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Advanced Research Methods (ARM)

Introduction to ARM: Basic ConceptsLecture - 1

Over 90% of the relevant literature in many technical fields, such as biotechnology, astronomy, computers and software, and environmental sciences, has been produced since 1985. Traditional programmatic approaches to education simply cannot keep up...J B Quinn (2001)

Pace of Knowledge Creation

1700 To 1950: Mans Knowledge Doubled = 250 Years 1950 To 1965: Mans Knowledge Doubled Again = 15 Years 1965 To 1975: Mans Knowledge Doubled Again = 10 Years 1975 To 1980: Mans Knowledge Doubled Again = 5 Years

Operational KnowledgeImagine, your boss is planning to visit Paris You have been assigned to prepare a Guide for him What will you do? Develop a research plan

You may consider questions like:Is it worth to research? What is purpose of your research? What would your research questions? From whom you will collect information? From how many persons, you will collect information?

How will you collect the information? How will you analyze information? How will you report the findings? What could be the kinds and sources of biases? How will you prove to then boss that the information contained the Guide is relevant and reliable?

Are you SURE that you are not going to reinvent the wheel?

What is research?Research is one of the ways to find answers to your questions Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of matter. The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe.

Research is defines as a systematic, self critical enquiry. Enquiry is aimed at understanding a thing or phenomenon or solving a problem Research is an art of scientific investigation.

Why Study Research?

Research provides you with the knowledge and skills needed for the fast-paced decision-making environment

When Should Research be Undertaken?Is sufficient time available? Yes Is information inadequate? Yes High importance of decision? Yes Research benefits greater than costs?11

NO

Do not undertake Business Research

Undertake Business Research

What is Good Research?

Following the standards of the scientific method

Purpose clearly defined Research process detailed Research design thoroughly planned Limitations frankly revealed High ethical standards applied Consistent style of citation High ethical standards applied

Adequate analysis for decision-makers needs Findings presented unambiguously Conclusions justified Researchers experience reflected Bibliography

Golden rulesUse of Project Management tools and techniques Use MindManager software to develop and refine your model for research Knowledge Management Remain open to all possible sources Be creative / innovative

Modules in a Business Research Proposal Executive

Summary Problem Statement Research Objectives Literature Review Importance of the Study Research Design Data Analysis Nature and Form of Results

Qualifications of Researcher Budget Schedule Facilities and Special Resources Project Management Bibliography Appendices

What is Research Design?A plan for selecting the sources and types of information used to answer research questions A framework for specifying the relationships among the study variables A blueprint that outlines each procedure from the hypothesis to the analysis

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Taxonomy of Research

Types of Research

Classification # 1

Descriptive Research Explanatory research Predictive research Basic Applied Qualitative Quantitative

Classification # 2

Classification # 3

C#1

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research describes a single event or characteristic or relates a few events or variables through statistical analysis It is necessary for good explanatory research

C#1

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research answers why and how of the phenomenon through hypotheses and theories Uses theory Much of the research published in journals is explanatory

C#1

Predictive Research

Predictive research constructs and uses models to forecast the occurrence of an event or events

C#2

Basic Research

Basic Research aims to expand the frontiers of science and knowledge by verifying or disproving the acceptability of a given theory or attempting to discover more about a certain concept (non-specificity) Mostly performed by academics

Example: How does motivation affect employee performance?

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C#2

Applied Research

Applied Research focuses on a real-life problem or situation with a view to helping reach a decision how to deal with it (Specificity)

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition . Example: Should a corporation adopt a paperless office environment?

C#3

Qualitative and Quantitative ApproachesQualitative Subjective

Quantitative Objective

Research questions: How many? Research questions: What? Why? How When? Where? Strength of association? "Hard" science "Soft" science

Literature review must be done early in Literature review may be done as study study progresses or afterwards Test theory Develops theory One reality: focus is concise and narrow Multiple realities: focus is complex and broad Facts are value-free and unbiased Reduction, control, precision Measurable Facts are value-laden and biased Discovery, description, understanding, shared interpretation Interpretive

Mechanistic: parts equal the whole Report statistical analysis. Basic element of analysis is numbers Researcher is separate Subjects Context free Hypothesis Reasoning is deductive Establishes relationships, causation Uses instruments Strives for generalization Generalizations leading to prediction, explanation, and understanding Highly controlled setting: experimental setting (outcome oriented) Sample size: n "Counts the beans" Uses different instruments

Organismic: whole is greater than the parts Report rich narrative, individual; interpretation. Basic element of analysis is words/ideas. Researcher is part of process Participants Context dependent Research questions Reasoning is inductive Describes meaning, discovery Uses communications and observation Strives for uniqueness Patterns and theories developed for understanding Flexible approach: natural setting (process oriented) Sample size not a concern; seeks informal rich sample; carefully selected participants Provides information as to "which beans are worth counting" Researcher is the instrument

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Objectives of Research

Objectives of ResearchThe OBJECTIVES of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. For example, if the problem identified is low morale of employees, the general objective of the study could be to identify the reasons for this low morale, in order to find solutions.

Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under Statement of the Problem They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose. The first specific objective usually focuses on quantifying or specifying the problem.

Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing your objectives e.g. to find out, to ascertain, to measure, to explore, Wording of objectives determine types of research design There is no place for ambiguity, non-specificity or incompleteness

Why should research objectives be developed?Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials); Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem you have identified; and Organise the study in clearly defined parts or phases.Rule 100% of Scope

Descriptive ResearchExamples Socioeconomic characteristics of a community Aims To describe what is prevalent regarding: a group of people Attitudes of customers towards quality a community of products a phenomenon Attitudes of workers towards a situation management a program an outcome Problems faced by expatriates Extent of occupational mobility among business graduates Consumers likes and dislikes with regard to a product Effects of living in a house with domestic violence Strategies put in place by a company to increase productivity of workers

Correlational ResearchExamples Impact of a program Relationship stressful working environment and performance of employees Impact of technology on employment Impact of pre-entry training on extent of work related problems Impact of an advertising campaign on sale of a product Impact of incentives on productivity of employees Effectiveness of a career counseling program on retention of employees Aims To establish or explore or ascertain: a relationship an association A interdeondence

Explanatory ResearchExamples Why does stressful work environment result in high turnover of employees? How does technology create employment / unemployment? Why do some people have a positive attitude towards an issue while others do not? Why does a particular intervention work for some people and not for others? Why do some people prefer intangible benefits over tangible benefits while others do not Why do some people adopt a program while others do not Aims To explain: why a relationship, association or interdependence exists why a particular event occurs

Scientific Knowledge

Scientific knowledge is the knowledge gained systematically through a cycle of processes:

Observations Perceptions Language Thoughts Concepts Classification Definition Constructs Principles Hypotheses Laws Theory Verification

Validity

It ensures that in a research study correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question

Reliability

Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy

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Errors using inadequate data are much less than those using no data at all. Charles Babbage (1792-1871)

Validity and Precision

Validity and Precision

Validity and Precision

Validity and Precision

What is wrong with this statement?A

study conducted by Akram (2006) shows that GDP growth rate of Pakistan for the year 2006-07 is expected to fall between -8 % to +8%

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Data, Information and Knowledge

Data

Data... data is raw. symbols Data are pieces of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables. It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence (in and of itself). It can exist in any form, usable or not. It does not have meaning of itself. Data is unprocessed facts and figures without any added interpretation or analysis. "The price of crude oil is $80 per barrel."

InformationInformation is data that has been given meaning by way of relational connection. This "meaning" can be useful, but does not have to be. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.

Information is data that has been interpreted so that it has meaning for the user. data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to "who", "what", "where", and "when" questions "The price of crude oil has risen from $70 to $80 per barrel" gives meaning to the data and so is said to be information to someone who tracks oil prices.

KnowledgeKnowledge is a combination of information, experience and insight that may benefit the individual or the organisation. "When crude oil prices go up by $10 per barrel, it's likely that petrol prices will rise by 2p per litre" is knowledge. application of data and information; answers "how" questions Knowledge is the appropriate collection of information, such that it's intent is to be useful.

Quiz

The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining It is raining. If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.

Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things.

Ex: It is raining.

Information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort, possibly cause and effect.

Ex: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining.

Knowledge represents a pattern that connects and generally provides a high level of predictability as to what is described or what will happen next.

Ex: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.

Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of fundamental principles embodied within the knowledge that are essentially the basis for the knowledge being what it is. Wisdom is essentially systemic.

Ex: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses an understanding of all the interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gradients, changes, and raining.

Yet, there is still a question regarding when is a pattern knowledge and when is it noise. Consider the following:

Abugt dbesbt regtc uatn s uitrzt. ubtxte pstye ysote anet sser extess ibxtedstes bet3 ibtes otesb tapbesct ehracts

It is quite likely this sequence represents 100% novelty, which means it's equivalent to noise. There is no foundation for you to connect with the pattern, yet to me the statements are quite meaningful as I understand the translation with reveals they are in fact Newton's 3 laws of motion. Is something knowledge if you can't understand it?

Chaim Zins has authored an article ConceptualApproaches for Defining Data, Information, and Knowledge available on Website

(http://www.success.co.il/is/zins_definitions_di k.pdf) contains 130 definitions of data, information, and knowledge formulated by 45 scholars, and maps the major conceptual approaches for defining these three key concepts.

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Concept, Construct, Hypothesis and Theory

The Building Blocks of TheoryConcepts Constructs Definitions Variables Propositions and Hypotheses Theories Models

ConceptsA concept is a basic building block of thought and communication which helps in organizing an observation or an experiential knowledge A mental image that summarizes a set of similar observations, feelings, or ideas. All theories, ideas, are based on concepts A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors

Concepts have been

developed over time through shared usage E.g. flexibility, originality, The success of research hinges on: how clearly we conceptualize how well others understand the concepts we use

DefinitionA definition is a statement whose truth is asserted but not considered liable to empirical challenge A definition can be descriptive or operational or mathematical

Empirical

Empirical denotes information gained by means of observation, experience, or experiment.

Operational Definition

An operational definition is stated in terms of criteria for measurement so that it is unambiguous and precise, which is mostly used one in research

PropositionA proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of abstraction than concepts Example: Smoking is injurious to health

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What is a Construct?A

construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theorybuilding purpose. Higher-level concepts are called constructs. Constructs express the ideas behind a set of particulars.

Example: Creativity is a construct generally recognized to consist of flexibility, originality, elaboration, and other concepts. Since constructs are not directly observable, researchers use indicators or variables as a way of measuring or classifying most of the particulars of the construct.

Variable

A phenomenon which is subject to change

TheoryA theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural word. A theory is a set of asserted universal proposition communicated in a set of universal sentences (by universal researchers) which are derived by observation and empirical evidence capable of agreement and corroboration (validation) E.g. Maslows Theory

The Value of a TheoryNarrows the range of facts we need to study Suggests which research approaches will yield the greatest meaning Suggests a data classification system Summarizes what is known about an object of study Predicts further facts that should be found

"It is the theory that decides what can be observed."

Albert Einstein

Qualities of a Good TheoryA theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements.

It must accurately describe a large class of observations. And it must make definite predictions about the result of future observations

Source: Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 198870

Theories must be: Objective Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error) Falsifiable / disprovable Good theories must understand, explain and predict

71

HypothesisA tentative theory that has not yet been tested. Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually concerned with the relationships between variables

Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production If basic needs are not met, then motivation level among the employees will be low

The Role of the HypothesisGuides the direction of the study Identifies facts that are relevant Suggests which form of research design is appropriate Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result

What is a Good Hypothesis?

A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:

Must be adequate for its purpose Must be testable Must be better than its rivals

The Abstraction LadderTheory Abstract Level

Propositions

Levels of Abstraction

Concepts / Constructs

Observations of Objects, Events and Occurrences (Reality)75

Empirical Level

Conceptual frameworkA conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to an idea or thought. Conceptual frameworks act like maps that give coherence to empirical inquiry. Conceptual frameworks (theoretical frameworks) are a type of intermediate theory that have the potential to connect to all aspects of inquiry (e.g., problem definition, purpose, literature review, methodology, data collection and analysis).

ModelA model is a pattern, plan, representation or description designed to show the main object or workings of an object, system, or concept. A statistical model is a set of mathematical equations which describe the behavior of an object of study in terms of variables and their associated probability distributions. If the model has only one equation it is called a singleequation model, whereas if it has more than one equation, it is known as a multiple-equation model.

Deduction / Induction Inference:

from a general principle or law to individual instances (deduction): (General) If something is red, it is a Tomato. Your car is red (Particular) Your car is also a Tomato from several instances to a law (induction) (Specific) My apple is red Your apple is red (General) All apples are red

Deductive ReasoningTheoryUsing deductive reasoning, one starts with a given theory as the basis for which we develop hypotheses and then confirm these with specific data acquired using observation or experimentation (Is our theory valid or not?)

Hypotheses

Observation

Confirmation

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Inductive ReasoningObservationUsing inductive reasoning, one starts with a specific observation as the basis for which we develop a general pattern and tentative hypothesis as the foundation of a theory

Pattern

Tentative Hypothesis

Theory

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Conclusion

When people say they do they are omitting to mention essential background theory or assumptions they are making.

"All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding" - Donald Campbell

"There's no such thing as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0" - Fred Kerlinger

Just Imagine

A sudden crash brings us running to the kitchen. The accused is crouched in front of us, eyes wide and fearful. Her hands are red and sticky. A knife lies on the floor. So does a jam jar and its spilled contents. The accused was about to lick her tiny fingers

Conclusion

When people say they do they are omitting to mention essential background theory or assumptions they are making.

Research ProcessFormulating a research problem Conceptualizing a research design Constructing an instrument for data collection Selecting a sample Writing a research proposal Collecting data Processing data Writing a research report

2J

Tips for Novice Scholars

Non-refereed contributions Conference Proceedings Match quality of contribution and rating of the journal Be prepared to revise and revise and revise and revise Be prepared to resubmit Second author Use masters thesis or dissertation Dont get discouraged!

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Course Outline

Course OutlineLecture 1: Introduction and overview of the course and its requirements. Part I: Theoretical Framework

Lecture 2: Scientific Method and Overview of Research in Management Lecture 3: Reviewing Literature and formulating research problem Lecture 4: Identification of variables and constructing hypotheses Lecture 5: Workshop on Theoretical Framework

a

Part II: Research Design

Lecture 6: Lecture 7: Lecture 8: Lecture 9: Analysis Lecture 10: Lecture 11:

Research design and sample design Questionnaire Design Workshop on Research Design Hypothesis Testing: Uni- and Bi- variate Hypothesis Testing: Multivariate Analysis Workshop on Data Analysis

Part III Data Analysis

Part IV Report Writing

Lecture 12: Lecture 13: Lecture 14: Lecture 15:

Writing your document Common Mistakes in Grammar and Punctuation Referencing Style Workshop on Report Writing

TextsVelde, M. V. D., Jansen, P. & Anderson, P. (2008). Management Research Methods. New Delhi: Blackwell Publishing Limited. Krishnaswamy, K. N. (2006). Management Research Methodology: Principles, Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: Pearson Education. Fink, A. (1998). Conducting Research Literature Reviews. London: Sage Publications. Brace, I. (2005). Questionnaire Design. London: Kogan Page.

Manser, M. H. (2007). Guide to Good Writing. New Delhi: Vinod Vasishtha. Bailey, S. (2006). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. London: Routledge. OShea, R. P. (2002). Writing for psychology (4th ed). Victoria: Thomson. Dees, R. (1997). Writing the Modern research Paper. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

JournalsEuropean Journal of Research Methods Journal of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Research Journal of Research Methods and Methodological Issues Journal of Unconventional Theories and Research Journal of Research Abstracts International Journal of Social Research Methodology

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Thank you for your kind attentionGo forth and research. .but be careful out there.