries, in general, do not value it. Moreover, such issues

as the degree of preparation of teachers and the validity of testing and evaluation

procedures can have a tremendous impact on language learning.

As is patently obvious, the task or act, one may say, of "teaching" encapsulates a lot more

than merely providing instruction and guidelines for students. It presupposes a

psychological and philosophical knowledge on the teacher's part, so as to combine

techniques in class, as well as sufficient command of the basic structure of human

existence, with a view to assessing any situation accurately and appropriately.

Clearly linked to the roles defined for the learner are the

roles the teacher is expected to play in the instructional

process. Teacher roles, too, must ultimately be related

both to assumptions about content and, at the level of

approach, to particular views of language and language

learning. Some instructional systems are totally dependent

on the teacher as the source of knowledge and direction;

others see the teacher's role as catalyst, consultant,

diagnostician, guide, and model for learning; still others

try to teacher-proof the instructional system by limiting

teacher initiative and building instructional content and

direction into texts or lesson plans. Teacher and learner

roles define the type of interaction characteristic of

classrooms in which a particular method is being used.

Teacher roles in methods are related to the following

issues: the types of functions teachers are expected to

fulfill (e.g., practice director, counselor, model), the

degree of control the teacher influences over learning, the

degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining

linguistic content, and the interactional patterns assumed

between teachers and learners (Richards, 1994: 23).

Undoubtedly, the teacher is called upon to perform several functions in foreign language

learning. These are the following:

Teacher as director and manager


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Teacher as counselor and a language resource

Teacher as a model and independent language user

3.1.1. Teacher as director and manager

One of the main concerns of the teacher as a director and manager is to create a warm,stimulating atmosphere in which the students will feel secure and confident.

It is very important for learners to feel very much at home

with both their teachers and fellow-learners, if they are

to be expected to venture out into the deep waters of

foreign language learning, to experiment with new and

strange sounds, and to role-play in a language which they

have barely begun to learn (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1993: 95).

Apart from assisting in creating the right atmosphere, the teacher should also make

decisions on the materials to be used, as well as the activities and games which will bestaccord with the learners' needs and abilities. Inasmuch as learners do not necessarily share

the same cognitive and linguistic abilities, or interests and motivation, it is incumbent on

the teacher to choose a wide variety of materials and teaching techniques and strategies in

order to respond to the students' interests and capacities. To this end, the teacher is

supposed to organize the class, deciding whether a specific role-play or game will be

simulated in pairs or in groups. Bearing all this in mind, the teacher may help develop a

learner-centred approach to foreign language learning, as he / she takes into account the

learners' preferences, tailoring the materials and strategies to their needs.

3.1.2. Teacher as counselor and a language resource

The second function that the foreign language teacher is expected to fulfil is that of

counselor and a language resource. In other words, the onus is on her to provide the

learners with the necessary inputin order to foster understanding of the relation between

language and communication. In short, she must modify and simplify her language

according to the needs arising in each communicative situation, and to thegrammatical

competence and language proficiency of the students. In addition to simplifying teacher

talk, she should resort to miming and facial expressions, as shown in a previous chapter.

Learning and teaching is multi-sensory and everything in

the classroom and method must imply that learning isrelaxing, fun and possible to be attained (Papaconstantinou, 1991:

35).

Moreover, the teacher as a language resource should help learners to acquaint themselves

with, and acquire a taste for, the target language and culture. He should make explicit

that language is not to be held in a vacuum but should always be learnt in connection to

its users and the uses to which it is put. In light of this, grammar should not be the sole

reference point in foreign language learning; the teacher has to draw his students'

attention to the sociocultural and pragmatic aspects of the foreign language, in order to

help them assess the accuracyand appropriacyof the language they produce, both at the

sentencelevel and the discourselevel. As J. C. Richards (1994: 157) notes, "a focus ongrammar in itself is not a valid approach to the development of language proficiency."


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The teacher as a counselor and a language resource should see it as her goal to provide

enough remedial work,in order to eradicate students' errors, and encourage learners to

develop their own learning strategies and techniques, so as to discover the answers to

their own questions.

3.1.3. Teacher as a model and independent language user

In order to become a successful communicator and model for learners, the teacher should

promote a wide range of behaviours and psychological and social relationships such as

solidarity and politeness.

Often learners have difficulties in adopting these

behaviours because of thepsychologicaland social

distancethat there exists between learners and materials.

As a result, learners have a tendency to adopt the

teacher's language behaviours to indicate attitude and role

relationships, rather than those presented in materials.This is understandable, of course, since the teacher is a

live model, a real human being to whom they can more easily

relate(Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1993: 101).

In short, the teacher should help learners to negotiate meaning in the target language

through his own active participation in it, and act as a mediatorbetween the linguistic and

extra-linguistic context of foreign language learning, as these are reflected in the

textbooks and re-alia (e.g., audio-visual aids, etc.) or literature, respectively.

3.1.4. Conclusion

Beyond the shadow of a doubt, teachers play an essential role in the foreign language

classroom. Not only are they directors and managers of the classroom environment but

they also function as counselors and language resources facilitating the teaching-learning

process. In addition, teachers can become models and independent language users in order

to overcome "the inherent shortcomings of the foreign language classroom environment"

(ibid., p. 104).

3.2. The role of the learner

What roles do learners play in the design of educational programs and systems, and howmuch leeway are they left with in contributing to the learning process? In the last two

decades or so, there has been a shift from Cognitive and Transformational-Generative

Grammar Approaches to a Communicative view of learning. Learners, who were

formerly viewed as stimulus-response mechanisms whose learning was the product of

practice - reminding one of the well-known dictum,Repetitio est mater studiorum - are

nowadays regarded as individuals who should have a say in the educational process.

"The role of the learner as negotiator - between the self,

the learning process, and the object of learning - emerges

from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within

the group and within the classroom procedures andactivities which the group undertakes. The implication for


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the learner is that he should contribute as much as he

gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way" (Breen and

Candlin, 1980: 110, cited in Richards, 1994: 22-23).

In our attempt to gain useful insights into the various factors that are responsible for

students' learning, we will take account of three main areas of investigation:

Age, cognitive and learning factors

Social and affective factors

Learners' needs and interests

3.2.1. Age, cognitive and learning factors

Age variation in foreign language learning and learning differences between children and

adults are significant factors that must be taken into account in choosing the right

approaches, design and procedures. Experiments have shown that there are a lot of

biological factorsat work in language learning. In young learners, both hemispheres of thebrain are responsible for the language function, while at puberty it is only the left

hemisphere that takes over, which makes language acquisition and learning more

difficult. This process is called lateralization and it may be responsible for learning

differences between children and adults.

Cognitive and learning styles, already acquired through mother tongue, may influence

foreign language learning.

Of all personality characteristics attributed to

individuals, certain cognitive and learning variables have

been researched to determine the degree of their influence

on successful foreign or second language learning. These

are: field-dependence and field-independence, formal

operations, the monitorand foreign language aptitude

(Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1993: 84-85).

Field-independent individuals are more analytical by inclination and tend to learn through

reasoning faculties, whereas field-dependent individuals view learning in toto, acquiring

knowledge subconsciously.

Piaget's "formal operations" theory relates to adults' more mature cognitive capacities asopposed to the "unconscious automatic kind of learning" (Genessee, 1977, 148, cited in

Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1993: 85) that characterizes young learners' less mature cognitive

system. According to this theory, adults are thought to deal with the abstract nature of

language more easily than young learners; it is very often the case, though, that young

people may prove better learners in the long run.

Another factor that influences language learning is the monitoruse employed by learners.

Three types of monitor users have been identified:

overusers, underusers and optimal users. Overusersare

associated with analytical conscious learningOn the otherhand, underusersare associated with subconscious learning


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and extrovert personalitiesFinally, the third category is

that of optimalusers who seem to be the most efficient (ibid.,

p. 85-86).

Pertaining to foreign language aptitude, we could say that it is the rate at which we learn a

foreign language.

3.2.2. Social and affective factors

Successful foreign language learning calls for an examination of the social and affective

factors at work. First of all, the teacher should take into consideration thesocial

proficiency which learners have attained. By social proficiency we mean the degree to

which the learner employs, or taps into, the foreign language in order to communicate and

negotiate meaning or achieve certain social goals. Some learners, for example, may

complain when their classmate uses their pens or pencils because they have not learnt to

use language in a socially accepted way. For instance, they cannot cope with making

requests, asking permission, giving condolences, etc. It is worth noting that differentcultures favour different attitudes on the part of the learner and, as a result, it is very

probable that most of these situations do not necessarily reflect lack of social proficiency.

Apart from social factors, affective factors also play an important role as they may

facilitate or preclude learning. It is a commonplace that an atmosphere that fosters and

promotes confidence and emotional stability will produce better students. Harmony in the

classroom helps relieve tension and keeps the door to language processing open. A

teacher's task is like "that of an orchestra conductor, who tends to fly into higher spheres,

and has a tendency to fly and pull himself and the others above everyday's problems

towards a more creative reality" (Papaconstantinou, 1991: 65). In this "reality" the learner

may easily identify with the teacher and venture out into new aspects of the target

language, dealing with it in her own, individual way. Unless she feels at ease with her

teacher and her fellow-students, she will not learn. If she feels rejected and is afraid of

being told off or scoffed at whenever she makes a mistake, she will withdraw from the

educational process and lag behind, both cognitively and emotionally. "Consequently, the

content of materials for classroom use as well as classroom practices should be

compatible with the affective variables influencing learners" (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1993:

90).

3.2.3. Learners' needs and interests

Indubitably, a successful course should consider learner needs. For this reason, the

concept ofneeds analysishas assumed an important role in language learning. Needs

analysis has to do with the aims of a course, as these are determined by the uses to which

the target language will be put on completion of the program.

For example, is our aim to achieve a high level of language proficiency or are we called

upon to respond to the needs of, say, adult learners who need to master specific skills,

such as academic writing or note-taking? All these parameters will have to inform the

methods and techniques we use in class, as well as the materials design we are supposed

to implement in order to achieve the best results.


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With regard to learner's interests, it is worth noting that we, as teachers, should be

cognizant of the differences between children and adolescents. For instance, the former

are interested in body movement and play, whereas the latter want to learn about human

relationships in general and achieve a deeper understanding of their abilities, with the aim

of developing a sound personality and character.

3.2.4. Conclusion

It has become evident that foreign language learning is far from a simple, straightforward

process where teachers are thepurveyorsof knowledge and students the passive

subjectswho receive that knowledge. For successful foreign language learning, students

must have both the abilityand desireto learn. Otherwise, the objectives we set are doomed

to failure.

Foreign language teachers, therefore, must be

flexibleenough and sensitiveenough to respond well to the

individual learning preferences, interests and needs oftheir learners in terms of materials, techniques, classroom

methodology and teacher talk. After all, language learning

is nota monolithic process since not all personality and

environmental factors can be kept under control in a

foreign language situation (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1993: 94).

4. Extrinsic factors influencing language learning

We have hitherto been concerned with some of the intrinsicfactors that may facilitate or

hamper language learning. Now we should turn our attention to a brief description and

evaluation of some of the extrinsicfactors.

Such issues as infrastructure and limited school budgets have not received much attention

in ELT articles and books, yet contribute significantly to the outcome of the educational

process. One could say that they constitute the extra-linguistic context of the teaching-

learning situation. A situation where the school has no lighting or heating, and classrooms

are packed with a great number of students, with whom the teacher seems unable to

familiarize himself, is not a promising one. Furthermore, limited or no access to school

libraries and educational seminars or programs makes inroads into students' and teachers'

progress. All these potential shortcomings, coupled with the teacher's "authority," may

severely inhibit the learning process.

Equally detrimental - albeit in more subtle ways - may prove seating arrangements in

class. For example, in a classroom where desks are arranged in such a way that students

look towards the teacher rather than their classmates, learners and teachers alike are

unable to interact through role-play and other activities or throughparalinguisticfeatures

such as eye-contact and non-verbal communication, in general. Conversely, in a situation

where desks are arranged in a circle or in groups or pairs, learners are provided with the

opportunity to develop warm and constructive interpersonal relationships (see

Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1993: 131-133 for more details).

5. Concluding remarks


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Throughout this study it has been attempted to shed some light on both favourable and

unfavourable conditions for foreign language learning. Our main concern has been with

the roles of teachers and learners, with a view to identifying any "problematic areas" and

deficiencies arising from false assumptions and incorrect strategies and techniques,

mainly on the teacher's part. The teaching-learning situation is not merely an intellectual

or cognitive system of values; it is a complex, dynamic, neuro-psychological process,whereby students should be encouraged to think, analyzeand make hypothesesas well as to

feeland touch - and, in so doing, to live.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dendrinos, B. (1992) The EFL Textbook and Ideology, Athens: N. C. Grivas

Publications.

Papaconstantinou, A. (1991) Suggestopedia: An art of Teaching, an art of Living,

Athens: Hellinika Grammata.

Papaconstantinou, A. (1997) Creating the Whole Person in New Age, Athens: A.

Kardamitsa. Papaefthymiou-Lytra, S. (1993)Language, Language Awareness and Foreign

Language Learning, Athens: The University of Athens Press.

Richards, J. C. (1994) The Context of Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

art. 6 classroom, forum or arena

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