application of sugar foam to red soils in a semiarid mediterranean environment

8/14/2019 Application of Sugar Foam to Red Soils in a Semiarid Mediterranean Environment

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O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E

Application of sugar foam to red soils in a semiaridMediterranean environment

F. J. Garca Navarro J. A. Amoros Ortiz-VillajosC. J. Sanchez Jimenez S. Bravo Martn-ConsuegraE. Marquez Cubero Raimundo Jimenez Ballesta

Received: 15 June 2008 / Accepted: 8 January 2009/ Published online: 10 February 2009

Springer-Verlag 2009

Abstract The study described here involved evaluating

the effects that the application of one by-product (sugarfoam waste) has upon red soils in the region of La Mancha

(Central Spain). In view of the fact that this is a location

where this type of soil abounds, this technique has been a

common practice for many years. The principal goal was to

investigate the impact of this approach on some of the soil

properties and, secondly, on its level of fertility. As a

result, this represents an investigation into the effects that

this type of waste has on some soil quality parameters. The

results showed that, after the addition of by-products over

25 years, sugar foam waste is of agricultural interest

mainly due to the increase in organic matter concentration

(about 2%) and, to a lesser extent, by increases in calcium

carbonate (more than 30%) and P (four times more). The

soil pH was also found to increase slightly (1.4), while the

electrical conductivity almost did not change. The prop-

erties associated with these pedological qualities therefore

had a positive effect by improving nutrient availability. As

a result, foams arising from sugar industries have a positive

effect on soil quality and the application of such foams to

soils is beneficial since the need to dispose this residue is

also removed.

Keywords Sugar foam waste Red soils Semiarid

Mediterranean environment La Mancha Spain

Introduction

The combination of agricultural and industrial activity

generates residues that must be disposed of owing their

negative effects on the environment and to maintain the

natural ecological equilibrium (Ros2000). The generation

of agro-industrialist residues has grown quickly in recent

decades, with soils being one of the main destinations for

this material. The addition of wastes, such as sugar foam,

compost and wine vinasse wastes, to agricultural soils is a

common cultural practice, especially in the last 23 dec-

ades, due to the improvements observed in some soil

properties (Sikora and Azad1993), and the increase in crop

yield and quality (Tejada and Gonzalez2003, etc.).

Amongst the better known residues used in La Mancha

(agricultural semiarid Mediterranean region situated in

central Spain), wine vinasse, beet vinasse and sugar foam

waste are worth mentioning. This product (sugar foam

waste) is known as foam is not fit for consumption; is

often applied to red soils that, apart from having an

appreciable agronomic value, have a paleoclimatological

and paleopedological significance and are therefore of

environmental interest.

The potential impact of the materials accumulated in the

so-called sugar foam wastes in soils used for dry-farmed

crops is undoubtedly of interest, especially given that

such waste has been applied to red soils with a great

paleoclimatological, paleodophological, and in general

F. J. Garca Navarro J. A. Amoros Ortiz-Villajos

S. Bravo Martn-Consuegra E. Marquez Cubero

Esc. Univ. Ing. Tecn. Agrcola, UCLM,Ronda de Calatrava, 7, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain

e-mail: [email protected]

F. J. Garca Navarro C. J. Sanchez Jimenez

Unidad de Suelos, Instituto Tecn. Qumica y Medioambiental

(ITQUIMA-UCLM), 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain

R. Jimenez Ballesta (&)

Departamento de Geologa y Geoqumica,

Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid,

Campus Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain

e-mail: [email protected]

1 3

Environ Earth Sci (2009) 59:603611

DOI 10.1007/s12665-009-0058-9


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environmental significance (Gonzalez Martn et al. 2007).

This material may also cause a modification in agronomic

soil quality.

The concept of soil quality appears to be relatively new

but, at the same time, this topic is widely debated. Agricul-

tural productivity has usually been put on the same level as

the sustainability, the fertility of the soil and its usefulness. In

any case, it is necessaryto define the functions of the soil and,

in this respect, the most recent definitions of the soils quality

are based on its multifunctionality rather than on a single

specific use, bearing in mind that the concept is continually

evolving (Singer and Ewing2000). Thus, the inappropriateuse of the soil might lead to a disruption in its chemical,

physical and biochemical properties, such as a decrease in

the cationic exchange capacity, pH, permeability, etc. Such

changes could even affect the nutrients available for the

microorganisms and plants (Clark et al.1998).

The extraction of sugar from sugarcane is a very old

process. More than 50% of the sugar consumed worldwide is

obtained from sugar cane, which grows in tropical and

subtropical climates. The rest of the sugar comes from sugar

beet, which is planted in temperate countries like Spain. The

roots are cut into strands in order to extract the juice. During

the extraction process for sugar from sugar beet it is neces-

sary to separate the non-sweet substances from the beetroot

juice in a refining process that consists of two steps. The

colloidal substances must first be flocculated by white-

washing with lime. The flocculated substances are called

foams and these, in the traditional manufacture process

considered here, are swept away by water to large pools for a

natural drainage (Espejo2001). After the extraction, lime is

usually added to the juice and the rest of the process con-

tinues. The sugar foam waste is therefore a relatively new

and unknown organic residue that has emerged from the

significant growth in the sugar beet industry. Another char-

acteristic of these residues is that they are difficult to deposit

although they can provide certain nutrients to the soils.

The addition of amendments is currently being consid-

ered as an effective technique to improve soils quality, e.g.

for the remediation of contaminated soils. For this reason,

in this study we deal with the impact that the different

superficial disposal of these by-product over the last

25 years has had on soil quality. The treatment has been

carried out on red soils that are mainly used for dry farming

and are occasionally left fallow.

Materials and methods

Study area and sampling procedure

The work was carried out upon typical red soils used for

dry farming in the semiarid Mediterranean region (La

Mancha). The foams were obtained from the Azucarera de

Ciudad Real S.A. industry and they were deposited at

different levels over a time that spanned more than

25 years. The amounts involved can be estimated as

between 20 and 40 tons/ha per year.

The area of La Mancha spreads over the central Iberian

Peninsula (Fig.1) and is characterised by great geodiver-

sity. This region is dominated by Rhodoxerafs together

with Xerochrepts, (Soil Survey Staff 2006) with some

calcium carbonate accumulation. According to FAO ISRIC

ISSS (2006) the soils are Luvisols and Cambisols.

In this study, two soil profiles, one disturbed and the

other one undisturbed (treated with sugar foam and

Fig. 1 Location map of studied

area

604 Environ Earth Sci (2009) 59:603611

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untreated) were described and sampled from widely dis-

tributed soils series in La Mancha. The soil moisture

regime for the area is Xeric and the temperature regime is

Mesic (Soil Survey Staff 2006). Soil samples were col-

lected from two geo-referenced locations throughout La

Mancha (Central Spain). In each location a typical red soil

was described according to FAO (2006) criteria (Table1).

Samples collected from both soils were air dried at roomtemperature and carefully sieved through a 2-mm mesh; the

coarser material was discarded and the remaining fine-earth

fraction was gently mixed until it appeared to be homo-

geneous. The dried samples were used for subsequent

analysis. Aliquots of this fraction were taken randomly for

chemical and physico-chemical analysis.

Analytical methods

The analytical determinations were carried out according to

SCS-USDA (1972). In particular, soil texture was deter-

mined using the hydrometer method (Gee et al. 1986) withthree replicates. Soil pH was measured in H2O and in

0.1 M KCl using a 1:2.5 soil/solution ratio. Electrical

conductivity was measured in a 1:5 soil:water extract. For

calcium carbonate determination CO2 was measured in

a calcimeter. The active calcium carbonate equivalent

(ACCE) or active lime was determined with NH4-oxa-

late as described by Drouineau (1942). The method of

Olsen et al. (1954), which is based on extraction with

0.5 M NaHCO3, was used to estimate available P. Soil

organic matter was determined by potassium dichromate

oxidation and titration of dichromate remaining with

ammonium ferrous (II) sulphate (Anne 1945). Exchange-

able cations were determined using an ammonium acetate

extraction method (Thomas 1982). Exchangeable Na, K,

Ca and Mg were determined by atomic absorption spec-

trometry. Total nitrogen content was determined by the

Kjeldahl method (Bremner and Mulvaney 1982). All

samples were extracted and analysed in duplicate.

The semi-quantitative mineralogical analyses were car-

ried out by X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques; about 2 g of

sample was hand-milled to below 53 lm in an agate mortar

and used for the determination of the bulk mineralogy

(random powder method). For the detailed study of phyllo-

silicates, 100 g of sample was treated to remove components

that prevent complete dispersion (e.g. carbonates, sulphates,

organic matter, etc.). The\2 lm (clay fraction) particles

were extracted by sedimentation techniques and analysed on

thick glass slides by XRD according to Moore and Rey-

nolds (1989); samples were chemically treated [(a) ethylene

glycol, to detect expandable minerals; and (b) dimethyl

sulphoxide, to differentiate chlorite and kaolinite] and ther-

mally treated (550C for 2 h, to study the behaviour of

phyllosilicates). The samples were analysed using a CuKa

radiation source (Philips-Panalytical X-PERT diffractome-

ter) with a graphite monochromator, 40 kV and 40 mA, and

sensitivity of 2103 cps. The ranges measured were 275 or

250 2h, goniometer speed of 0.04 or 0.05 and time constant

of 0.4 or 1 s for random powder or glass slides, respectively.

The chemical compositions of whole samples were deter-

mined using an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (PHILIPS

PW 2404) in solid mode.

Results and discussion

A 25-year study was conducted with a view to assessing

the effect of sugar foam waste on moderately basic red

soils. Representative profiles of degraded and undegraded

morphological red soils of La Mancha were examined

for morphological physico-chemical and mineralogical

properties.

The impact of sugar foam addition is manifested by the

changes in the soil morphology as a new and quite differentnew Ap horizon appear (a change is observed in structure,

colour, porosity, etc.). The addition of sugar foam also

causes noticeable effects on certain soil properties. An

increase in the pH, (Fig. 2a), is observed due to the pres-

ence of by-products with basic pH values. Nevertheless, it

was observed that in the upper horizon, Ap1, the increase is

less marked, probably due to the washing. The electrical

conductivity barely changes, (Fig.2d).

Carbonate and the active lime are common compo-

nents in a large number of soils in the surrounding areas,

but not in the samples used in this study as we employed

a moderately acidic soil, developed on a lithological

substrate without carbonates (quartzite and slate). How-

ever, this component increased clearly (more than 30%)

as can seen in Fig.2a and b, after the application of

sugar foam, similar to obtained by Lopez et al. (2001).

Moreover, the soil contained traces of calcium oxide and

was rich in organic matter and some nutrients such as

Mg, P, Zn, and Cu. It is not unexpected that having

applied the sugar foam, a considerable rise in P (four

times more) and organic matter (Fig.2a, b) took place.

The behaviour of N mirrors that shown by the organic

matter. The organic matter content grows and this must

help to increase the stability of the aggregates, followed

by the number and the size of the macropores, which will

in turn enhance the structure and quality of the soil.

(Chaney and Swift 1984). The normal levels of organic

matter in soil in the area studied do not exceed 2%.

Therefore, despite the high content of organic matter

caused by the addition of the molasses under investiga-

tion, the increase in organic matter (2%) is important in

comparison to the level in the initial soil (Fig.2). This

finding is attributed to the rapid mineralization of organic

Environ Earth Sci (2009) 59:603611 605

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Table1

Generaldescriptionandm

acromorphologicalcharacteristicsoftwosoilsinvestigated

SoiltypeFAO/soiltaxonomy

Location/coordinates

Parentmaterial

Vegetation/use

Topography

Slope

Drainage

Stoniness

TerricAnthrosol(eutric

,

clayic)/typicRhodoxeralf

LA

SCASAS39010

2100

N

0

3560

3200

W,

0

418432

.73(X),-

4

319768

.58(Y)

Slatesand

quartzites

Dryfarming

Undulating

C-2

Gently

sloping

C-3

Mode

rately

welldrained

C-1

Few

stoniness

Horizonsdepth(cm)

Colour(dry)

Structure

Consistence

Roots

Pores

Limit

Stoniness

(%)

Ap1

(0

12)

10

YR7/3

Moderate,

subangular

blocky,co

arse

Slightlysticky,

nonplastic

,

friable

,slightlyhard

Commonfineand

v

eryfine

Fewfineand

veryfine

Gradualandwavy

5

Ap2

(12

20)

10

Y7/2

Moderate,

subangular

blocky,co

arse

Slightlysticky,

slightly

plastic

,

friable

,slightlyhard

Commonvery

fi

ne

Fewfine

Abruptandsmooth

2

Ap3

(20

32)

10

Y7/2

Moderate,

subangular

blocky,co

arse

Slightlysticky,

slightly

plastic

,

friable

,slightlyhard

Commonvery

fi

ne

Fewfine

Abruptandsmooth

2

2Bw

(32

60)

7.5

YR8/3

Strong,

prism

atic

,

coarse

Stickily,

plastic

,firm,

hard

Few

fine

Commonfine

Gradualand

irregular

2

2Bt(

60

110)

10

R4/6

Strong,

prism

atic

,

coarse

Verystickily,

veryplastic

,

firm,

hard

Veryfewfine

Commonfine

andveryfine

10

SoiltypeFAO/soil

taxonomy

Location/

coo

rdinates

Parentmaterial

Vegetation/use

Topography

Slope

Drainage

Stoniness

LepticLuvisol(skeletic

,

chromic)/typic

Haploxeralf.

Fuente

E

lFresno

Slatesand

quartzites

Pastureanddry

farming

Hillside

C-4 M

oderately

steep

C-5

Somewhat

excessively

drained

C-2 C

ommon

stoniness

Horizonsdepth(cm)

Colour(dry)

Structure

Consistence

Roots

Pores

Limit

Stoniness

(%)

Ap

(0

25)

7.5

YR6/4

Moderate,

subangular

blocky,m

edium

Sticky,

plastic

,friable

,

slightlyhard

Abundantfine

Common

coarse

Gradualand

irregular

20

Bt1

(25

65)

7.5

YR5/8

Moderate,

subangular

blocky,m

edium

Sticky,

plastic

,friable

,

slightlyhard

Abundantfine

Common

coarse

Diffusean

dwavy

20

Bt2

(65

96)

5Y

R5/8

Moderate,

subangular

blocky,m

edium

Sticky,

plastic

,friable

,

slightlyhard

None

Common

coarse

Gradualand

irregular

25

C([96)


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matter that occurs in well-aerated soil (Levi-Minzi et al.

1985) and at high temperature.The percentages of sand, lime and clay from the hori-

zons and according to the texture classes diagram (Soil

Survey Staff 2006), are shown in Table2. These are

classified as loam-clay. A substantial contrast can be seen

in the clay content between the argilic (Bt) and the Ap

horizons.

The mineralogy corresponding to degradation profile is

shown in Fig. 3ac and these are qualitatively and quan-

titatively similar to those in profile 2 (undegraded profile)

(Table1). The diffractograms for the bulk mineralogy of

the seven analysed samples are shown and it can be seenthat the major component is calcite in the first three sam-

ples (Ap1Ap3) (6585%). Quartz is found in all of the

samples. On the other hand, in samples Ap1Ap3 it is

evident that there is a very low level (\5%) of alkaline

feldspar, while in the Bw and Btsamples this feldspar is of

the plagioclase type.

The latter samples, were analysed in a separated form

(\2 lm), with the existence of Illite and Kaolinite at low

levels in both samples. This fraction was solvated with

pH

5 5,8 6,6 7,4

pH H2O

pH KCl

E.C.

0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35

% O.M.

0 1 2 3 4

% N

0 0,1 0,2

P (mg/Km)

0 1 2

Ap

B t1

B t2

Ap

B t1

B t2

Ap

B t1

B t2

Ap

B t1

B t2

Ap

B t1

B t2

E.C. Electrical Conductivity O.M. Organic Matter

pH

7,2 7,8 8,4 9

pH H2O

pH KCl

Ap1

A p3

Ap2

2Bw

2B t

E.C. (dS/m)

0,2 0,3 0,4

Ap1

Ap3

Ap2

2Bw

2Bt

% Ca carbonate

0 10 2030 40 50

Ap1

Ap3

Ap2

2Bw

2Bt

% A. Limestone

0 4 8 121620

A p1

A p3

A p2

2Bw

2B t

P (mg/Kg)

0 2 4 6 8 1012

Ap1

Ap2

Ap3

2Bw

2B t

% N

0,05 0,15 0,25

Ap1

Ap2

Ap3

2Bw

2Bt

% O.M.

0 1 2 3 4 5

A p1

A p2

A p3

2B w

2B t

E.C.: Electrical conductivity Ca carbonate: calic carbonate

A. Limestone: Active Limestone O.M.: Organic matter

a

b

0

Fig. 2 a, b Some pedological properties of selected the two soils


1 3


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ethylene glycol in order to detect the presence of Smectite-

type minerals and was heated at 550C in order to confirm

the presence of Kaolinite. However, only the presence ofKaolinite (1530%) and Illite (5065%) was detected and

Smectite was absent. Therefore, from the study of dif-

fractograms, it can be deduced that the samples Ap1, Ap2

and Ap3 belongs together with the horizons described as

anthropogenic, where the addition of the foams has led to

high contents in calcite, as well as their possible concen-

tration in lower horizons (Ap3 mainly). The result obtained

is consistent with the composition of the foam, which

contains calcium carbonate and traces of calcium oxide. It

was observed that the level of exchangeable K? remained

unaltered although there was an increase in exchangeable

Ca2? in the surface horizons.

The retention in situ of toxic elements by the application

of amendments is a remediation technology for contami-

nated soils (Vangronsveld and Cunningham1998) as it aids

the mechanism for the retention of these materials in the

soil (Karaka 2004). As a result, we analysed a series of

chemical elements. The interest in the chosen elements is

based on their presence in different contamination pro-

cesses, on their varied mobility and their different ionic

forms and different geochemical performance (McBride

1994). The contents in silica, aluminium and iron show an

imbalance in favour of the soil and to the detriment of the

added materials, which are lost in large amounts due to

calcination (Table3). Mg and Ca are two of the chemical

elements that are added in large amounts to the soil after

the application of sugar foam. Mn, Na, K, Ti and Ba also

increase in 2Bt or in the horizon 2Bw.

Different effects of sugar foam waste on the morpho-

logical, chemical and mineral composition of red soils have

been investigated. Hence, it can be assumed that although

we could have expected a much more marked impact [as

pointed out by (Clark et al. 1998) because of handling

effects], this does not seem to show a clear trend. Thus

after at least 25 years of treatment the only major changes

observed concern the carbonate, organic matter, phospho-

rus and nitrogen. Consequently, the properties related with

these edaphic qualities have been affected positively.

Furthermore, although the pH and the electrical conduc-

tivity do not change significantly, we can conclude that

these foams have a positive final effect on the quality of thesoil and can therefore recommend the application of this

material (under the same conditions) to this kind or any

other kind of soil. In fact, the observed increase in pH will

enhance the availability of the elements and nutrients for

plants and microorganisms; therefore, improving the eda-

phical conditions of the environment. Based on the increase

in the organic matter in the soil, as well as on the small or

insignificant effects on soil mineralogy, these agro-indus-

trial products can be considered as effective alternatives for

organic matter accumulation and for the improvement of

soil quality in agriculture. The results obtained are con-

sistent with those reported by various authors (Madejonet al. 1996, 2001; Diaz et al. 1996; Lopez et al. 2001;

Garrido et al. 2003; Vidal et al. 2004; Alonso et al. 2006;

Vidal et al. 2006).

The disposal of sugar foam is one the main environ-

mental problems related to sugar industries. Since

numerous studies have shown a positive correlation

between soil organic matter and microbial biomass con-

centration (Bending et al. 2000; Tejada and Gonzalez

2003), we expected that the supply of sugar foam waste

would enhance soil microbial biomass. Many authors,

including Cegarra et al. (1996), Tomati et al. (1995),

advocate the use of certain agricultural products and waste

in some industries as an alternative, simple and yet cost-

effective way to reuse and dispose of such waste. An

increase in the amount of Na was not observed in the work

described here, but futures studies should focus on this

aspect. The control of salinity is essential when dealing

with an area of low rainfall, as there is a risk of reaching

high saline values, with the consequent impact this has on

the availability of water for the crops.

These by-products can contain heavy metals, either

added from the original matter or from industrial origin,

and as such they can be a source of soil pollution (Fauziah

et al.1996). However, one of the remediation technologies

used today on soils contaminated with heavy metals is the

application of amendments for the retention of these metals

(Vangronsveld and Cunningham 1998). Therefore, the

addition of the foams will minimize the possibility of these

metals reaching phreatic levels. Carbonell et al. (1999)

have used phosphogypsum with at least 60% of the sul-

phates. Materials rich in calcium carbonate, such as the

sugar foam from the sugar refinery, have been used for the

recovery of the soils in the Aznalcollar mines (Spain). It

Table 2 Particle size distribution and textural class

% Gravels

([2 mm)

% Sand % Silt % Clay Textural

classification

Profile 1

Ap1 5.2 Silta

Ap2 6.2 34.6 41.8 23.6 Silt

Ap3 0.2 Silta

2Bw 12.2 65.8 11.8 22.9 Loam-clay-sand

2Bt 15.5 23.9 16.2 59.9 Clay

Profile 2

Ap 33.8 35.8 49.0 15.2 Loam

Bt1 45.9 26.6 29.3 44.1 Clay

Bt2 49.7 28.6 28.0 43,4 Clay

a Texture resolute by touch


1 3


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Fig. 3 X-ray diffractograms of samples


1 3


8/9

was also mentioned that such treatments contribute to the

vegetable growth and the microbial activity (Mennch et al.

2000). The present project reveals the necessity to inves-

tigate the beneficial effect of the latter possibility.

Given the fact that most of these industrial by-products do

not have a suitable site for disposal, it is clear that the pos-

sibility of using them to improve soil quality opens a whole

new prospect for their reuse. Moreover, we believe that theaddition of sugar foam could prove more useful than treat-

ment with lime, as has traditionally been carried out (Ahmad

andTan 1986; Mennch et al. 2000;Gunnetal. 2001), bearing

in mind that the effectiveness of the application of this by-

product can lead to the reduction of mobility of some toxic

elements as it increases the capacity for their retention. Our

future research will be concentrated in this area.

Conclusions

The continuous application over 25 years of sugar foam

waste to a red soil produces a positive impact on the soils

characteristics. Such treatment improves the mineral fer-

tilization satisfactorily, opening a new and interesting

alternative from an environmental point of view. Treatment

with sugar foam leads to an increase in pH, but not the

electrical conductivity. Such treatment also leads to

increase in the contents of N, P and Ca, as well as in the

organic matter. Due to the contents of phosphorus and

nitrogen, such foam can be used as a fertilizer and as an

alterative to lime for soil amendment. Therefore, sugar

foam waste has appropriate characteristics to improve soil

quality. As a key conclusion, we can state that the use of

molasses to replace traditional fertilization has three

effects: the economic cost is lower, it produces a similar

effect to fertilizer and solves the problem of finding loca-

tions to dispose of such waste. However, in the future it

will be necessary to investigate whether this treatment

causes stimulation of the microbiological activity and

therefore alters the biological and biochemical properties.

References

Ahmad F, Tan KL (1986) Effect of lime and organic matter on

Soybean seeding grown in Aluminium-oxic soil. Soil Sci Soc

Am J 50:656661

Alonso FP, Arias JS, Fernandez RO, Fernandez PG, Serrano RE

(2006) Agronomic implications of the supply of lime and

gypsum by-products to palexerults from western Spain. Soil Sci

171(1):6581

Anne A (1945) Sur le dosage rapid du carbone organique de sols. Ann

Agro 2:161172

Bending GD, Putland C, Rayns F (2000) Changes in microbial

community metabolism and labile organic matter fractions asTable3

Chemicalcompositionof

soilsamplesandsugarfoam

PPC

Si2

(g/kg)

Al2O3

(g/kg)

Fe2O3

(g/kg)

MnO

(g/kg)

MgO

(g/kg)

C

aO

(g/kg)

Na2O

(g/kg)

K2

O(g/kg)

TiO2

(g/kg)

P2O5

(g/kg

)

SO3

(g/kg)

SrO

(g/kg)

BaO

(mg/kg)

ZrO2

(mg/kg)

NiO

(mg/kg)

Cr2O3

(mg/kg)

Profile1

Ap1

48

.00

21

.85

4.0

1

1.1

3

0.0

2

1.5

4

21

.51

0.0

8

0.8

3

0.2

1

0.36

0.3

6

0.0

5

0.0

2

0.0

2

Ap2

32

.17

21

.39

3.8

3

1.5

1

0.0

4

1.6

4

36

.92

0.1

0

0.8

7

0.2

6

0.55

0.5

9

0.0

6

0.0

3

0.0

2

Ap3

57

.76

3.4

5

0.7

8

0.2

7

1.0

6

35

.34

0.0

4

0.1

6

0.0

4

0.53

0.5

3

0.0

3

2Bw

5.5

2

73

.42

12

.05

4.0

6

0.0

6

0.8

6

0.9

3

0.1

4

1.7

7

0.7

8

0.19

0.1

1

a

0.0

4

0.0

4

a

0.0

2

2Bt

14

.33

47

.05

23

.17

9.1

6

0.0

3

1.1

2

1.5

5

0.1

0

2.0

0

1.1

4

0.12

0.0

7

a

0.0

4

0.0

2

0.0

2

0.0

3

Profile2

Ap

5.3

3

72

.3

12

.7

4.1

7

0.0

5

0.8

1

0.8

0

0.1

3

1.9

4

0.6

7

0.18

0.1

0

0.0

5

0.0

3

0.0

3

Bt

1.9

7

46

.4

21

.4

9.1

4

0.0

3

1.1

5

1.4

3

0.1

1

1.6

3

1.1

9

0.13

0.1

0

0.0

4

0.0

3

0.0

4

Sugarfoam

512

26

.1

6.7

2.3

0.2

9.7

42

.8

1.1

2

1.1

9

0.2

0.51

6.3

3

0.3

4

0.3

4

0.0

3

PPC

calcinationloss,aTrace


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application of sugar foam to red soils in a semiarid mediterranean environment

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