APPEALING TO YOUR AUDIENCE

ETHOS, PATHOS, & LOGOS

THREE PERSUASIVE APPEALS

Over 2,000 years ago the Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that there were three basic ways to persuade an audience that you were right: ethos, logos, and pathos. Today, we call these methods persuasive "appeals."

Ethos: The Writer's Character or Image

The Greek word "ethos" is related to our word "ethics" or "ethical," but a more accurate modern translation might be "image." Aristotle uses ethos to refer to the speaker's character as it appears / is portrayed to the audience. Aristotle says that if we believe that a speaker has "good sense, good moral character, and goodwill," we are inclined to believe what that speaker says to us. Today we might add that a speaker should always appear to have the appropriate expertise or authority to speak knowledgeably about the subject matter.

ETHOS

Ethical appeals depend on the credibility or training of the author.

An author exerts ethical appeal when the language itself convinces the audience that the speaker is a person of intelligence, high moral character and good will.

Ethos in advertising

Ethos is an important factor in advertising, both for commercial products and in politics. For example, when an actor in a pain reliever commercial puts on a doctor's white coat, the advertisers are hoping that wearing this coat will give the actor the authority to talk persuasively about medicines. Of course, in this case the actor's ethos is a deceptive illusion.

In our society sports heroes, popular actors and actresses, and rock stars are often seen as authorities on matters completely unrelated to their talents. This is an instance of the power of image. Can you think of some examples?

STRATEGIES FOR ETHOS APPEALS

Author gives the reader information about his background/experience

Author associates himself with others of authority or high standing, or implying/stating individuals support his cause

Author suggests God (as a symbol of justice and rightness) supports his cause

Author cites sources of authority that substantiate/support/

approve of any claims being made

Effective Use of Ethos

When used correctly, ethical appeal helps the writer/speaker to portray himself as....

* well-informed about the topic * confident in his or her

position * sincere and honest * understanding of the reader's

concerns and possible objections

* Humane and considerate * On the side of the just and

right cause

When used incorrectly, ethical appeals causes the writer/speaker to appear....

* unfair or dishonest * to distort or misrepresent

information (biased) * insulting or dismissive of

other viewpoints * advocating intolerant ideas

In one or two sentences, explain why the following introductory sentence would be effective in establishing an authoritative ethos in a paper written for a history class.

"Although it is common knowledge that the Democratic

Convention of 1968 was plagued by thousands of

protestors and rioting in the streets, what many people

don't know is that seven great Americans were arrested

as a result of this civil unrest."

Pathos: The Emotions of the Audience

Not surprisingly, "pathos," or emotional appeal, targets the emotions of the reader / audience to create some kind of connection with the writer / speaker. Since humans are in many ways emotional creatures, pathos can be a very powerful strategy in argument. Most of us think that we make our decisions based upon rational thought. However, Aristotle points out that emotions such as anger, pity, and fear (and their opposites!) powerfully influence our rational judgments. Due to this fact, much of our political discourse and much of the advertising we experience is directed toward moving our emotions. For this reason, emotional appeal is often misused...sometimes to intentionally mislead readers or to hide an argument that is weak in logical appeal.

PATHOS

Arguments from the heart are designed to appeal to audience’s emotions and feelings. In analyzing or constructing an appeal to pathos, ask yourself these questions:

1. How is the speaker/author appealing to the audience’s emotions?

2. Why is the speaker/author appealing to the audience’s emotions?

3. What emotion is being appealed to and how is that emotion beings created in the audience?

STRATEGIES FOR PATHOS APPEALS

Author uses moving stories and anecdotes that prove his opinion

Author uses emotional language or “catchy words” to appeal to people’s values or guilty consciences

Slanting-author omits information that may conflict with or weaken his opinion

Author predicts extreme outcomes in order to create a sense of urgency

Author uses specific examples

Effective Use of Pathos

When done well, emotional appeals.............

* reinforce logical arguments * use diction and imagery to

create a bond with the reader in a human way

* appeal to idealism, beauty, humor, nostalgia, pity, or other emotions in a balanced way

* are presented in a fair manner * are designed to sympathize or

empathize, nor manipulate

When used improperly, emotional appeals.......

* become a substitute for logic and reason

* use stereotypes to pit one group of people against another (propaganda, etc.)

* offer a simple, unthinking reaction to a complex problem

* take advantage of emotions to manipulate (through fear, hate, pity, prejudice, embarrassment, lust, etc.) rather than convince credibly

The passage below is from the introduction to Franklin Delano Roosevelt's famous inaugural speech of 1933. Read it with an eye for the kind of emotional reaction you think Roosevelt wanted to elicit in his audience - Americans suffering from the Great Depression.

Inaugural Speech of 1933

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

This is a day of national consecration, and I am certain that my fellow Americans expect

that on my induction into the Presidency I will address them with a candor and a decision

which the present situation of our nation impels.

This is pre-eminently the time to speak the truth, the whole truth, frankly and boldly. Nor need

we shrink from honestly facing conditions in our country today. This great nation will endure as it

has endured, will revive and will prosper.

So first of all let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear...is fear

itself...nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat

into advance.

In every dark hour of our national life a leadership of frankness and vigor has met with that

understanding and support of the people themselves which is essential to victory. I am convinced

that you will again give that support to leadership in these critical days.

Logos: Logical Arguments

In our society, logic and rationality are highly valued and this type of persuasive strategy is

usually privileged over appeals to the character of the speaker or to the emotions of the audience.

However, formal logic and scientific reasoning are usually not appropriate for general audiences,

so we must rely on a more rhetorical type of reasoning.

For Aristotle, formal arguments are based on what he calls "syllogisms." This is reasoning that

takes the following form:

All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.

Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

In this logical form, a general conclusion about the state of affairs is applied to a specific case,

and a specific conclusion drawn. However, Aristotle noted that in ordinary speaking and writing we

often use what Aristotle called a "rhetorical syllogism," or an "enthymeme." This is an argument in

which some of the premises (observations, claims) remain unstated or are simply assumed. For

example, no one in ordinary life would think that Socrates could be immortal. We would simply

assume that Socrates could be killed or that he would die of natural causes after a normal lifespan.

Not all assumptions, however, are as trivial as this one.

Logical Thinking?

For example, when Bubonic Plague swept through Europe and parts of Asia in the 14th century, killing as much as three quarters of the population in less than 20 years, it was not known how the disease was spread. At one point, people thought that the plague was spread by cats. If you assume that cats spread the disease, the obvious solution to the problem was to eliminate the cats, and so people began killing cats on sight. However, we now know that the plague is spread by fleas which live on rats. Because cats kill rats, killing off the cat population led to an increase of plague in humans. Killing off the cats was a logical solution to the problem of the plague, but it was based upon a faulty assumption.

Probability vs. Truth

Rhetorical arguments are often based upon probabilities rather than certain truths. The people of medieval Europe really had no way of knowing what the real cause of the plague was, but they felt that they had to do something about it, and the cat hypothesis seemed probable to them. Unfortunately, this is true of many of the problems we face even today -- we cannot know with absolute certainty what the real solution is, yet we must often act anyway. Persuasion, to a large extent, involves convincing people to accept our assumptions as probably true. Similarly, exposing questionable assumptions in someone else's argument is an effective means for preparing the audience to accept your own contrary position.

Deductive vs. Inductive

In deductive reasoning, or deduction, a rhetorician starts with a general case and deduces specific instances. For example, an individual might say, "Toyota makes great cars. Let me show you several examples." Or, from a more social standpoint, your research thesis might suggest something like this: "Smoking can have many deadly effects upon anyone exposed to the terrible habit. Just take a look at the following medical case studies.........." Deduction is used by scientists who take a general scientific law and apply it to a certain case, assuming that the basic law from which they are arguing is applicable in all cases. This can let you take a rule and apply it perhaps where it was not really meant to be applied.

Scientists will prove a general law for a particular case and then do many deductive experiments (and often get PhDs in the process) to demonstrate that the law holds true in many different circumstances.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning, however, begins with specific observations gathered from various sources and situations and draws a general conclusion that connects those experiences/facts/etc. For example, an individual might say, "My father has driven a Toyota for 15 years, and it has never given him any trouble. Likewise, my aunt and uncle have depended upon their Toyotas and swear they've never had to put their cars in the shop for more than routine maintenance. Motor Trend's car of the year was a Toyota as well. Therefore, Toyota must make great cars."

Simply put…

Deductive reasoning starts general and deduces specific observations.

Inductive reasoning begins with specific observations and draws a general conclusion.

LOGOS

Logos refers to the use of logic, reasons, facts, statistics, data, and numbers. Logical appeals are aimed at the mind of the audience, their thinking side. Often logos seems tangible. When using logos appeals, authors will avoid inflammatory language and will carefully connect his reasons to supporting evidence.

Ask yourself: Why is the author using logos?

STRATEGIES FOR USING LOGOS APPEALS

Author uses logical reasons why the audience should believe him

Uses evidence that proves or explains his reasons

Usesstatistics, percentages, number, and charts to highlight significant data

Author uses facts—information that can be checked by testing, observing firsthand, or reading reference materials to support an opinion

Uses expert opinion by people who are recognized as authorities on subject

Uses cause/effect, comparison contrast, and analogy

Effective Use of Logos

When used correctly, logical appeal contains the following elements:

* Strong, clear claims * Reasonable qualifiers for claims * Warrants / case studies that are

valid * Clear reasons for claims * Strong evidence (facts, statistics,

personal experience, expert authority, interviews,

observations, quotes, anecdotes, etc.)

* Acknowledgement of the opposition

When used poorly, logical appeals may include:

* Over-generalized claims * Reasons that are not fully

explained or supported * Logical fallacies * Evidence of misused or

ignored data * No recognition of opposing

views

Take a shot at analyzing inductive and deductive reasoning. In the following scenarios, decide whether the reasoning that is taking place is inductive or deductive, and explain why.

Paul and Jane are planning to

spend the day at the beach. Paul

says to Jane, "You know, we should

make sure we put on sunscreen

today. They say that the risk

of skin cancer is really high if you

don't wear sunscreen regularly,

especially in the middle of the day."

Jane says to Paul as she applies

some sunscreen, "Yeah, you're

right. I want to live to be an old

woman!"

During the last inning of the final

playoff softball game, Angela steps

up to the plate. A barely audible

groan sweeps through the

remainder of the lineup. The score

is tied, the team has two outs, and

even though she's generally a good

player, Angela hasn't yet managed

to get on base in this game. As the

pitcher winds up

to pitch, the next batter whispers to

her friend, "Ugh. We're going to lose

this one for sure."