Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics

The Concept of Eudaimonia

Dr. George Cronk

BCC Dept. of Philosophy & Religion

(Text, pp. 125-138)Revised, 2/27/07

Anthem

Overall Structure of A’s NEI. The Human GoodII. Two Types of Human

Excellence: Intellectual& Moral

III. Moral ExcellenceIV. Freedom & Moral

ResponsibilityV. Intellectual ExcellenceVI. Concluding Discussion

on the Good Life

I. The UltimateHuman Good

(Text, pp. 125-8)

The Human Good

The Nicomachean Ethics is an attempt to describe what it takes for a human being to live a good (i.e., happy) life.

The key concept in the NE is the idea of eudaimonia, usually translated into English as “happiness.”

The Goal-Directed (Teleological) Nature of Human Conduct All distinctively human (i.e., conscious,

rational, & voluntary) actions aim at some good.

Some goods are ends, and others are means to an end.

Ends are more valuable than means. Thus, some goods are higher than others.

The idea of the Highest(or Ultimate) Good

What is it?

Eudaimonia: The Ultimate Good

Verbal agreement that the ultimate human good is eudaimonia (“happiness”). Human beings naturally pursue happiness.

Substantive disagreement as to the nature of happiness. Will the pursuit of pleasure & the avoidance of Will the pursuit of pleasure & the avoidance of

pain make us happy?pain make us happy? How about money, status, & power?How about money, status, & power?

Aristotle’s View of Happiness -- General Characteristics Finality & completeness A pure end (not a means, not an end that is also

a means). Desired entirely for its own sake & not for the sake of anything else.

Sufficient in itself. If you are happy, you don’t need any other good.

Not one good among others, but an ultimate good above all others.

Aristotle’s View of Happiness -- Specific Nature

What is the distinctive & characteristic function (ergon) of a human being?

It is not life (vitality) (both plants & animals are alive).

It is not sentience (animals are sentient). The distinctive function of a human

being is reasoning (nous).

Excellent Functioning

Aristotle adds the idea of excellence (arete) to the idea of distinctive function (ergon).

The function of a guitar player is to play the guitar; the function of an accomplished guitarist is to play the guitar excellently.

If the function of a human being is to live in accordance with reason, then the function of a self-actualized (truly happy, eudaimonic) human being is to reason excellently.

Thus,

happiness (eudaimonia) results from excellent reasoning & from living in accordance with excellent reasoning.

Another formulation: Happiness results from a rational life focused on the pursuit of excellence.

However, in addition to living in accordance with

excellent reasoning, human beings also need “external prosperity” or “circumstantial security” (money, friends, power, social status, etc.).

Internal & External Goods

External Goods (Circumstantial Security)Friends

Money

Status

Power

Internal GoodsPsychological (e.g., peace of mind)

Bodily (e.g., physical health)

Eudaimonia (Happiness) – a product of

Human Excellence (arete) (an internal good)

plus

Circumstantial Security (an external good)

II. Two Types ofHuman Excellence:Intellectual &Moral

(Text, pp. 128-9)

Human Excellence (arete)

• Rational Dimension = IntellectSelf

• Nonrational DimensionNonrational Dimension–Life, Nutrition, Growth (Vitality; Basic Organic Processes)

–Desire

Two Types of Human Excellence

Intellectual Excellence = the excellent functioning of the intellect (correct thinking & reasoning) -- corresponds to the rational dimension of the self

Moral Excellence = desiring and acting in accordance with reason -- corresponds to the desiring dimension of the self

Questions to think about:

What about physical excellence? Is there a type of excellence corresponding

to the physical-biological level of the self? Why does Aristotle not include this level of

excellence? Should he include it?

III. Moral Excellence(Moral Virtue)

(Text, pp. 129-134)

How is moral excellence (virtue) acquired?

Early-life moral training (moral habituation)and

Moral practice (repeated performance of morally virtuous actions)

What This Means

Human beings have a natural potential for moral virtue, and this potentiality is actualized through early-life moral habituation and through the (life-long?) practice and performance of morally virtuous actions.

Moral Virtue in General: The Doctrine of the Mean

Objective expression: Morally virtuous feelings and actions are those that avoid the extremes of excess (too much) and deficiency (too little).

Relative expression: The moral mean is relative to the individual and to the circumstances in which the individual is situated.

A Qualification

The doctrine of the mean does not apply to absolute evils (e.g., murder) or to absolute goods (e.g., the pursuit of wisdom).

There is no deficiency but only excess with regard to absolute evils.

There is no excess but only deficiency with regard to absolute goods.

Specific Moral Virtues

See Table of Virtues & Vices in text, p. 132.

See also following slides on courage, temperance, & justice.

Apply Aristotle’s Table of Virtues & Vices to yourself. Using at least three of his virtue-vice categories, how virtuous (or un-virtuous) are you?

The Major ("Cardinal") Moral Virtues

Courage (fortitude) -- fear & confidence; endurance of pain

Temperance -- pursuit of pleasure & avoidance of pain

Justice -- doing good with regard to others

Courage

The willingness & ability to expose oneself to danger & pain when necessary to the achievement of some real & substantial good

The coward shrinks or runs from danger & pain; & the reckless person exposes her/himself to danger & pain even when it is not necessary to the achievement of a real & substantial good.

Temperance

The willingness & ability to forego pleasure when necessary to the achievement of some real & substantial good

The mindless hedonist

always pursues pleasure

& always avoids pain,

no matter what; & the

“insensible” person fails

to enjoy the pleasures of

life at all.

Justice:The Virtue of Doing Good with Regard to Others

A just person is in the habit of obeying the law & of treating people fairly.

An unjust person is a law-breaker and/or one who takes unfair advantage of others.

There are, then, two forms of justice:

1. Justice as

lawfulness

2. Justice as

fairness

Justice as Lawfulness

Good laws aim at the common good of society, i.e., the production & preservation of the happiness of the political community.

A system of good laws requires us to act in a morally virtuous way, i.e., to exercise ALL of the moral virtues, and it forbids ALL immoral conduct. [Is this true? Should it be?]

Questions to think about:

Is a just person always morally obligated to obey all laws, even bad laws? Why or why not?

Under what circumstances is “civil disobedience” justified? Examples?

Justice as Fairness

Giving and taking in accordance with• the principle of equalitythe principle of equality

andand• the principle of assignment by desert or meritthe principle of assignment by desert or merit

This seems to amount to a principle of This seems to amount to a principle of equality or inequality of desert or merit.equality or inequality of desert or merit.

Fair (Equitable) Distribution of Goods & Evils

Should be based on equality or inequality of desert or merit:

Equally deserving = equal shares

Unequally deserving = unequal shares in proportion to inequality. That is, those who are more deserving get more; those who are less deserving get less.

Application to Penalties & Punishments Penalties & punishments should be imposed only

on those who deserve them, and no one should be penalized or punished either too much or too little.

What about unequal penalties or punishments imposed on the equally deserving? Mr. A & Mr. B are guilty of murder, and both deserve the death penalty. Mr. A is executed, but Mr. B receives a life sentence. This seems unjust on the basis of Aristotle’s theory of fairness, but where, exactly, is the injustice?

The RetributiveTheory of Punishment

-- Criminals deserve to be-- Criminals deserve to be

punished punished (needs clarification)(needs clarification)..

-- Only criminals (& no non-criminals) should be -- Only criminals (& no non-criminals) should be punished punished (needs clarification)(needs clarification)..

-- The punishment should be proportionate to the -- The punishment should be proportionate to the gravity of the crime.gravity of the crime.

-- Where does deterrence fit in? Does it?-- Where does deterrence fit in? Does it?

The Law

Questions:

Why does Aristotle call justice as lawfulness “complete” or “universal” justice?

Why does he call justice as fairness “partial” or “particular” justice?

In what sense is justice a mean?

Summary to this point:

Eudaimonia = excellence + external security

Human excellence: intellectual & moral --living in accordance with reason

Moral excellence• In general: pursuing the mean (except

where there is no mean)• In particular: courage, temperance,

justice, & the other specific moral virtues

IV. Freedom & MoralResponsibility

Next Slide

(Text, pp. 134-5)

Moral Excellence, cont’d -- Moral Responsibility Should we praise the morally virtuous and Should we praise the morally virtuous and

condemn the morally vicious?condemn the morally vicious? That is, should we hold people morally That is, should we hold people morally

responsible for what they feel and do?responsible for what they feel and do? If so, what is the basis of moral responsibility? If so, what is the basis of moral responsibility?

Under what circumstances does it make sense to Under what circumstances does it make sense to hold people morally responsible?hold people morally responsible?

The Distinction between Voluntary and Involuntary Action

Generally speaking, people may be heldresponsible for their voluntary actions,but not for their involuntary actions.

What, then, are the differences between voluntary & involuntary action?

Two Types of Involuntary Action

Actions performed under compulsion, i.e., (1) caused by a force external to the agent & (2) the agent contributes nothing to the action.

Actions performed on the basis of ignorance of the “particular circumstances” of the action (agent, act, object of action, instrument, aim or purpose, manner).

Voluntary Action

Not performed either (1) under compulsion or (2) on the basis of ignorance, but rather caused by the agent with knowledge of the “particular circumstances” of the act.

Distinction between volition & choice Some voluntary actions are not products of

choice. Examples? The nature of choice: requires thinking &

reasoning; a product of prior deliberation. Proper objects of deliberation: things that

are possible; things we can control; means, not ends. [Not ends?]

Moral Freedom & Personal Responsibility

Voluntary actions that result from Voluntary actions that result from deliberation & choice are morally free.deliberation & choice are morally free.

Actions that are morally free may be Actions that are morally free may be praised or blamed.praised or blamed.

Questions to consider:

In what sense do praising, blaming, In what sense do praising, blaming, rewarding, & punishing imply the reality of rewarding, & punishing imply the reality of moral freedom & personal responsibility?moral freedom & personal responsibility?

Is it always morally incorrect to blame &/or Is it always morally incorrect to blame &/or punish people for involuntary actions based punish people for involuntary actions based on ignorance? Why or why not? Examples?on ignorance? Why or why not? Examples?

The Determinism-Libertarianism Debate in Metaphysics

Determinism: All human behavior is caused (determined) by environment (e.g., “society”), heredity, fate, etc. The individual is not free.

Libertarianism (“self-determinism”): At least some human behavior is self-caused (i.e., chosen by the individual).

Are you a determinist or a libertarian? Why?

VI. Intellectual Excellence& the Intellectual Virtues

(Text, pp. 136-7)

Intellectual Excellence

How is intellectual excellence acquired?How is intellectual excellence acquired?

InstructionInstruction

StudyStudy

LearningLearning

Two types of reasoningTheoretical The Realm of

Reasoning Necessity, Eternity,

Intellect & UniversalityPractical The Realm ofReasoning Contingency,

Temporality, &Particularity

1

2

Five types of excellent reasoning:the five intellectual virtues

Practical reasoning

(1) Artistry & Craftsmanship (making)

(2) Practical wisdom (doing, acting)

Theoretical Reasoning

(3) Inferential knowledge(3) Inferential knowledge TheoreticalTheoretical(4) Intuitive knowledge(4) Intuitive knowledge Wisdom Wisdom

(5)

VI. Aristotle’sConclusionson the Nature ofthe Good Life

(Text, pp. 137-8)

Aristotle’s Conclusions Why does Aristotle consider the life of

intellectual excellence (at the level of theoretical reasoning) to result in the highest degree of happiness?

Why does the life of theoretical reasoning bring us closest to the gods (or God)?

Why does the life of moral excellence and practical reasoning result in only a secondary form of happiness?

Eudaimonia

HumanExcellence(arete)

CircumstantialSecurity (externalgoods)

RationalDimension

Intellect

NonrationalDimension

Desire

Life, Nutrition, Growth(basic organic processes?)

IntellectualExcellence

MoralExcellence

Self

The Mean(ergon) Specific Moral Virtues

CourageTemperanceJusticeEtc.

Moral Responsibility

Theoretical Reasoning

Practical Reasoning

Intuition

InferenceTheoretical Wisdom

Making -- Artistry & CraftsmanshipDoing -- Practical Wisdom

Self

Summary Chart on Aristotle's Theory of Happiness

The

EndEnd