ABSTRACT

This project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now a

day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like

Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control the

train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined;

stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined.

In this Project

In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using

microcontroller ATMEGA 8L as CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper

Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two

lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad & New Delhi.

The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is

a LCD display for showing various messages in the train for passengers. There are

indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. Up path and Down path. Before

stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also includes an emergency brake system

due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied and resumes journey when the

emergency situation is over.

This paper describes a prototype that has been developed to demonstrate the concept of

integrated gaming and simulation for incident management. Architecture for the purpose

was developed and presented at the last conference. A hypothetical emergency incident

scenario has been developed for demonstrating the applicability of integrated simulation

and gaming. A number of simulation and gaming modules have been utilized to model the

major aspects of the hypothetical scenario. The modules demonstrate the value of utilizing

simulation for incident management applications. They can be used to highlight the value

of simulation and gaming for training applications in particular. Two of the simulation

modules have been integrated using a modified implementation of the high level

architecture to give an idea of the advantages. Technical issues in integration are identified.

LIST OF TABLES

T A B L E N O . T O P I C P A G E N O .

1.1 List of Components 4

1.2 Maximum Rating of ULN 14

4.1 Cost Analysis 45

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1.1 Pin Diagram of MEGA8L 5

1.2 Reset Diagram 7

1.3 Block Diagram of 8L 10

1.4 ULN 2003 13

1.5 Voltage Regulator 7805 15

1.6 12V 75~ Unipolar Stepper Motor 16

1.7 Basic Stepper Motor 18

1.8 Schematic Diagram of LCD 19

1.9 LCD Display 20

1.10 Power Supply 20

1.11 Bridge Rectifier 21

1.12 Basic Transformer 22

1.13 Diode 22

1.14 Symbol of Resistance 23

1.15 Carbon Film Resistance 24

1.16 Capacitor 26

1.17 Symbol of Capacitor 26

1.18 Capacitor & Battery Connection 27

1.19 LED & LED Symbol 27

1.20 Detailed Diagram of LED 28

1.21 Buzzer 28

3.1 Block Diagram 43

3.2 Circuit Diagram 44

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

Certificate

Acknowledgement

Abstract

List of Tables

List of Figures

Chapter 1

• Introduction

Chapter 2

• Literature Review

Chapter 3

1-29

30-37

• PCB Designing 3 8-40

• Working 41-42

• Block Diagram 43

• Circuit Diagram 44

Chapter 4

45• Cost Analysis

• Problem Faced & Troubleshooting 46

Chapter 5

47• Conclusion

• Future Scope 47

REFERENCES 48-49

APPENDIX

50-58• Program Coding• Datasheets 59-77

MAJOR PROJECT: METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION & COMPONENTS

INTRODUCTION

This project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now

a day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like

Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control

the train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is

defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is

predefined. This is very wonderful project to control the working of the train without

driver. These train are equipped with the CPU which control the train.

1. ATMEGA 8L Microcontroller

2. ULN 2003

3. Stepper motor

4. LCD

In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using ATMEL

microcontroller ATMEGA 8L to control all the function as CPU. Microcontroller controls the

rotation of motor. First the motor is controlled and name of each station is displayed over LCD

and accordingly the different delay for each station is provided. So this project works for metro

train without driver. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying

message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for

three stations, named as New Delhi, Noida, and Greater Noida. The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and

time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is a LCD display for showing various

messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train

direction i.e. UP path and down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also

includes an emergency brake system due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied

and resumes journey when the emergency situation is over.

APPLICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION EXAMPLES AND CONCEPTS

In this section are some examples of implementations discussed with some details. The

basic system is invariant, the different application variants.

COLLISION AND FLANK PROTECTION

The basic concept is the collision detection of two trains: both trains determine their position

and movement vector using GNSS. This information is transmitted together with some other

information like type of mission and train number by mobile radio to the trains in the area

around.

Each receiver compares his own position and vector with all received vectors. As soon as a

collision in the four-dimensional space (time and three space dimensions) has been

identified a specific reaction is triggered. Depending of the parameters like remaining

distance, time to collision and the speed the reaction is selected beginning from different

types of warning up to an automatic braking.

TRACK WORK PROTECTION

Track work protection can be performed in several aspects by RCAS: the construction track

itself can be transmitted as blocked track and – using the same telegram – the neighbouring

track can be transmitted as area with reduced allowed speed. In the opposite direction the

working gang can be warned against an approaching train.

LEVEL CROSSINGS (LX)

A significant number of collisions are happening with road vehicles on level crossings with

half-barriers. One application of RCAS is the supervision of the danger zone of the level

crossing with magnetic detection, RADAR, Video or similar technologies. Instead of the

movement vector is he occupation status of the danger zone the criterion which is

transmitted.

• LX secured and danger zone free => proceed

• LX secured and danger zone occupied by moving object => Warning

• LX secured and standing object in the danger zone => Danger

• LX not correctly secured

The application of RCAS for level crossings uses the detected status of the road vehicle

passing the rails and informs the driver of the train. The detected and transmitted obstacle

information triggers a warning or removers the warning if the road vehicle leaves the danger

zone.

W H A T I S E M B E D D E D T E C H N O L O G Y

Embedded technology is software or hardware that is hidden embedded in a large

device or system. It typically refers to a fixed function device, as compared with a PC,

which runs general purpose application. Embedded technology is nothing new. It all

around us and has been for years. An early example of embedded technology is the

engine control unit in a car, which measures what setting to give the engine. Your

coffee maker has embedded technology in the form of a microcontroller, which is what

tells it to make the coffee at 6 a.m. the vending machine has it too. Overall, billions of

devices woven into everyday life use embedded technology.

In the past embedded technology existed in standalone device vending machines and

copiers that did their jobs with little regard for what went on around them,. But as

technology has learned to connect device to the internet and to each other, embedded

technology potential has grown. Suddenly it is and what actions those connections let

them perform. Cell phone companies figured that out a long time ago, which is why

cell phones are cheap and the service, plans are expensive. It is not the phone itself that

matters, but the connectivity to a vast network of other phones, other people and the

internet. Until you download software that lets you find a local restaurant or mange

your finances. Let say you make freezers the big, expensive kind that grocery stores

buy. You sell ne and you are done with that customer. When it brakes the customer

calls a service person, who probably comes from somewhere other than your company.

But let us say that freezer knows that it is about to go on the fritz. Let say three

refrigerator alerts the customer before it breaks. Better yet, let us say the freezer alerts

the manufacturer and you are able to send a service person to do preventative work and

save a lot of haagen- dazs from melting. Embedded technology allows all of that to

happen. You, the freezer company have transformed yourself from a product company

to product and services company. The possibilities go beyond that programming device

to communicate with businesses can eliminate the need for costly call centers. Copy

machines that can order their own replacement cartridges will save businesses time and

money. Remember, the fact the technology is embedded is not what important, and

neither is the device.

Telecom

Mobile phone systems (handsets and base stations), modems, routers

Automotive application

Braking system, Traction control, Airbag release system, Management units, and

Steer-by-wire systems.

Domestic application

Dishwasher, television, washing machines, microwave ovens, Video recorders,

Security system, Garage door controllers, Calculators, Digital watches, VCRs, Digital

cameras, Remote Controls, Treadmills

Robotic

Fire fighting robot, Automatic floor cleaner, robotic arm

Aerospace application

Flight control system, Engine controllers, Autopilots, Passenger entertainment system

Medical equipment

Anesthesia monitoring system, ECG monitors, Pacemakers, Drug delivery systems,

MRI scanners

Defense system

Radar systems, Fighter aircraft flight control system, Radio system, Missile guidance

systems

Office automation

Laser printers, Fax machines, Pagers, Cash registers, Gas pumps, Credit /Debit card

readers, Thermostats, Grain analyzers

LIST OF COMPONENTS USED

Table No. 1.1 List of components

Sr. no Equipment Quantity

1 IC ATMEGA8L 1

2 IC ULN 2003 1

3 Transformer 1

4 Voltage Regulator 7805 1

5 2 line LCD display 1

6 Stepper Motor 1

7 Crystal Oscillator 1

8 Switch 2

9 LED 2

10 Resistors(220~,4.7k~,10k~) 10

11 Capacitors(33pf,ceramic disk) 2

12 Diode 2

13 Buzzer 1

1) MICRO-CONTROLLER 8051

DESCRIPTION

The IC ATMEGA 8L is a low-power; high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer

with 8K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The

device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology

and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-5 1 instruction set and pin out. The

on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a

conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU

with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel IC ATMEGA 8L is a powerful

microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many

embedded control applications. The IC ATMEGA 8L provides the following standard

features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters,

a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator

and clock circuitry. In addition, the IC 8051 is designed with static logic for operation

down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The

Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and

interrupt system to continue functioning.

Figure No. 1.1: Pin Diagram of 8051

A processor is an electronic device capable of manipulating data in a way specified by a

sequence of instructions.

INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions in a computer are binary numbers just like data. Different numbers, when

read and executed by a processor, cause different things to happen. The instructions

are also called opcodes or machine codes.

Different bit patterns activate or deactivate different parts of the processing core. Every

processor has its own instruction set varying in number, bit pattern and functionality.

PROGRAM

The sequence of instructions is what constitutes a program. The sequence of

instructions may be altered to suit the application.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Writing and understanding such programs in binary or hexadecimal form is very

difficult ,so each instructions is given a symbolic notation in English language called as

mnemonics. A program written in mnemonics Form is called an assembly language

program. But it must be converted into machine language for execution by processor.

ASSEMBLER

An assembly language program should be converted to machine language for execution

by processor. Special software called ASSEMBLER converts a program written in

mnemonics to its equivalent machine opcodes.

A high level language like C may be used to write programs for processors. Software

called compiler converts this high level language program down to machine code. Ease

of programming and portability.

PIN DESCRIPTION

VCC (Pin 40)

Provides voltage to the chip . +5V

GND (Pin 20)

Ground

XTAL1 (Pin 19) and XTAL2 (Pin 18)

Crystal Oscillator connected to pins 18, 1 9.Two capacitors of 30pF value. Time for

one machine cycle:11.0592/12=1.085 µ secs

Fig No. 1.2: Reset

RST (Pin 9)

RESET pin

1. Active high. On applying a high pulse to this pin, microcontroller will reset and

terminate all activities.

2. INPUT pin

3. Minimum 2 machine cycles required to make RESET

4. Value of registers after RESET

8

External Access: EA 31

· Connected to VCC for on chip ROM

· Connected to Ground for external ROM containing the code Input Pin

Program Store Enable: PSEN 29

· Output Pin

· In case of external ROM with code it is connected to the OE pin of the

ROM

Address Latch Enable: ALE 30

· Output Pin. Active high

· In case of external ROM ,ALE is used to de multiplex (PORT 0) the

address and data bus by connecting to the G pin of 74LS373 chip

I/O Port Pins and their Functions:

· Four ports P0,P1,P2,P3 with 8 pins each, making a total of 32

input/output pins

· On RESET all ports are configured as output. They need to be

programmed to make them function as inputs

PORT 0

· Pins 32-39

· Can be used as both Input or Output

· External pull up resistors of 10K need to be connected

· Dual role: 8051 multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins

.AD0-AD7

· ALE is used to de multiplex data and address bus

9

PORT 1

· Pins 1 through 8

· Both input or output

· No dual function

· Internal pull up registers

· On RESET configured as output

PORT 2

· Pins 21 through 28

· No external pull up resistor required

· Both input or output

· Dual Function: Along with Port 0 used to provide the 16-Bit address for

external memory. It provides higher address A8-A16

PORT 3

· Pins 10 through 17

· No external pull up resistors required

Figure No. 1.3: Block Diagram of Microcontroller

11

ALU

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs the internal arithmetic manipulation of

data line processor. The instructions read and executed by the processor decide the

operations performed by the ALU and also control the flow of data between registers

and ALU.

Operations performed by the ALU are Addition , Subtraction , Not , AND , NAND ,

OR , NOR , XOR , Shift Left/Right , Rotate Left/right , Compare etc. Some ALU

supports Multiplication and Division. Operands are generally transferred from two

registers or from one register and memory location to ALU data inputs. The result of

the operation is the placed back into a given destination register or memory location

from ALU output.

REGISTERS

Registers are the internal storage for the processor. The number of registers varies

significantly between processor architectures.

· WORKING REGISTERS Temporary storage during

ALU Operations and data transfers.

· INDEX REGISTERS

Points to memory addresses.

· STATUS REGISTERS

Stores the current status of various flags denoting conditions resulting from

various operations.

· CONTROL REGISTERS

Contains configuration bits that affect processor operation and the operating

modes of various internal subsystems.

Memory is used to hold data and program for the processor.

· S R A M

Volatile, fast, low capacity, expensive, requires lesser external support

circuitry.

· D R A M

Volatile, relatively slow, highest capacity needs continuous refreshing. Hence

require external circuitry.

· O T P R O M One time programmable, used for shipping in

final products.

· E P R O M Erasable programmable, UV Erasing, Used for system

development and

debugging.

· E E P R O M

Electrically erasable and programmable, can be erased programmed in- circuit,

Used for storing system parameters.

· F L A S H Electrically programmable & erasable, large capacity, organized

as sectors.

BUSES

A bus is a physical group of signal lines that have a related function. Buses allow for

the transfer of electrical signals between different parts of the processor.

· Data bus

· Address bus

· Control bus

CONTROLLER LOGIC

Processor brain decodes instructions and generate control signal for various sub units. It

has full control over the clock distribution unit of processor.

I /O Peripherals

The I/O devices are used by the processor to communicate with the external world

· Parallel Ports.

· Serial Ports.

· ADC/DAC.

2) ULN 2003

Figure No. 1.4: ULN 2003

14

F E A T U R E S

- Output current 500mA per driver (600mA peak) -

Output voltage 50V

- Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads -

Outputs can be paralleled for higher current -

TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTL Compatible inputs

- Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify Layout

D E S C R I P T I O N

The ULN2001, ULN2002, ULN2003 and ULN2004 are high voltage, high current

Darlington Arrays each contain seven open collector Darlington pairs with common

emitters. Each Channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA.

Suppression diodes are Included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned

opposite the outputs to simplify board

M A X I M U M R A T I N G

Table No. 1.2: Maximum Rating of ULN

WHY WE USE ULN 2003?

Digital system and microcontroller pins lack sufficient current to drive the relay. While

the stepper motor’s coil needs around 1 0ma to be energized, the microcontroller’s pin

can provide a maximum of 1-2 mA current. For this reason, we place a driver.

3) VOLAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable

output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage

regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some

automatic protection from excessive current (over load protection) and overheating

(thermal protection). Many of fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads. They include a

hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.

Figure No. 1.5: 7805 Voltage Regulator

DESCRIPTION

These voltage regulators are monolithic circuit integrated circuit designed as fixed

voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, on card regulation.

These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and

16

safe-area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output current in

excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, these

devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and current.

FEATURES

· Output current in Excess of 1.0 A

· No external component required

· Internal thermal overload protection

· Internal short circuit current limiting

· Output transistor safe-area compensation

· Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance

· Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead transistor packages

· Previous commercial temperature range has been extended to a junction

temperature range of -40 degree C to +125 degree C.

4) STEPPER MOTOR

Figure No. 1.6: 12-Volt 75 Ohm Unipolar Stepper Motor

A stepper motor system is an electro-mechanical rotary actuator that converts electrical

pulses into unique shaft rotations. This rotation is directly related to the number of

pulses.

Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an

object based on speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors.

There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear

Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more.

Stepper motors are ideally suited for precision control. This motor can be operated in

forward/reverse with controllable speed from a BASIC Stamp or any other

microcontroller through a transistor driver circuit. Some of the applications for this

motor include educational experimentation, robotics and precision mechanical control

the #27964 is a Unipolar (4 phase) 12 VDC, 150 mA motor that takes 3.6 degrees per

step.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

· Phase resistance (Ohms): 75

· Current (mA): 150

· Phase Inductance (mH): 39

· Detent torque (g-cm): 80

· Holding Torque (g-cm): 600

· Mounting hole space diagonal (in.): 1.73

· Mounting hole (in.) 0.11

· Shaft diameter (in.): 0.197

· Shaft length (in.): 0.43

· M o t o r Diameter (in.): 1.66

· M o t o r height (in.): 1.35

· W e i g h t : 0.55 lbs.

18

Figure No. 1.7: Basic Stepper Motor

5) LCD DISPLAY

DESCRIPTION OF LCD DISPLAY

This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with something

simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it

should work with most, if not all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the

Status Port as an input. These LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite

simple to work with, as all the logic required to run them is on board.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Figure No. 1.8: Schematic Diagram of LCD Display

19

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is

connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain

output. While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which

don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is

more portable for a wider range of computers, some of which may have no internal pull

up resistors.

We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire

the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the

data lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if

the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last instruction. This problem is

overcome by inserting known delays into our program.

The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As

with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. You can use a bench power

supply set to 5v or use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling

capacitors, especially if you have trouble with the circuit working properly.

The 2 line x 16 character LCD modules are available from a wide range of

manufacturers and should all be compatible with the HD44780. The diagram to the

right shows the pin numbers for these devices. When viewed from the front, the left pin

is pin 16 and the right pin is pin 1.

Figure No. 1.9: LCD Display

20

6) POWER SUPPLY

ACSuppl

Figure No. 1.10: Power Supply

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier circuit consists of four diodes arranged in the form of a bridge as

shown in figure.

ACSupply

Figure No. 1.11: Bridge Rectifier

OPERATION

During the positive half cycle of the input supply, the upper end A of the

transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to its lower point B. This

makes Point1 of bridge

Positive with respect to point 2. The diode D1 & D2 become forward biased &

D3 & D4 become reverse biased. As a result a current starts flowing from

point1, through D1 the load & D2 to the negative end.

During negative half cycle, the point2 becomes positive with respect to point 1.

Diodes D1 & D2 now become reverse biased. Thus a current flow from point 2

to point1.

7) TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a major class of coils having two or more windings usually

wrapped around a common core made from laminated iron sheets. It has two

cols named primary and secondary. If the current flowing through primary is

fluctuating, then a current will be inducted into the secondary winding. A steady

current will not be transferred from one coil to other coil.

Figure No. 1.12: Basic Transformer

Transformers are of two types:

1. Step up transformer

2. Step down transformer

Key Benefits

· Structured BASIC with labels.

Structured programming with IF-THEN-ELSE-END IF, DO-LOOP, WHILE-

WEND, SELECT- CASE.

· Fast machine code instead of interpreted code.

· Variables and labels can be as long as 32 characters.

Bit, Byte, Integer, Word, Long, Single and String variables.

· Compiled programs work with all AVR microprocessors that have internal

memory.

Statements are highly compatible with Microsoft’s VB/QB.

Special commands for LCD-displays , I2C, 1WIRE , PC keyboard, matrix

keyboard, RC5 reception, RS232 communication.

·Local variables, user functions, library support, mixed ASM and BASIC

programming.

· Integrated terminal emulator with download option..

· Integrated simulator for testing.

Integrated ISP programmer (application note AVR910.ASM).

Integrated Kanda STK200+ programmer and STK300 programmer.

Editor with statement highlighting.

Context sensitive help.

DEMO version compiles 2KB of code. Well suited for a AT90S231 3.

The following statements are supported (actually there are more look for

them in the help file):

Decision and structures

IF, THEN, ELSE, ELSEIF, END IF, DO, LOOP, WHILE, WEND, UNTIL, EXIT DO, EXIT

WHILE, FOR, NEXT, TO, DOWNTO, STEP, EXIT FOR, ON .. GOTO/GOSUB,

SELECT, CASE.

Input and output

PRINT, INPUT, INKEY, WAITKEY, PRINT, INPUTHEX, LCD, UPPERLINE,

LOWERLINE,DISPLAY ON/OFF, CURSOR ON/OFF/BLI NK/NOBLI NK, HOME,

LOCATE, SHI FTLCD LEFT/RIGHT, SHIFTCURSOR LEFT/RIGHT, CLS,

DEFLCDCHAR, WAITKEY, I NPUTBI N, PRI NTBI N, OPEN, CLOSE, DEBOUNCE,

SHIFTIN, SHIFTOUT, GETATKBD, GETKBD, GETRC5

Numeric functions

AND, OR, XOR, INC, DEC, MOD, NOT, ABS, BCD.

I2C

I2CSTART, I2CSTOP, I2CWBYTE, I2CRBYTE, I2CSEND and I2CRECEIVE.

1WIRE

1WWRITE, 1WREAD, 1WRESET, 1WIRECOUNT, 1WSEARCHFIRST,

1WSEARCHNEXT.

SPI

SPIINIT, SPIIN, SPIOUT.

Interrupt programming

ON INT0/INT1/TIMER0/TIMER1/SERIAL, RETURN, ENABLE, DISABLE,

COUNTERx, CAPTUREx, INTERRUPTS, CONFIG, START, LOAD.

Bit manipulation

SET, RESET, ROTATE, SHIFT, BITWAIT, TOGGLE.

Variables

DIM, BIT , BYTE , INTEGER , WORD, LONG, SINGLE, STRING , DEFBIT,

DEFBYTE, DEFINT, DEFWORD.

Miscellaneous

REM, ' , SWAP, END, STOP, CONST, DELAY, WAIT, WAITMS, GOTO, GOSUB,

POWERDOWN, IDLE, DECLARE, CALL, SUB, END SUB, FUNCTION, END

FUNCTION, MAKEDEC, MAKEBCD, INP,OUT, ALIAS, DIM , ERASE, DATA,

READ, RESTORE, INCR, DECR, PEEK, POKE, CPEEK, FUNCTION,

READMAGCARD.

Compiler directives

$INCLUDE, $BAUD and $CRYSTAL, $SERIALINPUT, $SERIALOUTPUT,

$RAMSIZE, $RAMSTART, $DEFAULT XRAM, $ASM-$END ASM, $LCD,

$EXTERNAL, $LIB.

String manipulation

STRING, SPACE, LEFT, RIGHT, MID, VAL, HEXVAL, LEN, STR, HEX, LTRIM,

RTRIM, TRIM, LCASE, UCASE.

To make a program takes just a few steps :

Write the program in BASIC

Compile it to fast machine binary code

Test the result with the integrated simulator(with additional

hardware you can simulate the hardware too).

Program the chip with one of the integrated programmers like the

STK200+.

The program can be written in a comfortable MDI color coded editor.

Besides the normal editing features, the editor supports Undo, Redo,

Bookmarks and block indention.

The simulator let you test your program before writing it to the

microprocessor.

You can watch variables, step through the program one line at the time or run to a

specific line,

or you can alter variables.

To watch a variables value you can also point the mouse cursor over it.

uP TAB of simulator

A powerful feature is the hardware emulator, to emulate the LCD display, and the ports.

The LCD emulator also emulates custom build LCD characters!

You can even simulate the hardware ports with the special bascom monitor

program!

When you are done with the simulator it is time to program the chip using one of the supported

programmer like the STK200+ or STK300.

Description SKU

#PriceBASCOM-AVR BSCAVR $69

BASCOM-AVR cross upgrade for BASCOM users. Serial

number required.BSCAVRB $49

Availability

BASCOM-AVR is available NOW.

BASCOM-LT and BASCOM-8051 users can order the cross upgrade BSCABRB.

Your serial number is required for this.

What should be mentioned

BASCOM-AVR is a conversion from BASCOM-8051. Although it works pretty good

now there are a few things that needs work:

Not all code is optimized yet. There is no ASM output yet. ASM outputs needs lots of

documentation to be useful for the end user. A high priority is given to finish these

features.

In the power supply we use step down transformer. We apply 220V AC on the primary

of step down transformer. This transformer step down this voltages to 6V AC. We Give

6V AC to rectifier circuit, which convert it to 5V DC.

8) DIODE

The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used to control the flow of

the current in any one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias.

Figure No. 1.13: Diode

When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it is in forward bias. The Zener

diode is used in reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of

the diode`s terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The silver/black

line is the negative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is the positive terminal

(cathode).

APPLICATION

· Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc

· Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.

· Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc

The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar in many respects

to mechanical friction .this opposing force is called resistance of the material .in some electric

circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in form of resistor. Resistor used fall in three

categories , only two of which are color coded which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the

third category is the wire wound type ,where value are generally printed on the vitreous paint

finish of the component. Resistors are in ohms and are represented in Greek letter omega, looks

as an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to make them work properly

and it is obliviously important to find out something about the different types of resistors

available. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega ohm.

1 ohm is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in kohm and Mohm.

Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 ohm or as high as 10 Mohm.

Figure No. 1.14: Symbol of Resistance

FUNCTION

Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series

with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.

TYPES OF RESISTORS

FIXED VALUE RESISTORS

It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film .These two types are

explained under

During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive

coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between there two ends of

the rods is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added, the

resistors is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to indicate

the resistor value

Figure No. 1.15: Carbon Film Resistors

Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22 Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K at 5%

tolerance:

Band 1 = Red, 1st digit

Band 2 = Red, 2nd digit

Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 3 zero's

Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

3. METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors

are made in a similar way, but can

be made more accurately to within

±2% or ±1% of their nominal vale

there are some difference in

performance between these resistor

types, but none which affects their use

in simple circuit.

A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they can be

manufactured to precise values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire

material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency circuits. Coils are used in high

frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened with special cement.

They have very high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These resistors can

become extremely hot when used for high power application, and this must be taken into

account when designing the circuit.

TESTING

Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a defective resistor the ohm-meter

shows infinite high reading.

10) CAPACITORS

In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely

different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read

How Batteries Work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the

battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons at

the other terminal.

Figure No. 1.16: Capacitor

Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect

to two metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or

anything else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each

other. You can easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of

paper. It won't be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it

will work. In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

Figure No. 1.17: Symbol of Capacitor

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens:

· The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery

accepts electrons that the battery is producing.

· The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the battery

loses electrons to the battery.

Figure No. 1.18: Capacitor & Battery Connection

To test the capacitors, either analog meters or special digital meters with the specified function

are used. The non-electrolyte capacitor can be tested by using the digital meter.

Multi – meter mode

Positive probe

Negative probe

Display

Result

Continuity

One end

: Second end

`0`(beep sound occur) `OL`

Faulty OK

1 1 ) L E D

LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode (LED) is

a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward biased P-N

junction there is, with in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a

recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy

possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another state. The process of

giving off light by applying an electrical source is called electroluminescence.

Figure No. 1.19: LED & LED Symbol

LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are

displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown

through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and also

in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.

28

Figure No. 1.20: Detailed Diagram of LED

B U Z Z E R

Buzzer is a device used for beep signal. This will help us to make understand

information or message. A buzzer is usually electronic device used in automobiles,

household applications etc.

Figure No. 1.21: Buzzer

It mostly consists of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if

and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a

light on appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a

continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on

an electromechanical system which was identical to an electrical bell without the

metal gong. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used

the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some

AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current

into a noise loud enough to derive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit to a

cheap 8-ohm speaker.

These buzzers do not make a sound or turn on a light, they stop a nearby digital clock, briefly fire two smoke cannons on each side of the stage exit and open the exit. However, at the end of the Heartbreaker in Viking, the buzzer is replaced with a sword that, when removed, causes two contacts to touch, closing the circuit and causing the latter two actions above to occu

EMBEDDED IN EMBEDDED

Intel and the licensees soon realized that 8051 is a nice core that can be

embedded in various ASIC chips to perform setup and control tasks.

Typically, the resources of the ASIC are mapped as external data memory,

as if the ASIC would be connected to a conventional 8051 chip. This

approach allows to use an unmodified core, which speeds up the chip

development and decreases the chance for error; also the ASIC could be

breadboard-prototyped in this form easily.

As an example, Intel produced 80C5 1 SL, a descendant of 8042. Philips

has a line of 8051-based teletext controllers. In a particular USB

webcamera, the chip interfacing the CCD and USB was controlled by an

embedded 8051. There are probably much more examples around, but most

of them never get public. In spite of this, the 8051 in this form is produced

probably in much higher volumes than as general-purpose

microcontrollers.

EXTRAS

Besides application-specific, also general purpose derivatives have been

introduced by Intel and the licensees, with enhanced features and increased

code and data memories. In contrast with the ASICs mentioned above,

these chips tend to implement the extra features in the core itself, accessed

usually via extra SFRs. This

allows faster code as SFRs are accessed by all the instructions using direct

addressing (mov, logic), and some of them by the bit-manipulation

instructions, too.

One of the first such derivative by Intel was the 80C51FA, which

introduced the programmable counter array (PCA) (and was a 8052

otherwise). It was intended for automotive applications (brake control).

Soon, FB and FC continued, with more and more code memory.

80C51RA/RB/RC followed, with added "internal external" data memory.

These were the basis for the today's 89C51RD2 "sub-family", produced by

Philips, Atmel (as ex-Temic), SST and Winbond.

FAT BOYS: 16-BIT EXTENSIONS

When the 8051 was accepted widely enough, some of the applications

started to grow and soon required more power than the 8051 even with

enhancements could provide. There were 16-bit microcontrollers around

(e.g. Intel had it's 80C 196 line), but it seemed a good idea to provide a

more natural migration path by creating a 16-bit version of 8051.

Intel addressed the problem by introducing 80C25 1. It went all the way to

achieve compatibility - it was able to run 8051 binary code (being able to

switch to native 16-bit 251-mode) and had a package pin-compatible with

8051. It was not a big success, most probably for bad market timing

(although it is second sourced by Temic/Atmel).

Philips on the other hand employed source-compatibility for its XA family,

which seems to be adequate for most of the applications, where legacy

code has to be maintained or parallel development with 8051 is needed; and

poses little constraint on the chip design itself.

All in all, the 16-bit versions of 8051 gained far less popularity than the

8051 and are less widespread.

In the 90s, Atmel introduced a derivative of 8051 with Flash code memory,

enabling fast erasure and reprogramming. It enabled to use the production-

grade chip in development, and enabled the chips used in the product to be

reprogrammed when upgrade or a bugfix was needed, cutting down costs.

It brought down the 8051 to the masses - the small "garage" companies and

hobbyists. Besides that, Atmel introduced also 89C2051 with decreased pin

count (and price).This was a smart move, the chip proved to be extremely

popular in many small applications.

Today, virtually all manufacturers produce 8051 derivatives with Flash, most

of them able to be programmed via some few-pin serial interface (called in-

situ programming (ISP), SPI-style or UART-style) and the higher-end

versions also able to reprogram themselves (in-application programming,

IAP). MaskROM and EPROM - windowed or OTP - seems to become

extinct, at least in the mainstream applications.

NEED FOR SPEED

The need for higher processing power, addressed unsuccessfully by the 16-

bit versions, has been solved by introducing the high speed derivatives of

8051. The original 12-clock instruction cycle scheme is obviously

inefficient and also the technology progressed enough to achieve higher

clock rates than the original 12MHz.

The first derivative addressing this in a radical way is the now legendary

Dallas DS80C320. It featured a 4-clocker core with incompatible timing,

and could be clocked as high as 33MHz. Unfortunately, it was produced as

ROMless only.

The following step was taken by Cygnal, where a single-clock core has

been developed. In the top-range models, the clocking is as high as

100MHz, being the fastest 805 1s around.

Today, there are many 8051 derivatives with sped-up cores available. They

can be divided into two groups: the 6-clockers (e.g. the 8xC51RD2) and 2-

clockers (Philips LPC9xx) have the same number of instruction cycle per

instruction as the original; while the 4-clockers and singleclockers are

incompatible in this way, requiring recalculation of timing loops if used.

W H E R E I S I T G O I N G ?

The 8051 is a sound mcu core with rich history. However, it seems that it is

already over its peak, although it might take quite a lot of time until it will

be completely replaced by most modern microcontrollers.

So we now have superfast 8051 derivatives with loads of internal FLASH

and RAM. ISP and IAP seems to be the standard these days. There are the

805 1s built around advanced analog circuits, mainly high resolution ADC.

There are derivatives suitable for extreme applications – high temperature,

radiation hardened. There are softcores around, tuned up, and even open

source.

There is a wealth of knowledge and experience, however, it is scattered around and the newbies tend to get the easier path - competing 8-bit microcontrollers usually do have a single-stop information resource site, so this knowledge and experience seems to die out as the "old boys" retire gradually. The price difference between the high-end 8-bitters and the much more powerful low-end 32-bit RISCs (such as the ARMs) seems to decrease rapidly and will change eventually, as the 32-bitters are becoming the standard in all but the least demanding applications. So there is perhaps still a need for the 805 1s, but this need is decreasing and 805 1s life cycle is slowly approaching its end

P.C.B. DESIGNING & WORKING

1) P.C.B. DESIGNING

P.C .B . LAYOUT

The entire circuit can be easily assembled on a general purpose P.C.B.

board respectively. Layout of desired diagram and preparation is first and

most important operation in any printed circuit board manufacturing

process. First of all layout of component side is to be made in accordance

with available components dimensions.

The following points are to be observed while forming the layout of P.C.B.

1. Between two components, sufficient space should be maintained.

2. High voltage/max dissipated components should be mounted

at sufficient distance from semiconductor and electrolytic

capacitors.

3. The most important points are that the components layout is

making proper compromise with copper side circuit layout.

Printed circuit board (P.C.B.s) is used to avoid most of all the

disadvantages of conventional breadboard. These also avoid the use of thin

wires for connecting the components; they are small in size and efficient in

performance.

PREPARING CIRCUIT LAYOUT

First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of

the copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of

connection with the help of a shade brush. We have to apply the paints

surrounding the point at which the connection is to be made. It avoids the

disconnection between the leg of the component and circuit track. After

completion of painting work, it is allowed to dry.

After completion of painting work, holes 1/23inch(1mm) diameter are

drilled at desired points where we have to fix the components.

ETCHING

The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit

is known as etching. From this process the copper clad board wit printed

circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is

kept so for about 10 to 15 minutes and is taken out when all the excess

copper is removed from the P.C.B.

After etching, the P.C.B. is kept in clean water for about half an hour in

order to get P.C.B. away from acidic, field, which may cause poor

performance of the circuit. After the P.C.B. has been thoroughly washed,

paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped I thinner or turbine. Then

P.C.B. is checked as per the layout, now the P.C.B. is ready for use.

SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductor the joint where

two metal conductors are to be join or fused is heated with a device called

soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied

which melts and converse the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly

to ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal

converting the joint solder also present oxidation.

SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING TECHIQUES:

These are basically two soldering techniques.

· Manual soldering with iron.

· Mass soldering.

The surface to be soldered must be cleaned & fluxed. The soldering iron

switched on and bellowed to attain soldering temperature. The solder in

form of wire is allied hear the component to be soldered and heated with

iron. The surface to be soldered is filled, iron is removed and joint is cold

without disturbing.

SOLDER JOINT ARE SUPPOSED TO

1. Provide permanent low resistance path.

2. Make a robust mechanical link between P.C.B. and leads of components.

3. Allow heat flow between component, joining elements and P.C.B.

4. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation.

The following precaution should be taken while soldering:

1. Use always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron.

2. Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold.

3. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering

instead of asking the iron.

4. Tighten the tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power supply.

5. Clean component lead and copper pad before soldering.

6. Apply solder between component leads, P.C.B. pattern and tip of soldering iron.

7. Iron should be kept in contact with the joint for 2-3 seconds only

instead of keeping for very long or very small time.

Use optimum quantity of solder

WORKING

METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE is a microcontroller based device.

It is used in driverless metro train, which is used in most of

developed countries. These trains are equipped with CPU, which

control the chain. The train is programmed for the specific path.

Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train

and distance between the two stations is predefined.

Basically it has four parts

1. POWER SUPPLY

2. ATMEGA 8L IC

3. DISPLAY UNIT

4. STEPPER MOTOR

The 230 AC supply is converted into 9 volts by the power

supply section in which 4 . Elements are used.

1. TRANSFORMER

2. 7805 REGULATOR

3. DIODES 4007 (in bridge shape)

4. CAPACITOR OF 100 MICRO FARADS & 470 MICRO FARAD

The 230 volts is attenuated by 9 volts by transformer. Then it is

rectified by the bridge rectifier made up of diodes. Then the 9 v is

regulated by 7805. 1000 micro farad capacitor is used to filter the

DC voltage. The LED attaches to check the correctness of power

supply. In this project we try to give the same prototype for this

type of trains. We are using microcontroller ATMEGA 8L as

CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor,

for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD

Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations,

named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad and New Delhi. The stoppage time

is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 Sec.

There is a LCD display for showing

PROBLEM FACED

· First problem that was in making the circuit of METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE that,

it is difficult to match time with rotation of stepper motor & LCD.

· Second problem is faced due to redundancy in handling the rotation of

STEPPER MOTOR

· We have to take extra care while soldering 2 line LCD

· During soldering, many of the connection become short cktd. So we desolder

the connection and did soldering again.

· A leg of the crystal oscillator was broken during mounting. So it has to be

replaced.

· LED`s get damaged when we switched ON the supply so we replace it by the

new one.

TROUBLESHOOT

· Care should be taken while soldering. There should be no shorting of joints.

· Proper power supply should maintain.

· Project should be handled with care since IC are delicate

· Component change and check again circuit

CONCULSION

AREA OF APPLICATIONS

The theme of the project when merged with certain established

technologies can be quite effective in number of countries like Germany,

France & Japan etc. which control the train . The project when used with

an improved sensitivity. The train is programmed for the specific path.

Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train & distance

between the two stations is predefined.

The circuit diagram is shown in the figure. Here LCD display is connected

with the P1 of the MC. Control lines are connected with port 3 of the

microcontroller. The contrast of the LCD is controlled by 10K variable

resistor.

Unipolar Stepper motor is used for running of the train. This motor has 5

wires, which are named as A1, B1, B2, and COM. Common line is given at

+5V. The other lines can be connected with port 2 of microcontroller. The

stepper motor is derived by the ULN 2003 chip. This Chip includes

Darlington pairs, so that motor can get enough current to for its running.

This chip required pull ups at inputs.

FUTURE SCOPE

This Project is useful in dveloping conturies & this project has a bright

future as it is being used in countries like Germany, France & Japan. This

project helps us to control train without a driver and the stations are shown

on the LCD so the passenger doesn’t has any difficulty. This project will

lead to increase in technological trends & this will help the people in many

ways.