Andreas Vesalius:

The Father of Modern Anatomy

Peyton Woelffer Junior Division Historical Paper

2492 Words

1

“Genius lives on, all else is mortal.” 1

The Renaissance was a time of evolution and advancement in the medical world. One of

the most salient figures in medicine in this time period was Andreas Vesalius. Vesalius’ findings

regarding the structure of the human body were a monumental discovery for anatomy. Though

the ways he obtained some of his information were considered unorthodox, his explorations of

anatomy opened the eyes of scientists around the world, creating an unforgettable impact on the

history of medicine with his research.

Early Life

Andreas Vesalius was born on December 31st of 1514, in what is now Brussels, Belgium.

He was raised in a family of physicians, where both his father and grandfather served the Holy

Roman Emperor. Due to his upbringings, he was exposed to medical practices at a young age 2

and developed a strong interest in the field. It is evident that his childhood had a strong impact

on his future. Vesalius started attending school at the age of six, learning basic arithmetic,

languages, and religion. At the age of fifteen, Vesalius enrolled at Louvain University. After

getting his degree in the arts in 1532, he was accepted into the University of Paris, a prestigious

medical school. There, he was taught by a man by the name of Jacobus Sylvius, as well as 3

1 Vesalius, Andreas. De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem. N.p.: Basileae Ex officina Ioannis Oporini, 1543. Print. Pg. 164. 2 Mesquita, Evandro Tinoco, Celso Vale de Souza Junior, and Thiago Reigado Ferreira. “Andreas Vesalius 500 Years.” 2015. PDF file. Pg. 262. 3 “Andreas Vesalius.” Famous Scientists. Famous Scientists, 2015. Web. 11 Dec. 2015. <http://www.famousscientists.org/andreas­vesalius/>.

2

Johann Guinter von Andernach. These men were strong influences in Vesalius’ medical career,

and helped shape him into the anatomical genius he became. 4

The University of Paris, while a prestigious school, was highly conservative. Dissections

were not frequently done, and it has been said that Vesalius may have only witnessed a couple in

his time spent at the university. In the sixteenth century, it was tradition for the professor to be 5

explaining what the students were seeing. An assistant would be pointing to the places the

professor was speaking of, and finally the surgeon would be dissecting the cadaver. Students

were not allowed to perform dissections or ask questions, only to watch and record. Vesalius, 6

along with the other students of anatomy in which he practiced with, found that these mundane

dissections they watched and the lectures they listened to did not tame their craving for

information, and they wished to perform dissections themselves. He stole bodies from the Gibbet

of Montfaucon, an execution site, and studied the bones from the Holy Innocents’ Cemetery. As 7

he explored the bodies and bones, Andreas Vesalius began to notice several errors in the medical

textbooks used by anatomists.

Ancient Anatomy

Before Andreas Vesalius came around, medical knowledge of anatomy was mainly

derived from the writings of an ancient greek physician named Galen. Galen was a famous

4 Nutton, Vivian. Telephone interview. 25 Jan. 2015. 5 O’Malley, Charles, and J.B. deC. M. Saunders. The Illustrations From The Works of Andreas Vesalius. New York: Dover Publications, 1950. Print. Pg. 12. 6 Shotwell, R. Allen. "Animals, Pictures, and Skeletons: Andreas Vesalius’s Reinvention of the Public Anatomy Lesson." 2 Mar. 2015. PDF file. 7 O’Malley and Saunders. The Illustrations From The Works of Andreas Vesalius. Pg. 14.

3

anatomist born in 129 A.D., who laid the starting foundation of human anatomy. He wrote 8

dozens of works on his research regarding the structure of humans, which quickly became main

concepts in medical textbooks around Rome. The problem with Galen’s work, however, was that

it was based on speculation. In the fifth century B.C., a physician by the name of Hippocrates

worked to revolutionize medicine in ancient Greece. While many of Hippocrates achievements

are unknown, he is credited with the creation of the Hippocratic Oath. This oath was law for

medical practitioners, with statements such as; “I will not use the knife either on sufferers from

stone, but I will give place to such as are craftsmen therein.” Physicians interpreted this to mean 9

that surgeries and dissections were not permitted. Therefore, Galen was unable to dissect the

bodies of humans to conduct his research. He would often anatomize animals such as apes, ox,

and pigs, and then make guesses based on the anatomy of these creatures. While it is not known 10

exactly why no one questioned Galen’s theories sooner, historians such as Professor Emeritus

Vivian Nutton, who specializes in the history of medicine, theorize it was due to the fact that no

person said Galen’s entire theory was false. Physicians and anatomists would point out specific

errors in Galen’s work, but no person, until Vesalius, blatantly stated that the entirety of Galen’s

work was inaccurate. 11

8 Pearcy, Lee T. “Galen: A Biographical Sketch.” John Horan’s Web Site. Ed. John Horan. Arizona State, Nov.­Dec. 1985. Web. 24 Jan. 2016. 9 Jones, W.H.S., M.A., and Hippocrates. The Doctor’s Oath. 1924. Trans. W.H.S. Jones, M.A. London: Cambridge University, 2013. Print. Pg 9. 10 “Comparative Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius.” Understanding Evolution. U of California, n.d. Web. 11 Dec. 2015. <http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_02>. 11 Ghosh, Sanjib Kumar. “Evolution of Illustrations in Anatomy: A Study from the Classical Period in Europe to Modern Times.” 2015. PDF file.

4

A Change In Thought

As Vesalius began to explore the human body in more depth, he started to seriously

question if Galen theories were accurate. Vesalius, who had once been a firm follower in

Galenical anatomy, saw the amount of errors that the ancient anatomist made from the

surreptitious dissections Vesalius performed, and wondered if there were more serious flaws.

In 1536, the Italian War broke out, forcing Andreas Vesalius to leave Paris and return to

Louvain University. There he completed his studies and became a professor teaching anatomy

and surgery. Throughout his teaching years, he urged students to take a more hands­on 12

approach to research the human body, as opposed to the restrictive demonstrations he

encountered as a student, revolutionizing the medical teaching methods. While performing 13

these dissections and teaching students about Galenism, he noticed more and more oddities in

Galen’s writing, things that didn’t make sense ­ that the human mandible was only one bone,

while Galen claimed it was two, or that the sternum was made up of three sections, while Galen

vouched that it was seven. Vesalius then came up with the hypothesis that Galen had been 14

basing his research on animals, not on humans. A judge in the court of Padua (where Vesalius

was living at the time) became interested in Vesalius’ theory, and allowed him to use the bodies

of executed criminals to conduct his research. The dissections only further supported his 15

conjecture, and in 1540 Vesalius traveled to Bologna, Italy, where he anatomized and compared

both human and canine bodies in front of an audience, explaining his theory. “Now we want to 16

12 Cushing, Harvey, and John Fulton. A Bio­Bibliography of Andreas Vesalius. 2nd ed. New York: Schuman’s, 1943. Print. Pg. 45. 13 North, Michael J. “Andreas Vesalius at 500.” Circulating Now. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2014. Web. 15 Dec. 2015. 14 Slaughter, Frank G. “Renaissance Doctor: Divine Mistress.” New York Times 16 Oct. 1949: 37. Print. 15 Biesbrouck, Maurits, and Omer Steeno. “Andreas Vesalius’ Corpses.” 2014. PDF file. 16 “Andreas Vesalius.” Encyclopedia.com. Cengage Learning, 2008. Web. 24 Jan. 2016.

5

look at this and we should in the meantime leave Galen, for I acknowledge that I have said, if it

is permissible to say so, that here Galen is in the wrong, because he did not know the position of

the vein without pair in the human body, which is the same today just as it was in his time,” an 17

eyewitness at the dissection reports Andreas Vesalius saying as he gave proof of Galen’s

incorrect theories.

As soon as Vesalius returned back home to Padua, he began to write what would be

known as one of the most influential books in medical history, De Humani Corporis Fabrica

Libri Septem.

A Book to Change the World

“The publication of the De Humani Corporis Fabrica of Andreas Vesalius in 1543 marks

the beginning of modern science. It is without doubt the greatest single contribution to the

medical sciences, but it is a great deal more, an exquisite piece of creative art with its perfect

blend of format, typography and illustration.” Vesalius wrote several books during his lifetime, 18

such as the Epitome and Tabulae sex, but they all dull in comparison to Vesalius’ greatest book,

De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem, which translates to The Fabric of the Human Body

in Seven Books. This groundbreaking book includes Vesalius’ discoveries and research from 19

all different systems in the human body, including bones, muscles, veins, nerves, organs, and the

brain. While the anatomist did make some errors, similar to Galen’s faults as he also used the 20

17 Heseler, Baldasar. “Andreas Vesalius First Public Anatomy Bologna, 1540: An Eyewitness Report.” Memo. 1540. MS. Stanford. 18 O’Malley and Saunders. The Illustrations From The Works of Andreas Vesalius. Pg. 19. 19 Singer, Charles Joseph. Short History of Anatomy and Physiology: From the Greeks to Harvey. N.p.: Dover, 1957. Print. 20 Vesalius. De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem.

6

structure of animals to speculate parts of the hands and circulatory system, historians can easily 21

forgive Vesalius’ mistakes. As the late I. Bernard Cohen, a professor in science and philosophy

at Harvard University, states, “We may understand the immensity of the task of delineating every

structure of the human body and the scarcity of human dissection material almost dictated the

occasional substitution of a bone of a dog or that of another animal for that of a man.” The 22

book also features highly detailed and beautiful illustrations of the human body and its systems,

making this revolutionary book an advancement in art almost as much as it is medically (see

Appendix A).

This extensive new book disproved everything physicians and anatomists thought they

knew about the human body. The book vexed people all over Europe, and produced some

interesting encounters for Vesalius. Many people refused to accept his statement that Galen’s

theories were incorrect. Even Vesalius’ former professor, Jacobus Sylvius, was against the

Fabrica, claiming that Vesalius “ broke the link in which the pupil had always had the duty to be

faithful towards his teacher.” It’s been said that he even reached out to Emperor Charles V, 23

asking for De Humani Corporis Fabrica to be burned. The Catholic Church was also against 24

the Fabrica, as it didn’t tie into their religious beliefs. Conservative physicians around the 25

world were in an uprising against this new publication, ergo leading Vesalius to many encounters

with embittered doctors around Europe. Many doctors and scientists rebelled against the

21 Nutton, Vivian. Telephone interview. 25 Jan. 2015. 22 Cohen, I.B. “A Look at Man Beneath the Skin.” New York Times 24 May 1964: 1­2. Print. 23 Huncovsky, Martin. “Assess and Explain the Success of Vesalius’ De Humani Corporis Fabrica.” 2012. PDF file. 24 Silverman, Mark E., M.D. "Andreas Vesalius and De Humani Corporis Fabrica." 1991. PDF file. 25 Da Carpi, Jacopo Berengario. A Short Introduction to Anatomy. Trans. L. R. Lind. N.p.: Wiley­Liss, 1960. Print. Pg. 114.

7

Fabrica, but the revolt, along with plagiarized copies of Vesalius’ publications spreading

throughout Europe, only gave the book further publicity. Medical practitioners soon realized 26

the mistakes that Galen had made, and a new era of medicine was born. Throughout Europe,

professors and students alike exchanged the newfound knowledge on the human body. By 1560,

almost all medical teachers and pupils in the Holy Roman Empire were followers of Vesalius,

and he inspired many scientists to question theories and conduct their own research. 27

The Explorer, The Physician, The Surgeon

After his publication of De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Vesalius’ interests steered

somewhat away from anatomical studies, and moved toward the practice of medicine. He was

approached by Emperor Charles V, and was asked to be a physician for the imperial court. 28

Vesalius found that this job he was appointed lacked the ability to quench his thirst for further

exploration. He would often visit nearby medical schools, anatomize the deceased, and take any

other opportunity he had to further advance his research of the human body. 29

Furthermore, Vesalius worked in the emperor’s wars as a war surgeon. There, he

encountered and collaborated with other famous surgeons, such as Bartolomeo Maggi, who

taught him surgical techniques, and helped Vesalius develop new ones. His reputation grew 30

from not only a famous anatomist, but a famous surgeon as well. In 1559, Vesalius was

summoned to help King Henry II of France, who suffered a severe head injury in a jousting

26Mandel, Benjamin, M.D. History of Medical Illustration. Video Library. UW­Madison, 11 Mar. 2009.Web. 6 Apr. 2016. <http://videos.med.wisc.edu/videos/7795>. 27 Nutton, Vivian. Telephone interview. 25 Jan. 2015. 28 Ambrose, Charles T. “Andreas Vesalius (1514­1564) ­ an Unfinished Life.” N.d. PDF file. Pg. 224. 29 Ibid. Pg. 228. 30 “Andreas Vesalius.”

8

tournament. He worked alongside the famous French surgeon Ambroise Pare, but the two

brilliant minds could not save the king. Nevertheless, Vesalius used his experience with the king

to further explore the complex anatomy of the brain. 31

Controversy With Corpses: The Death of Andreas Vesalius

Historians over the years have argued over the death of Andreas Vesalius. In 1564, at the

age of only forty­nine, Vesalius allegedly set sail on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On his voyage

back home, violent storms hit, and by the time the ship had docked on the Island of Zakynthos,

Vesalius was deathly ill, and he passed a few days later. 32

The real question was; what prompted Vesalius to go on this mission to Jerusalem? There

are many different theories of why Vesalius went on this exploration, but none have enough

evidence to be proven. Vesalius had been working in the Spanish court at the time, leading some

such as Charles O’Malley, a professor of medical history and debatably Vesalius’ most notable

biographer, to believe he was merely trying to leave Spain. Reputedly, he had been offered a 33

chair of anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua, and was leaving to reclaim his position.

Other theories suggest he had become extremely ill in 1564, but made a miraculous recovery.

The pilgrimage was to show his gratefulness of his recovery. 34

31 Zanello, Marc, et al. “The Death of Henry II, King of France (1519­1559).” Clinical Article ­ History of Neurosurgery (2015): 145­49. Digital file. 32 North, Michael J. “Andreas Vesalius at 500.” Circulating Now. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2014. Web. 15 Dec. 2015. <http://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/series/andreas­vesalius­at­500/>. 33 Nutton, Vivian, Hubert Steinke, and Sachiko Kusukawa. “The Greatest Anatomy Book, Revolutionizing Science.” Trans. Daniel H. Garrison and Malcolm H. Hast. 500 Years of Vesalius. S. Karger AG, 2015. Web. 6 Dec. 2015. <http://www.vesaliusfabrica.com>. 34 Ibid.

9

More contentious reasons why historians believe Andreas Vesalius was on that boat was

because of an alleged murder Vesalius committed. Due to his explorations, many conservative

physicians had a strong distaste towards Vesalius, thus causing rumors of his death to be spread.

The most recognized rumor was that Vesalius had been performing an autopsy on a Spanish

nobleman to find a cause of death, but when he performed the dissection, he found that the heart

was still beating. Supposedly, King Philip II of Spain sent him on the voyage to Jerusalem in

order to atone for what he’d done. The only evidence that this theory is true is a letter written 35

between a Protestant diplomat and a physician in Wittenberg, but there are speculations on the

letter’s authenticity . 36

The Impact of Andreas Vesalius

Vesalius was one of the most revolutionary anatomists of his time. His initiative to

challenge Galen’s theories encouraged other physicians to question what they were taught and

conduct their own experiments. Andreas influenced a countless amount of important figures in

the field of medicine, one notable example being William Harvey. Harvey, a physician from the

seventeenth century known as the Father of Modern Physiology, worked to further understand

the human body, specifically the circulatory system. He used Vesalius’ research to prove his 37

own theories, referencing Vesalius experiments, or lack thereof; “This experiment is spoken of

by Vesalius, the celebrated anatomist; but neither Vesalius nor Galen says that he had tried the

35 North, Michael J. “Andreas Vesalius at 500.” Circulating Now. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2014. Web. 15 Dec. 2015. 36 Languet, Hubert. Letter to Philip Melanchthon. Jan. 1565. TS. The National Lib. of Medicine, Bethesda. 37 “Harvey, William.” Medical Discoveries. Advameg, n.d. Web. 7 Feb. 2016. <http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/General­Information­and­Biographies/Harvey­William.html>.

10

experiment, which, however, I did. Vesalius only prescribes, and Galen advises it.” Vesalius’ 38

research acted like a stepping­stone for anatomists decades later, providing them with the

knowledge they needed so that they could form their own hypotheses.

Today, Vesalius works, especially those from De Humani Corporis Fabrica, are

referenced worldwide. The complex drawings from his publications are especially utilized by

medical illustrators, studying his intricate renderings of the body. Vesalius serves as inspiration

for those who wish to accurately portray the anatomy of humans, and his research and legacy are

taught around the world in medical education. 39

The Father of Modern Anatomy

Andreas Vesalius forged a medical movement in Europe, forever changing the history of

anatomy. If it were not for his discoveries, it is quite possible that the errors in Galen’s writings

could never have been revealed. Incorrect theories of the anatomy of the humans could have

been exchanged for centuries, and the educational practices for medical students delving into the

science of the human body wouldn’t be nearly as informative. Vesalius’ explorations of the

human body helped spark a revolution of advancement in medical knowledge during the

Renaissance period. “Had Vesalius been allowed to resume his researches at Padua, it is quite

possible that the whole field of medicine would in his remaining years have been advanced by a

half century. His past researches led him to the very threshold of the secret of the circulation of

38 Harvey, William, M.D., and Robert Willis, M.D. The Works of William Harvey, M.D. 1649. Trans. Robert Willis, M.D. Reprinted ed. N.p.: Sydenham Society, 1847. Print. Pg. 110. 39 “Learn About It.” Association of Medical Illustrators. Association of Medical Illustrators, 2014. Web. 6 Apr. 2016. <http://ami.org/medical­illustration/learn­about­medical­illustration>.

11

the blood, and the possibility is considerable that he would have taken the final step which fate

was to reserve for Harvey,” Charles O’ Malley attested in his detailed biography on Vesalius. 40

Vesalius’ efforts to further advance our knowledge on the human body played a significant role

in the medical field. He is arguably one of the most important practitioners in the history of

anatomy to date, and because of the long­lasting impact he had on the medical world, he was

given the title; Andreas Vesalius: The Father of Modern Anatomy.

40 O’Malley Pg. 40.

12

Appendix A

Van Calcar, Jan Stephan. Pencil drawings of bodies. N.d. De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri

Septem. By Andreas Vesalius. N.p.: Basileae Ex officina Ioannis Oporini, 1543. N. pag.

Print. Pg. 170 ­ 208.

The drawings from Vesalius’ Fabrica were influential in both medical and artistic fields.

Unlike most medical textbooks, the illustrations from the Fabrica were drawn in lifelike,

realistic poses. The acute attention to detail and the unique presentation of showing how the

systems overlap each other made the publication a revolutionary work of science and art.

13

Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources

Harvey, William, M.D., and Robert Willis, M.D. The Works of William Harvey, M.D. 1649.

Trans. Robert Willis, M.D. Reprinted ed. N.p.: Sydenham Society, 1847. Print.

This primary source includes both a biography of William Harvey as well as translated

versions of his published works, in which he references Vesalius’ research to prove his

own theories on the human body, specifically on the circulatory system.

Heseler, Baldasar. “Andreas Vesalius First Public Anatomy Bologna, 1540: An Eyewitness

Report.” Memo. 1540. MS. Stanford.

This document is a translated and digitally typed version of the original, handwritten

notes of a student witnessing Vesalius performing dissections to prove his theory that

Galen was incorrect in his work. It recalls how Vesalius dissected both a human and an

animal, then pointed out the differences and cross­referenced them to Galen’s theories.

Jones, W.H.S., M.A., and Hippocrates. The Doctor’s Oath. 1924. Trans. W.H.S. Jones, M.A.

London: Cambridge University, 2013. Print.

This book includes a translation of the original Hippocratic oath, as well as some modern

day interpretations of it. I used this source in my paper to understand why dissections

were against the law from the Age of Pericles to the 16th century.

Languet, Hubert. Letter to Philip Melanchthon. Jan. 1565. TS. The National Lib. of Medicine,

Bethesda.

14

This primary source is the letter between two men speaking of the controversy leading up

to Vesalius’ death. It is the only piece of evidence found that supports the theory that

Vesalius dissected a living man.

Van Calcar, Jan Stephan. Pencil drawings of bodies. N.d. De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri

Septem. By Andreas Vesalius. N.p.: Basileae Ex officina Ioannis Oporini, 1543. N. pag.

Print.

I used these images from Vesalius’ Fabrica to show the high detailed illustrations of the

bodies and how they are in realistic poses instead of lifeless ones.

Vesalius, Andreas. De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem. N.p.: Basileae Ex officina

Ioannis Oporini, 1543. Print.

This primary source comes in the form of a website, and has the entire De Humani

Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem original copy available to view online. I was able to look

at the detailed illustrations of the book, as well as see the extensive research Vesalius

conducted and shared.

Secondary Sources Abdullah, Mansur G., Michael C. Anderson, and Michael J. Anderson, eds. “Gabriel Fallopius.”

Encyclopedia Brittanica. Encyclopedia Brittanica, n.d. Web. 7 Feb. 2016.

<http://www.britannica.com/biography/Gabriel­Fallopius>.

I used this website to get some basic information on Gabriele Falloppio, who was one of

the important figures that Vesalius influenced. I found out what Gabriele was most

15

notably known for, which was the discovery of the Fallopian tubes and nerves in the face,

as well as discoveries of the ear.

Ambrose, Charles T. “Andreas Vesalius (1514­1564) ­ an Unfinished Life.” N.d. PDF file.

This PDF file gives a good description on Vesalius’ life, but mainly gave me information

on how people first reacted to De Fabrica. The file told me of how first responses were

typically negative, and how people shifted from ridiculing Vesalius to supporting him.

“Andreas Vesalius.” Encyclopedia.com. Cengage Learning, 2008. Web. 24 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Andreas_Vesalius.aspx>.

This site gave me a very in­depth biography of Andreas Vesalius, explaining in specific

detail where he went in what years, and who he encountered and the exchanges of

information he had with different individuals over the course of his life.

“Andreas Vesalius.” Famous Biologists. famousbiologists.org, 2013. Web. 24 Jan. 2016.

<http://famousbiologists.org/andreas­vesalius/>.

I used this website early on in my research to get a basic understanding of Vesalius’ later

years, and found how many conservative anatomists disliked Vesalius because of his

discoveries.

“Andreas Vesalius.” Famous Scientists. Famous Scientists, 2015. Web. 11 Dec. 2015.

<http://www.famousscientists.org/andreas­vesalius/>.

I used this website for a basic overview on who Vesalius was and what he accomplished

in life when I was researching potential topics. It gives a short summary on Vesalius’

early life, education, achievements, and death.

16

“Andreas Vesalius.” Vesalius Program. Boston University, n.d. Web. 24 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.bu.edu/vesalius/about­the­program/andreas­vesalius/>.

This website, while very short, told me of who Andreas Vesalius influenced and how

that impacted the history of medicine.

Biesbrouck, Maurits, and Omer Steeno. “Andreas Vesalius’ Corpses.” 2014. PDF file.

With this source I found out some of the people Vesalius encountered while researching,

along with some of the exchanges of information he got. It also explained the different

corpses Vesalius dissected over the years and what information he obtained from them.

Cohen, L.B. “A Look at Man Beneath the Skin.” New York Times 24 May 1964: 1­2. Print.

This newspaper article mentions where error may have occurred in Vesalius’ work,

specifically mentioning the hands. I used this mainly to cross­reference information I got

from an interview. They also debate over whether the illustrations were drawn by Titian,

a famous artist, or one of his pupils, Jan Stephan Van Calcar. Furthermore, this article

talks of some of the lasting effects Vesalius had on the world.

“Comparative Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius.” Understanding Evolution. U of California, n.d.

Web. 11 Dec. 2015. <http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_02>.

This website was used when I was first looking into Vesalius, so that I could get an

overview on who Vesalius was and what he accomplished in his lifetime.

Cushing, Harvey, and John Fulton. A Bio­Bibliography of Andreas Vesalius. 2nd ed. New York:

Schuman’s, 1943. Print.

This book is a detailed description of Vesalius’ discoveries, along with their own analysis

of Vesalius’ findings, as well as a huge list of sources that they used. Sadly, I don’t have

17

access to most of these sources, as they are either dead, protected by the government or in

Europe, but it was still interesting to read.

Da Carpi, Jacopo Berengario. A Short Introduction to Anatomy. Trans. L. R. Lind. N.p.:

Wiley­Liss, 1960. 110­37. Print.

This book I found at UWGB provided me with some of the most anatomical figures of

the past, and what they did to contribute to the future of anatomy. This book gave me

brief overviews on what different physicians did over the centuries, further letting me

know what conditions were around before Vesalius came around.

Fairbanks, Regina. “Death and Dissection: An Evolution of Social, Moral, and Legal Rights.”

Weebly. Weebly, n.d. Web. 6 Apr. 2016.

<http://94460593.weebly.com/henry­viii­and­the­barber­surgeons.html>.

This Weebly is a senior individual website on dissection and anatomy throughout the

ages. I used this website not only to cross­reference my information, but to find other

primary sources, such as the Hippocratic Oath. This website helped me learn more

historical context on anatomy from earlier centuries.

Florkin, Marcel, M.D. “Andreas Vesalius.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Ed. Mansur G. Abdullah,

Michael C. Anderson, and Et Al. Encyclopedia Britannica, 14 May 2015. Web. 11 Dec.

2015. <http://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas­Vesalius>.

This website was used in my research to get a further understanding of where Vesalius

went throughout his lifetime. This site gave a more specific timeline of where he went in

which year, and he accomplished at the place he went to.

18

Ghosh, Sanjib Kumar. “Evolution of Illustrations in Anatomy: A Study from the Classical Period

in Europe to Modern Times.” 2015. PDF file.

I used this article primarily to see what conditions existed before Vesalius’ times and

what other important figures were around in his time, as well as the physicians after his

time and how Vesalius’ research may have impacted their own.

“Harvey, William.” Medical Discoveries. Advameg, n.d. Web. 7 Feb. 2016.

<http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/General­Information­and­Biographies/Harvey­

William.html>.

I used this website to get basic information on another one of the people that Vesalius

inspired, William Harvey. I used this website to find what contributions William Harvey

had on the history of medicine, finding that he is known as the Father of Modern

Physiology, and made huge discoveries on the theory of blood circulation. In addition, he

did work on early embryology.

Hoffman, Becca. “Final Annotated Bibliography Andreas Vesalius.” Scribd. Scribd, 2015. Web.

16 Dec. 2015.

<http://www.scribd.com/doc/257196277/Final­Annotated­Bibliography­Andreas­Vesaliu

s>.

This was someone’s bibliography for an NHD project last year on Vesalius. I looked at

her sources list to try and find some extra sources of my own, and I also looked at her

project (website) for some additional information on Vesalius’ legacy.

Huncovsky, Martin. “Assess and Explain the Success of Vesalius’ De Humani Corporis

Fabrica.” 2012. PDF file.

19

I used this source not only for basic. overall information on Vesalius, but also to help me

answer the “why” question. A section in this article is all about “why Vesalius” and he

was so influential.

“Learn About It.” Association of Medical Illustrators. Association of Medical Illustrators, 2014.

Web. 6 Apr. 2016. <http://ami.org/medical­illustration/learn­about­medical­illustration>.

I used this website in my research to understand how Vesalius’ publications are used

today. Medical illustrators take inspiration from the drawings in Vesalius’ books, and still

reference the renderings today.

Mandel, Benjamin, M.D. History of Medical Illustration. Video Library. UW­Madison, 11 Mar.

2009. Web. 6 Apr. 2016. <http://videos.med.wisc.edu/videos/7795>.

This 46 minute college lecture on the history of medical illustration gave me insight on

why Vesalius’ publications were so groundbreaking. Benjamin Mandel spoke of specific

illustrations and formatting never seen before, as well as the plagiarism of his works that

helped him gain popularity.

Mesquita, Evandro Tinoco, Celso Vale de Souza Junior, and Thiago Reigado Ferreira. “Andreas

Vesalius 500 Years.” 2015. PDF file.

This biography about Andreas Vesalius speaks of his upbringings as well as the

explorations of anatomy he experienced in his life. It also gives historical context on

Galen, and explains the controversy of his death.

North, Michael J. “Andreas Vesalius at 500.” Circulating Now. U.S. National Library of

Medicine, 2014. Web. 15 Dec. 2015.

<http://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/category/series/andreas­vesalius­at­500/>.

20

Michael J. North, a man I interviewed via email, directed me to this blog he created in

honor of Vesalius’ 500th birthday. This website has different sections that talk about

different parts of Vesalius’ accomplishments, as well as a brief summary of his life. It

talks about his most famous book, the fabrica, as well as some of his other works and

discoveries.

North, Michael J. E­mail interview. 30 Nov. 2015.

Michael J North is head of the Rare Books and Early Manuscripts Section in the History

of Medicine Division of the National Library of Medicine, and I contacted him via email

to answer a few questions about Vesalius and how he’s related to this year’s theme. He

gave me some interesting information on Vesalius, as well as several websites and books

on Vesalius.

Nutton, Vivian. Telephone interview. 25 Jan. 2015.

I had the amazing opportunity to interview a man named Vivian Nutton, who is a

historian of medicine and Emeritus Professor at University College London. He

specializes on the history of medicine, particularly ancient anatomy. He’s highly

knowledgable on Galen, as well as Vesalius. He answered some of my questions

regarding Vesalius’ impact on the modern era of medicine, as well as Vesalius’ most

notable discoveries, other famous anatomists he influenced/was influenced by/worked

with, etc.

Nutton, Vivian, Hubert Steinke, and Sachiko Kusukawa. “The Greatest Anatomy Book,

Revolutionizing Science.” Trans. Daniel H. Garrison and Malcolm H. Hast. 500 Years of

Vesalius. S. Karger AG, 2015. Web. 6 Dec. 2015. <http://www.vesaliusfabrica.com>.

21

This helpful website gave me tons of information on Andreas Vesalius. The website goes

over both the original Fabrica, as well as the “New Fabrica”, an english translation with

explained theories and notes. I was able to find lots of potential people to interview on

this website, and related sources to look into.

O’Malley, Charles, and J.B. deC. M. Saunders. The Illustrations From The Works of Andreas

Vesalius. New York: Dover Publications, 1950. Print.

This book was one of the most helpful in my research. O’Malley and Saunders gave an

extremely in­depth overview on Vesalius’ life, complete with lots of drawings from

Vesalius’ Epitome and De humani corporis fabrica. They gave analysis on Vesalius’

work, and talked about the explorations and encounters

Pagel, Walter, and Pyarali Rattansi. “Vesalius and Paracelsus.” N.d. PDF file.

This comparative paper describing the differences between Andreas Vesalius and

Paracelsus is what introduced me to who Vesalius was. I was originally going to do

Paracelsus as my topic, but when I was researching I found this article, and changed to

Andreas Vesalius because he seemed more interesting to me.

Pearcy, Lee T. “Galen: A Biographical Sketch.” John Horan’s Web Site. Ed. John Horan.

Arizona State, Nov.­Dec. 1985. Web. 24 Jan. 2016.

<http://horan.asu.edu/ced522readings/galen/dreams/galenbio.htm>.

This website I used to get a basic understanding of Galen and what his theories were. I

used this information to know what conditions in medicine existed before Vesalius, and

what exactly Vesalius was proving wrong.

Persaud, T.V.N. Early History of Human Anatomy. N.p.: Charles C Thomas, 1984. 147­77. Print.

22

This book gave me an overview on Vesalius’ work, along with some of the people he

encountered along his ways. They mentioned his mentors, people he worked with, and

people who were inspired by Vesalius. It talked of his most famous work ­ De humani

corporis fabrica libri septem, and had an analysis of his work.

Rutherford, Adam, and Brendan Hughes, prod. “Andreas Vesalius.” Episode #2. The Beauty of

Anatomy. BBC, 26 Aug. 2014. Web. 16 Dec. 2015.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04dzrtr>.

This was a twenty­four minute documentary on Vesalius regarding the history of

anatomy. The video included interviews with professionals (one of which I interviewed),

went to places that Vesalius went in his life (e.g. The University of Padua, his anatomical

theatre, etc.), and The University of Cambridge, which is another college with strong ties

to Vesalius. It gave me a better insight on where Vesalius was in his life.

Sherzoi, Hellai. “Andreas Vesalius (1514­1564).” 1999. PDF file.

This article gives me insight on some of the achievements Vesalius accomplished in his

writings of De Humani Corporis Fabrica that I was not formerly aware of, such as

proving the existence of bone marrow between hands, contrary to Galen’s writings.

Shotwell, R. Allen. "Animals, Pictures, and Skeletons: Andreas Vesalius’s Reinvention of the

Public Anatomy Lesson." 2 Mar. 2015. PDF file.

I used this site to get an insight on how public dissections were performed before

Vesalius. This article also told me the impact Vesalius had on how anatomy was taught,

not just the research.

23

Silverman, Mark E., M.D. "Andreas Vesalius and De Humani Corporis Fabrica." 1991. PDF file.

I used this article in my paper to find out the initial reaction people had towards Vesalius

when he published the Fabrica. It spoke of his old mentor, Sylvius, and how he was

against his former pupil's discoveries.

Singer, Charles Joseph. Short History of Anatomy and Physiology: From the Greeks to Harvey.

N.p.: Dover, 1957. Print.

While researching at UWGB, I found this book in the anatomy section. It goes over the

greatest anatomists of all time, including Andreas Vesalius. This book gave insight on

what anatomical research was around before the times of Vesalius, as well as what came

after Vesalius was alive.

Slaughter, Frank G. “Renaissance Doctor: Divine Mistress.” New York Times 16 Oct. 1949: 37.

Print.

I used this little article to find out how strong followers of Galen reacted when Vesalius

introduced the idea that Galen had been incorrect, and that the real anatomy of humans

was different from what they had originally believed.

Zanello, Marc, et al. “The Death of Henry II, King of France (1519­1559).” Clinical Article ­

History of Neurosurgery (2015): 145­49. Digital file.

This journal explains the encounters Vesalius had with Pare, a famous French surgeon,

and King Henry II, and how Vesalius and Pare worked together to attempt to help heal

the king.

24