The geerl chrcter f the lguge f the kigd f -ciet Mcedi d its relti t Greek hs sice tiqui-ty bee the subject f debte, fteties clred by tesi,

seties cducted t ecessrily strictly scietific

gruds, but geerlly schlrly criteri hve previled. The

debte revlves rud tw i theses: e schl f thught

hlds tht Mcedi is idepedet IdEurpe l-guge (e.g., O. ller, G. Meyer, M. Vser, d thers); the

secd schl f thught believes tht Mcedi is prt f

the dilect gegrphy f Aciet Greek (e.g., G. N. tzidkis,

. , d thers). A sht f the secd psiti

is represeted by uber f schlrs wh hve bee wrk-ig the tpic durig the lst tw r three decdes d hld

tht Aciet Mcedi belgs t the NrthWester dilect

grup, with clse ffiities t the Dric grup. The i diffi-culty i tcklig the prble f idetificti f Mcedi

is the frgetry teril, which csists f c. 150 glsses,

pprxitely 200 prper es (thrpys d plce

es), crpus f epigrphicl teril writte i Attic kie

but with certi survivls d/r ifluece fr the spke

lguge f Mcedi, d uber f refereces i ciet

uthrs. wever, the chieveets f histricl liguistics

d dilectlgy f Aciet Greek durig the lst three decdes

hve uch ctributed t the clrificti f the issue f the

lguge f the ciet Mcedis. T the se ed f cru-cil iprtce re ls the fids f rchelgicl excvtis

i the re, the study f which hs dded iterdiscipliry

tuch t the whle tter, fct tht ects the iterpretti

f the liguistic teril s well.

The studies i the preset vlue represet the ccuu-lted kwledge f fur schlrs wh specilize i the study

f the lguge d culture f ciet Greece, f Mcedi

i prticulr. As required by the ture f the tpic, their p-prch is iterdiscipliry. The first study fcuses the his-try f ciet Mcedi up t the elleistic perid, the

secd study exies the rchelgicl fids, the third

study tckles the issue f the phillgicl dt d the liguis-tic p f Mcedi, wheres the lst chpter fcuses the

exiti f the lguge issue. The c feture tht

fuctis s the uifyig thred fr ll fur essys is the b-jective study f the relevt issues by fur uthrities i the

study f the lguge, the histry d the rchelgy f -ciet Mcedi. The i fcus f the vlue is the relti

f Mcedi t Aciet Greek, re specificlly its psiti

withi the dilect gegrphy f ciet Greece, ert sup-prted by evidece fr the ctiguus disciplies f phill-gy, histry, d rchelgy.

Prfessr Zhrts essy gives utlie f histricl fcts

whereby Mcedi bece ledig pwer, ily durig

the reig f Perdiccs, Philip, d Alexder. I this study e

fids histricl utlie f the begiigs f the kigd f

Mcedi bsed the ldest refereces by ciet hist-ris, ily erdtus d Thucydides. The tw histris

were t tht distt fr the fcts they re reltig, d their

vyges red the with filirity with the cditis d

the fcts theselves i the regi. Furtherre, i their wrks

they ke excursus the lder histry f Mcedi: i

erdtus (8.137.) the fudig f the Mcedi kig-d, d i Thucydides (2.99) but its evluti up t the Per-si Wrs. The tw histris exie the erly histry f Mc-edi i the frewrk f referrig t evets f the histry f

Greece i geerl, fr, s they believed, the evets i the tw r-es were relted t e ther. Zhrt tlks f the expsi

f the Mcedi kigd s well s its reltis t bth the

eighbrig tis d t the Atheis, especilly durig

the Pelpesi Wr. The essy clses by etiig Philips

ert t uite the Greeks i their c ert t luch

excursi gist the Persis, s decided i the Cgress t

Crith (337 BC), d filly the pssig f the ledership t his

s Alexder, wh ws t fulfill his fthers pl t puish the

Persis, the ld eey f the ellees. I su, the essy pr-vides the geerl histricl bckgrud withi which Mced-i ce it histry, ws rgized d evlved it gret

wrld pwer f tiquity; it ls prvides the frewrk withi

which e shuld red the rest f the essys f the bk.

Introduction

Georgios K. Giannakis

80 Georgios K. GiannakisGeorgios K. Giannakis

Arthur Muller discusses the rchelgicl evidece, which

pits t picture siilr t tht fr ther regis f Greece,

s fr s the city plig, the teples d scturies, d the

beliefs f the Mcedis twrds their ded d the like re

ccered. I Mcedi the istituti f kigship survived

till quite recetly, fct tht ers the resercher the ppr-tuity t dcuet with specific evidece the structure f the

kigd f Mcedi, d t the se tie t be ble t ke

re plusible hyptheses with regrd t this istituti i

prehistric Greece. As ted by Arthur Muller, fr this ec-essrily icplete verview we derive t the se tie the

sese f filirity, f dierece, d f the rigility f Mc-edi uets. By the ter familiarity we refer t the

fct tht ll relevt fetures re Greek, ely the frs d

their expressi, fr city plig d resideces, sctur-ies d tbs t teril prducti i geerl [i] the cus-ts, wy f life d beliefs tht culd be cected with these

uets, d [i] religius prctices d buril custs.

As fr the feture f difference, he refers t the fct tht i Mc-edi e ls eets certi fetures which re cpletely

bset fr Greece f the citysttes, e.g., the plces, e-ril grves, d the curt rt, ll f which re sscited with

the istituti f kigship, sethig tht i the rest f Greece

ws give up fr erly perid. Yet, this dierece is l-wys trslted it lguge with exclusively Greek types,

ideed lguge chrcterized by zig cherece,

sice the rchitecture f the fcdes the plces d Mc-edi tbs is essetilly ideticl, s is the wll decrti

f plces, ristcrtic resideces, d uetl tbs. Fi-lly, with respect t the feture f originality, the uthr clis

tht 4thcetury Mcedi hd t siply brrwed fr the

ther Greek citysttes frs d dels but i st cses its

ctributi t their further evluti ws crucil.

Recet studies shw tht Mcedi hd y ivetis

tht i the pst were sscited with ther ceters f tiq-uity, such s the cstructi f lrge residetil cuities

tp f elevted res, lrge cldes i public buildigs,

cpsite rchitecturl style, the structurl style i huse

decrtis, d the pictril style i the sics. I certi

istces, like pitig, Mcedi is the ly plce tht pre-serves such style. Muller ccludes his study by sttig tht

future reserch will reffir the specil psiti f Mcedi

i the study f civilizti f ciet Greece.

The fidigs f Arthur Muller prve t be f specil sigifi-cce fr the iterpretti f the liguistic teril, which is

ttepted i the ext tw essys f the vlue. This fct sup-prts the view tht, s i the cse f the rchelgicl te-ril, the Mcedi lguge t is clsely relted t Aciet

Greek s e f its dilects.

The ext tw chpters tckle the issue f the lguge f Mc-edi. Mre specificlly, withi phillgicl frewrk, Pr-fessr Eili Cresp discusses the liguistic stte f ciet

Mcedi, ccludig tht Mcedi is dilect f Greek

with specil cectis t the NrthWester Greek dilects,

cclusi tht fids further supprt i the lst essy by Juli

Mdez Dsu. Eili Cresp ers geerl evluti f

the lguges d dilects which, directly r idirectly, re t-tested i ciet Mcedi i writte dcuets f the 5th

4th ceturies BC.

Accrdig t the uthr, the liguistic picture tht eerg-es fr the exiti f these dcuets discvered i

the gegrphiclly ultivried but pliticlly uified regi

f Mcedi pits t liguistic sic csistig f lcl

Greek dilects d t lest e re IdEurpe lguge.

With regrd t this IdEurpe lguge Cresp tlks f

liguistic dstrte, which is ttested ly i se glsses i

Greek texts f the re, s well s t tw r three phlgicl

fetures tht rther pit t Phrygi d Thrci. Further-re, it is pssible tht ther lguges were ls used, such

s Illyri, which hve t bee preserved i texts r i refer-eces by ciet uthrs. Filly, se freig thrpys

etied i texts f Greek writers, pit t spekers f Phry-gi, Thrci, d Illyri. Prfessr Cresp is f the pii

tht the ukw IdEurpe lguge ws still i rl use

t the tie f the first writte texts i the 5th cetury, d we

y ssue tht it ws preserved isfr s its trces i the

pruciti f Greek re visible i Greek texts. O the ther

hd, the lcl Greek dilects used i the citysttes tht were

ccessed by the kigd f Mcedi were grdully replced

i the writte lguge by AtticIic kie, perhps eve t

erlier tie th i ther Greek territries s es t cpe

with the cuictive eeds durig the id4th cetury. The

lcl Mcedi dilect, which ws st likely ever used s

the lguge f stte dcuets, cesed t be used fr writig

privte dcuets s well, s it ws superseded i ll fuctis

by AtticIic kie.

The dispperce rte f the lcl dilects ws ccelerted

durig the R cquest f Mcedi i 168 BC, while the

rle f AtticIic kie ws further stregtheed. It is durig

this perid tht the rl use f the lcl dilects d f the u-kw IdEurpe lguge fded. As result, these lcl

lguges disppered cpletely, wheres the lst referece

t the Mcedi dilect i the rl speech ces fr the

erly prt f the Christi er whe Strb (7.7.8) reprts tht

se () Mcedis were biligul (), i.e., they

spke the kie d the lcl dilect.

The lst essy by Prfessr Juli Mdez Dsu is creful

d detiled lysis f the liguistic teril tht speks i

fvr f Mcedi beig dilect f Aciet Greek (the s

clled elleic ypthesis, s he tes). The lguge hs

y fetures i c with the NrthWester Greek di-lects. Dsu ges discussig ll the evidece i supprt

f his view, e.g., ciet testiies with regrd t the Greek

idetity f the Mcedis, the glsses fr esychius Lexi-c (5th c. AD), like . (AG ), . (AG ), . (AG ), . (AG ), . (AG ), (AG ), (AG ), ), ), - (AG ), .

81 Introduction IntroductionIntroduction

(pssibly * = G ; cf. Mced. fr

AG ccrdig t Plutrch 2.22c), ( s.) ccrdig t Plutrch 2.22c), ( s.) ccrdig t Plutrch 2.22c), ( s.) ( s.) ( s.) s.) s.) - (perhps = Attic gll, bile, eric i (perhps = Attic gll, bile, eric i = Attic gll, bile, eric i = Attic gll, bile, eric i gll, bile, eric i gll, bile, eric i i i-testies), , (perhps

fr ) , r , , etc.; thr) , r , , etc.; thr) , r , , etc.; thr , r , , etc.; thr , r , , etc.; thr, r , , etc.; thr r , , etc.; thr , , etc.; thr , , etc.; thr, , etc.; thr, , etc.; thr, etc.; thr, etc.; thr-pys like , , , , etc.;

iscriptis, with the st sigifict the curse tblet f Pell

dtig t c. 380350 BC. I his study Dsu ers idepth

d fully dcueted lysis f the vilble evidece d its

specil chrcteristics, ily fr the pit f view f ph-etics d phlgy, prvig the clse cecti f Mced-i t the rest f the ciet Greek dilects. Of curse, Mce-di ls shws certi phetic fetures tht dier fr ll

ther Greek dilects, e.g., the vicig f the viceless stps /p

t k/ t [b d g] d f the viceless ctiuts /f s x/ t [v z

], lthugh with regrd t this pit e culd thik f siilr

chges tht tk plce i ther dilects f Greek lter , i.e.,

the pruciti f /b d g/ s ctiuts [v ] rther th

s viced stps, suggesti first de by G. Bbiitis severl

yers g.

I cclusi, the fur essys f the bk help i decisive wy

i clrifyig the idetity f the lguge f the kigd f -ciet Mcedi. The histricl evidece, the rchelgicl

fids lg with eleets f culture, tgether with the phil-lgicl d liguistic teril dubt plce Aciet Mced-i g the dilects f Aciet Greek. Mre prticulrly

the lst tw essys by Eili Cresp d Juli Mdez Dsu,

wh lyze d discuss the liguistic evidece, clssify Mc-edi g the NrthWester Greek dilects with strg

siilrities t the Dric grup. Whe the histricl, rche-lgicl, phillgicl, d ther relevt evidece ligs with

the liguistic evidece the fil utce is uch re c-plete d fuller picture, sethig tht is the i f this vl-ue d, hpefully, the ed result f the cbied evidece f

the essys i it.

I wish t thk Prfessr I. N. zzis, Presidet f the

Cetre fr the Greek Lguge, Prfessr Atis Regks,

Directr f the Liguistics Divisi f the Ceter, fr their e-thusistic edrseet f the prject f the ciet Greek di-lects d their cstt supprt, the trsltrs f the texts,

d the persel f the Divisi f Liguistics f the Ceter,

especilly Mri Arppulu, Mri Chriti, stti G-kpulu, A Lichu, d teri Zi fr their ssist-ce editril tters d the preprti f the texts fr

publicti, s well s fr the verll hdlig f the ppr-prite pperwrk with respect t the successful cpleti f

the prject.

The preset vlue hs bee pled s prt f the Ac-ti Aciet Greek Dilects f vitl iprtce fr the c-tiuity f the Greek lguge d the culturl trditi A

dcuetti prject fr the supprt f the curricul i

the Uiversities Deprtets f Lguge d Literture,

which is ipleeted thrugh the Opertil Prgre

Educti d Lifelg Lerig f The Miistry f Educ-ti d Religius Airs, Culture d Sprts, d is cfuded

by the E.U. (Eurpe Scil Fud) d by Ntil Resurces

(NSRF 20072013). We re therefre grteful t the Miistry fr

selectig this prject s prt f its develpet plig.

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1Introduction

Thugh histries f Mcedi were writte uerus ccsis i -tiquity, e f these hve ce dw t us. As rule, ifrti but Mcedi durig the perid befre Philip II ws pssed ly whe it r its rulers bece ivlved i Greek histry geerlly r whe they hd dipl-tic, ilitry, r se ther type f reltis with specific Greek citysttes; withi this ctext, histris hd the pprtuity durig their exiti f Greek histry t csider Mcedi s well. This hppeed t greter extet fr the first tie durig the ge f the Persi Wrs, whe Mced-i twice ce uder Persi ctrl, the Persi ig Xerxes twice rched thrugh its territry, d the Mcedi ig Alexder I ws frced t tke prt i Xerxes cpig gist Greece. Mcedi ce gi ppered the Greek hriz whe durig the Pentekontaetia the Athei vl stte ex-pded t its brders d clshes bece ievitble. Filly, y liks with Greek histry resulted durig the Pelpesi Wr, prticulrly its first hlf, whe ilitry pertis were cducted chiefly i the Chlcidice pe-isul d eighbrig regis, d whe the Mcedi ig Perdiccs II sided ltertely with the Atheis d the Sprts. We we ur st vlu-ble ifrti the ciet histry f Mcedi dw t the ed f the 5th cetury t erdtus d Thucydides, the frer histri f the Per-si Wrs, the ltter f the Pentekontaetia d the Pelpesi Wr. Neither uthr ws chrlgiclly frreved fr the evets they were describ-ig; by virtue f their trvels they were sehw filir with the cditis i the regi, d i their wrks they dded digressi the erlier histry f Mcedi: erdtus (8.137 .) the fudig f the kigd f Mce(8.137 .) the fudig f the kigd f Mce.) the fudig f the kigd f Mce) the fudig f the kigd f Mce-d, d Thucydides (2.99) its evluti dw t the Persi Wrs. erer-dtus tk as his strtig-pit the rrtive f a issi f ig Alexder I f Mced t Athes i the sprig f 479, d Thucydides beg fr the descripti f the icursi f the Thrci ig Sitlces gist Mcedi i lte fll 429, which tk plce with the Atheis cset. erdtus d Thucydides exied erly Mcedi histry, strtig fr descriptis f evets i Greek histry, sice fr bth histris evets i the tw regis were itercected.

erdtus etis three brthers, descedets f Teeus (d thus f ercles, s f Zeus), wh left Args d rrived vi Illyri i Upper Mced-i i erdtus, this ter deted the re betwee the Pieri Mutis d Mt. Olypus. There they etered service s shepherds i the curt f the lcl kig. Whe the kig expelled the t lg fterwrds, fter crssig river they ce t ther prt f Mcedi, where they settled i the

The history of Macedoniain the pre-Hellenistic period*

*All dtes i this rticle refer t BC ge.1 I ctrst, tdy there is csiderble

uber f histries f Mcedi, f which ly se re etied here, pririly the st re-cet: Geyer 1930; d 1972; d & Griffith 1979; Skellriu 1982; Errigt 1986; Brz 1990, 1999.

2 Fr ssesset f bth texts d d-ditil surces ccerig the erly histry f Mcedi see Zhrt 1984.

Michael Zahrnt

84 Michael Zahrnt

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fthills f Mt. Beri er the sclled Grdes f Mids. They c-quered this regi, d with it s their bse they cquered the rest f Mc-edi. The yugest brther, Perdiccs, bece the fuder f the dysty. This histry f the fudig f the Mcedi kigd tkes us t the re rud the lwer lic, which erdtus csidered t be the regi either side f the river, which he clled Makedonis. ere the rther slpes f the Pieri Mutis, the existece f Aege, the first cpitl f the Mcedi kigd (i.e., derdy Vergi with its rewed tbs), hs bee cfired fr se decdes w.

It is here where the prcess f frig the Mcedi kigd beg fr the id7th cetury BC. Iitilly the Mcedis cquered Pieri suth f the uth f the lic, fllwed by Bttie, which exteded rud the Theric Gulf s fr s the Axius. They the crssed the river d cquered the plis re s fr s der Thessliki. Thus they previled thrughut the etire Theric Gulf regi; filly, shrtly befre the ed f the 6th cetury, they ls cquered the eighbrig regis t the west d rthwest, viz. Erde d Alpi. Erde exteded westwrd beyd the uti rge tht eclses the cetrl pli. Its cquest de pssible expsi twrds Upper Mcedi, where ly Lycestis, Orestis, d EliLycestis, Orestis, d Eli-ei, regis surruded by utis tht hd their w rulers. The extet t which they belged t the kigd f Mced depeded the pwer f successive cetrl regies. I y cse, these regis wuld ly ce uder the rule f the Mcedi kig fter the filure f Xerxes expediti.

2Early history of Macedonia

The erliest begiigs f Mcedi histry rei shruded i drkess. Our first relible ifrti ccers the ge f Persi dice ver Eu-rpe territry. I 510, the Persi geerl Megbzus cquered the rth I 510, the Persi geerl Megbzus cquered the rth-er cstl regi f the Aege d ccepted thrugh dipltic chels the surreder f thekig Ayts I. Thus Mcedi, still wek d c-fied t the pli rud the Theric Gulf, ce uder Persi diti withut fight, t ll pperces s vssl stte uder the gverce f the lcl dysty. The first kig ws Ayts I, wh c. 496 ws succeeded by his s Alexder I, uder whse rule the cutry succeeded i thrwig the Persi ylk fr uber f yers, sice the Ii revlt hd iterrupt-ed reltis with Persi vssl d subject sttes i the Blks. Durig this perid f free Mcedi, specificlly i 496, erdtus etis tht Alex-der I ppered i Olypi. Appretly Alexder ws the first Mcedi t prticipte i the Olypic Ges, hvig first bee cpelled t prve his Greek descet. Fur yers lter, freed ws lredy thig f the pst, sice fter the suppressi f the Ii revlt d the recvery f the regis either side f the strits f the ellespt, the Persi geerl Mrdius p-pered with bth ld d se frces t reestblish Persi rule s fr s the brders f Thessly.

Thus were creted the presuppsitis fr the cpig f Xerxes (480/79), i the curse f which Persi ld frces, fter rchig thrugh Thrce, et up with the fleet tht ws silig lg the cst t There (the re f derdy Thessliki). Alexder ws csequetly frced t ccsequetly frced t c-cpy the Persi ry, d thus we fid Mcedi sldiers d their kig fllwig the Persi ry util the Bttle f Plte. But whe the Per-sis were defeted t Plte d their survivig frces withdrew fr Eu-rpe, Alexder ppers t hve defected fr the Gret ig, first turig gist the Persis wh were i retret d shrtly therefter ccupyig

3 O Mcedi durig the perid f the Persi Wrs see Zhrt 1992 d 2011.

The history of Macedonia in the pre-Hellenistic period 8585

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Ee di (the lter Aphiplis), which s util the hd bee uder Per-si ctrl. There he tk s y sldiers s prisers f wr, tht by sell-ig the s slves he ws ble t cstruct gilded sttue which ws set up i the teple prtic f Delphi, where there were ther dedictis by sttes f ild Greece d Sicily i ery f the Greek victries t Slis, Plte, d ier. Appretly the Mcedi kig, wh hd fr but yer bee the side f the Persis, succeeded i giig cceptce t the grup f Persi Wr victrs. e ls ged t persude erdtus tht he hd lwys bee secret supprter f the Greeks. The picture prvided by erdtus f this fried f the Greeks the Mcedi thre exerted lstig ifluece, d resulted i Alexder hiself wh i his tie hd cllbrted with the Persis cquirig the epithet Philhellee, i c-trst with the ther Alexder, wh fught gist the Persis d ws lter clled the Gret.

Alexder t ly tured gist the retretig Persis; he ls c-quered the regis betwee the Axius d the Stry, ely Cresti, Mygdi, d Bislti. This very quickly brught hi it cflict t ly with eighbrig Thrci tribes, but with the Atheis (cf. Zhrt 2007), whse vl stte fter Xerxes filed cpig icluded lrge uber f Greek cities lg the shres f the rther Aege. I the Stry re i prticulr, the Atheis hd bece disgreeble tgists, fr they hd set their sights the frest welth i the cutrys hiterld required fr ship cstructi, s well s the ies lcted there. Oe f the few pieces f ifrti we hve fr this perid is eti tht fllwig his re-tur fr Thss i 463, the Athei geerl Ci ws ccused f ct-ig gist Athei iterests, sice it ws presued tht he ws bribed by ig Alexder t t explit the pprtuity fr further cquests i Mc-edi, thugh this wuld hve bee esy tter fllwig the victry gist Thss. It is ls sigifict tht few yers erlier, the Athei pl-itici Theistcles, wh hd bee strcized d cdeed t deth i bseti, fud refuge t the curt f the Mcedi kig fter fleeig Ath-es. Furtherre, the Mycees wh escped fr their held i the wke f Argive ttcks, ged t settle i Mcedi uder Alexders prtecti. is s Perdiccs, fllwig his fthers exple, ls received, i 446, the isties, wh were expelled fr their held t Eube by the Atheis i 446.

Whe Alexder died i the id5th cetury, he hd ppretly t suf-ficietly esured the successi g his five ss, g wh Perdiccs II ppered s successr, while i the fllwig perid tw f his brthers p-per exercisig pwer i dieret prts f the Mcedi kigd. Athei- ttepts t settle clists lg the Mcedi brders ctiued d ideed ejyed prtil success, s e.g. i 436, whe Aphiplis ws fuded the lwer Stry. This city ctrlled pssge crss the river as well as the rute it the hiterld. wever, whe the Atheis gt t the pit f supprtig iterl rivl t Perdiccs, his brther Philip (wh ruled the re rud the Lwer Axius, fr which he ws lter expelled) s well s Der-ds f Eliei, Perdiccs blished the llice he hd ccluded with with the Atheis durig the first yers f his rule d i 433 pursued cllb-rti with disgrutled Athei llies i the Chlcidice the e hd, d the ther with Sprt d Crith, which fter its defet i Crcyr (Crfu) ws seekig revege. Ad i fct, i the fllwig yer the Mced-i kig ged t icite the Crithi cly f Ptide the isthus f Pllee, the ihbitts f Bttie further rth, st f the Chlcidis wh dwelt i Sithi, d lrge uber f ild cities, t revlt gist

4 Regrdig these evets d their descrip-ti by Thucydides see Zhrt 2006, s well s Zhrt 2010 fr the iprtce f Mcedi i the utbrek f the Pelpesi Wr.

86 Michael Zahrnt

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Athes. Thrughut the etire wr he de ld vilble fr settleet i Mygdi t thse Btties d Chlcidis wh revlted.

Thus the Atheis fud theselves i 432 fcig t ly the Mced-i kig, but ls thse f their llies wh hd revlted, icited by Perdiccs. stilities s fcused recverig the cities tht hd revlted; tep-rry greeet ws chieved with the Mcedi kig i 432, d lli-ce ws fred i 431. But s erly s the suer f 429, Perdiccs ws se-cretly sedig thusd Mcedis t Acri t supprt the Sprts. The Atheis bece wre f this d s i the fllwig witer icited the Thrci kig Sitlces gist the Mcedi kig; Sitlces ivsi i Lw-er Mcedi ws utter filure. The chief ctributi t svig Perdiccs belged t the cvlry f Upper Mcedi. Fr the ext fur yers Perdiccs ws left i pece by the Atheis, wh hd the udertke pertis ther fields f bttle. The victries they chieved clled frth fer, hwever, s i ccert with the Chlcidis Perdiccs icited i 424 the disptch f Pelpesi frce t the rther theter f wr. e ws pririly iter-ested i receivig ilitry supprt gist Arrhbeus, the ruler f Lyces-tis. Ideed, Perdiccs twice ged t prpt his ew llies t itervee i Upper Mcedi, thugh withut the successful utce he hd hped fr, d s i 423/2 he ce gi etered it trety with the Atheis, which he itied fr but five yers, util he ce re teprrily w ver Athes rivls. A siilrly questible plicy may hve erged bth the Atheis as well as the Sprts, thugh i regrd t Perdiccs we shuld ber i id tht he eeded t ly t defed hiself gist the Atheis, but ls t cfrt erts t gi idepedece by the rulers f Upper Mc-ed. It ust ls be ckwledged tht he ged t successfully eueu-ver his wy betwee wrrig prties d thus preserve t csiderble ex-tet the idepedece d territril itegrity f his kigd.

Fte reserved re frtute perid f rule fr his s d successr Archelus (413399), sice fllwig the Sicili disster pressure by the Atheis hd cesed. Reltis with the Atheis were t ce reversed, sice the ltter depeded Mcedi tiber fr shipbuildig. Archelus essetil iprtce durig this perid ws i the field f destic plicy, ilitry refrs, d culturl spirtis. Thus, he t ly prted the estblishet f cities i Mcedi d hsteed the extesi f its rd etwrk, but ls ebrked the frti f hevilyred iftry. At the se tie, he secured d prtly exteded the budries f his kig-d. is culturl plicy ws especilly tewrthy. T be sure, Pidr hd lredy cpsed eciu t Alexder I d ideed it is presued tht the pet hd resided fr tie i his curt, just s Melippides the dithy-rbist f Mels d ippcrtes f Cs lter sjured t the curt f his successr, Perdiccs II. Mcedis substtive itegrti it Greek cul-ture, hwever, ws wed t Archelus. e etrusted the decrti f his pl-ce t the utstdig piter Zeuxis, d ivited uerus Greek pets t his curt, icludig the epic pet Cherilus f Ss, the usici Tith-eus f Miletus, s well s the Athei trgic pets Agth d Euripides, wh iter li prduced his trgedy the Bacchae there. Filly, t Archelus is wed the estblishet f gystic d usicl ctests, the Olympia, which hecefrth tk plce s til Mcedi ctests t Di, i the fthills f Mt. Olypus. I the fil yers f his reig, Archelus successfully iterveed i Thessly behlf f the persecuted ristcrtic fily f the Aleude, relized territril gis, d secured his ifluece i Lriss. Ad s the presuppsitis fr further expsi f Mcedi pwer were l-redy give whe Archelus ws ssssited i 399.

5 O this issue s well s further rel-tis betwee the Mcedis d Chlcidis cf. Zhrt 1971.

6 O urbis i Mcedi cf. tzpu-ls 1996, especilly p. 469. the iprtce f Archelus. See ls Muller i this vlue.

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3Macedonia during 399 359

A Aeric cllegue stutely bserved: Mcedi kigs teded t die with their bts (Crey 1983, 260), d ideed the yers betwee 399 d 359 were rife with turil d disputes ver the thre, by res f which Mced ws uble t reti the psiti it hd chieved uder Archelus. It ws ly i the secd hlf f these frtydd yers tht there were se itervls durig which Mced t ly ged t cslidte its pwer desticlly, but ls t preset se pwer i freig irs. We shll w shw whe d hw this ce re bece pssible.

Durig just the first six yers f this perid, the Mcedis hd few-er th fur kigs, f wh we kw ly tht st et vilet deth. We c gi clerer picture f Mceds prbles durig the erly yers f the reig f Ayts III, wh ged t sced t the thre i 393. As s s he ssued pwer, he ws threteed by the Illyris d ccluded defe-sive llice with the Chlcidi Legue (Koinon), which fter the Pelpe-si Wr hd bece iprtt pwer lg the Aeges rther cst. The cst f this llice fr Ayts ws the ccessi f Atheus, fertile vlley suthest f There. It ws ly i the secd hlf f the 380s tht he hd secured his rule sufficietly t be ble t request the retur f the lds he hd erlier cceded t the Chlcidis. Nt ly did the ltter refuse; they ttcked Mced d frced Ayts t tur fr help t the Sprts, wh i 382 set expeditiry frce t the rth. After three yers f wr, they cpelled the Chlcidis t disslve their i. Accrdig t Xeph, the Sprts d their llies ssued i respsibility fr wgig this wr. The Mcedis did t see t hve y erble ilitry prticip-ti, thugh there ws vluble ctributi by the cvlry f Derds, ruler f Eliei d his cvlry. Derds d his regi re described s beig ide-pedet f the Mcedi kig, d it ppers tht the ther rulers f Upper Mced bece idepedet t tht tie.

Iscrtes ls expressed his pii f these evets. I his Panegyric (pub-lished i 380), Iscrtes cdeed Sprt plicy f tht tie i hrsh l-guge, etiig s exple the fct tht the Sprts helped the Mce-di kig Ayts, the Sicili tyrt Diysius, d the Persi Gret ig i rder t stregthe their diti. If Iscrtes wished t be see s credible i his cdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve iclud credible i his cdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve icludcredible i his cdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve iclud i his cdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve icludi his cdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve iclud his cdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve icludhis cdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve iclud cdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve icludcdeti f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve iclud f Sprt plicy, he culd t hve icludf Sprt plicy, he culd t hve iclud Sprt plicy, he culd t hve icludSprt plicy, he culd t hve iclud plicy, he culd t hve icludplicy, he culd t hve iclud, he culd t hve icludhe culd t hve iclud-ed i the tri f rulers the brders f the the Greek wrld f citysttes utterly isigifict Mcedi kig. Siilrly, the Athei Aeschies chrcterized Ayts s jr pliticl fctr, whe t tril i 343 he etis tht i the 370s Ayts hd set delegti t Phelleic c-gress, d ws cplete ster f his w decisis. It ws precisely t this tie tht Ayts bece sughtfter d the Atheis ccluded lli-ce with hi, the ctets f which re ufrtutely t kw but which wuld certily hve ccered the frced expsi f Athei se pwer. We ler tht s erly s 375 the tiber required fr shipbuildig ws c-ig fr Mcedi. Csequetly, there ws ce re ded fr Mce-di shipbuildig tiber, d thus this greeet is further prf tht the kigd f Mcedi hd retured t the rks f thse sttes i psi-ti t pursue idepedet plicy. Ayts did the se thig i the 370s gist his suther eighbrs s well, whe he t ly regied rule ver Eliei, but estblished the budries betwee this regi i Upper Mce-di d Perrhebi Dliche. I dditi, fily bds were creted with Sirrs, the ruler f Lycestis whse dughter bece Ayts secd wife i the first hlf f the 380s t the ltest d wh preseted hi with three heirs:

7 O Ayts III cf. Zhrt 2006b.

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Alexder II, Perdiccs III, d Philip II. Thus we see tht i the 370s, Mced-i hd regied stregth, d tht Ayts III ws hiself ble t tke up Archelus bitis regrdig freig plicy.

Fr the egtive ige f Ayts fred bth by lter surces s well s der schlrs, his s Philip II is uitetilly respsible, s the lt-ter t ly vershdwed ll his predecessrs with his chieveets, but led y histris t distiguish hi s the gdset svir f Mcedi suk i chs. I fct, Ayts with persistece d vigr grdully ged t verce the chs creted fter Archelus ssssiti s well s t be-efit fr pwer shifts rud Mcedi, d thus bequeth his ss rel-tively stble kigd.

The successi t the thre i 370/69 ws sth e, which shws tht by this tie Ayts hd secured rder i the rel. I the etie, the Illyris were f ther pii, d ivded Mcedi. A reltive f the ryl huse livig i exile tk dvtge f the justified bsece f the yug kig Alexder II d ttcked Mcedi fr the Est. At this diffi-cult et, the quee ther Eurydice requested ssistce fr the Athe-i geerl Iphicrtes, wh ws lredy egged i ilitry pertis i the lwer Stry. e gldly seized the pprtuity t put the Mcedi kig i his debt, which he ged t d, expellig the wuldbe usurper f the thre. Thus Alexders rule ws secured, d shrtly fterwrds he t wet it cti, rushig t the id f the Aleude i Lriss gist the ty-rt f Phere. The Mcedi kig de his pperce, tkig the cities f Lriss d Cr, which he kept fr hiself. The Thessli bles were t ticiptig such tur f evets d fr this res tured fr help t the Thebs, wh set their geerl Pelpids. The ltter, rchig rth-wrd with his ry, freed Cr d Lriss fr Mcedi rule. I the etie, Alexder II ws frced t retur t Mcedi, s his brtherilw Ptley hd revlted gist hi. Bth prties i this civil wr ppeled t Pelpids d ivited hi t serve s rbitrtr. e ssued the rle f editr betwee the ppets. T esure the durbility f the settleet ipsed by Pelpids, Alexder surredered t hi his yugest brther Philip s well s thirty f the ss f ble filies. Ad s we see tht Mce-dis psiti f pwer s chieved by Ayts III d iherited by Alex-der II ws ce gi lst, d tht the Mcedi stte ce re ce u-der the ifluece f successive rulig pwers i Greece, d this thrugh its w fult. This situti wuld ctiue fr little lger; shrtly fter the withdrwl f Pelpids fllwig the settleet f civil strife i the witer f 369/8, Alexder II ws ssssited.

Oe f his clsest reltives, Ptley udertk the gveret ge-et s the gurdi f Perdiccs, Alexders yuger brther. wever, the frieds f the urdered ruler csidered Ptley usurper d i the su-er f 368 tured t Pelpids, wh ce gi ivded Mcedi. Ptley ws cpelled t declre his willigess t cclude greeet d c-it hiself t esurig pwer t Alexders brthers Perdiccs d Philip. Furtherre, he ws frced t eter greeet with Thebes d prvide hstges t gurtee he wuld hr the greeet. Mcedi bece yet gi pw i the hds f freig pwers s csequece (yet gi) f iterl urest.

I 365 Perdiccs III ged t free hiself f Ptleys gurdiship. S fter ssuig pwer, he deeed it prper t rely the Atheis d i cllbrti with their geerl Titheus wh ws the cduct-ig ilitry pertis lg the Mcedi cst d ppers t this tie t hve cquered the cities f Pyd d Methe, which were idepedet

8 O the histry f Mcedi durig the Theb hegey cf. tzpuls 1985.

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f Mcedi ppers t hve rched with hi gist the Chlcidis d Aphiplis. I the Chlcidice, Titheus subdued Ptide d Tre, but ccplished thig gist Aphiplis. Cllbrti with Titheus peed the Mcedi kigs eyes t the Atheis expsiist bitis, but ls t their fter ll liited cpbilities, thus ehcig his w selfcfidece. I y cse, Perdiccs s defected d secured Aphiplis, i-stllig ilitry grris there. O the whle, Mcedi cquired ew ipetus fter Perdiccs, s the legitite successr, rse t the thre by brushig side iitil difficulties. e ws w ble t dvce the further c-slidti f the stte d secure it fr utside threts. I 361/60, the pl-itici Cllistrtus, wh hd escped fr Athes, udertk t refr the custs syste f Mcedi d sigifictly icrese its reveues. Further-re, it wuld see tht Plts studet Euphreus, wh reied fr quite se tie t Perdiccs curt, tgether with Plt iduced the kig t cede prt f the rule f ester Mcedi t his brther Philip. Als, it ppers tht Perdiccs subjugted the priciplities f Upper Mcedi ew. Filly, he decided t cfrt the Illyris, wh fr the tie f Ayts III hd bee strikig Mcedi ctiuusly, d t expel the. I the ed, hwever, he ws crushed d fell the bttlefield with 4,000 f his Mcedis.

4The period of Philip II4.1The expsi f the kigd d the reltis with suther Greece

I this situti, Perdiccs brther Philip prceeded with deteriti, il-itry cpetece d dipltic skill, with the gl f first stbilizig Mce-di d the ledig it expsiist curse, tkig full dvtge f pprtuities s these ppered. e s ged t sidelie the preted-ers t the thre wh lst lwys preseted theselves t such ets i Mcedi, d the t prceed t securig the brders f his w kig-d d thse f eighbrig regis. I this ert he et the fllwig sit fllwig sitsit-uti the previlig i Greece: The Sprts, wh hd bee behvig fr yers like the rulers f ll f Greece, d wh betwee 382 d 379 hd eve iterveed behlf f the thekig f Mcedi, hd lst their ledership psiti i the wke f their defet t Leuctr (371). Betwee 357 d 355, the Atheis bece ebriled i disputes with se f their llies, d the Secd Athei Legue hd t ll begu t brek dw. Theb pwer ws ls grdully wig: while decde erlier the Thebs hd exercised dewhile decde erlier the Thebs hd exercised de-cisive ifluece s fr rth s Mcedi, d eve it the Pelpese, they were w filig i their ttept t rei i the eighbrig Phcis. Arud the begiig f suer 356, the ltter ccupied the Delphic sc-tury d ged with the id f its ccuulted tresures t fr lrge ercery ry d previl ver the ther ebers f the Aphictyy. Fi-lly, eve the situti i Thrce fvred Philip, sice the lcl kig Ctys, wh hd ce re ged t uite his rel, ws ssssited i the su-er 360 d Thrce disitegrted it three idividul kigds due t the esuig cflicts ver the successi. Thus, i the 350s Philip hd lredy chieved tewrthy victries ll the brders f his kigd.

The wester d rther brders preseted the fewest difficulties: I erly suer 358 Philip rched gist the Illyris, wh were cpelled t ccede extesive territry s fr s Lke Ochrid. Tw yers lter, whe the Illyri kig llied hiself with the Peis, Thrcis, d Athes gist Philip, it ws sufficiet t sed his trusted geerl Prei gist hi. Af-ter this, cl previled i the regi fr re th decde, chiefly becuse

9 Literture Philip II: Ellis 1976; Cwk-well 1978; Griffith 1979; tzpuls & Luk-pulu 1980; Brdfrd 1992; d 1994; Le Rider 1977, 1996.

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i the lte 350s the regi hd bee further secured whe Philip istlled his brtherilw Alexder s ruler f Epirus, thus kig the cutry srt f vssl stte, while he ls exed Prue, which ly betwee Epirus d Mcedi. Ag the eighbrig peples wh hd hped t beefit t Mcedis expese fllwig the defet f Perdiccs II were the Peis, settled i the iddle Axius. Iitilly Philip ged t ressure the with ey d prises, but lter, whe they ttcked, he defeted the d cpelled the t subit. I 356 the kig f the Peis jied the bveted llice; shrtly fterwrd his cutry ws defiitively subdued.

I 357, Philip beg t dvce estwrd cpletig his rule lg the Mcedi cst. e first tk Aphiplis, which ctrlled bth the Stry- pssge s well s ccess t the ild regi, where the welthprduc-ig surces f precius etls d tiber reserves were lcted. Nt lg fterwrd, he ttcked Pyd the Mcedi cst. The Atheis, wh t the tie held Pyd d were exertig clis Aphiplis, declred wr. Philip, hwever, respded t their declrti by pprchig the Chlcid-i Legue, t which he prised the Athei city f Ptide. This ust hve hppeed i the fllwig yer (356); hwever, while he ws besiegig the city, he received request fr ssistce fr the Greek ild cly f Creides er Neplis (derdy vl), which ws beig threteed by Thrci ruler. Philip ppered suddely d istlled ilitry grris i the city, which he refuded by givig it the e Philippi.

With this city, Philip cquired t erely e re strtegic site i the est, but ls secured the pprtuity t explit t his w prfit the rich gld depsits f the Pgi t his w dvtge. Nturlly the ruler f the Thrcis i whse regi Philippi ws lcted ws dded t the bveted llice, d t the ed f the yer bece subject t Philip, while the ltter further expded his rule s fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me expded his rule s fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Meexpded his rule s fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me his rule s fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Mehis rule s fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me rule s fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Merule s fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me s fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Mes fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me fr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Mefr s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me s the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Mes the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me the Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Methe Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me Nestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked MeNestus. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me. I fll 355 Philip ttcked Me-the, the lst strtegic Athei site his cst, d fllwig lg siege succeeded i frcig it t surreder. This ws ls prpgd victry, sice the Atheis hd ered ssistce t the city, thugh fter the cclu-si f the wr gist their llies they were free t d s. Philip csidered this wrthy f secd ttept. I sprig 353 he rched est f the Nestus, t dge the Atheis llied Greek cities lg the cst d ipress the Thrci ruler f the regi. This brief experiet ppretly hd hppy utce fr Philip. I the fll f 352, Philip retured t Thrce d dvced with lightig speed beyd the river ebrus (derdy Evrs) gist Cersbleptes, the ruler f the esterst f the three Thrci kigds, wh ws ls frced t surreder s vssl.

The pertis described t this pit pririly served the securig d expsi f the Mcedi stte, d were directed by ll the Greek citysttes gist the Atheis. wever, betwee the tw cpigs t ce-trl d ester Thrce, evets ccurred tht were t esure Philip decisive ifluece i cetrl Greece. The ctive rulers g his predecessrs hd lctive rulers g his predecessrs hd l-wys pursued three bjectives: subjugti f the rulers f Upper Mced-i, cquest f the uth f the Stry s tht by this rute they culd secure Bislti with its welth f precius etls d free theselves fr y pssible Athei pressure the shres f their kigd, s well s the extesi f their ifluece it Thessly. Philip quickly chieved the first tw bjectives d ideed surpssed his predecessrs i this regrd, sice t the west he t ly subjugted the lds f Upper Mcedi tht util tht tie hd bee idepedet, but dvced the wester brders f Mcedi s fr s Lke Ochrid. T the est, he reched t ly the Stry but s fr s the Nestus, giig ctrl f the precius etl depsits i bth Bislti

10 O Aphiplis befre d fter its -exti cf. tzpuls 1991.

11 Cllrt 1937 is eve wdys wrth redig s regrds Philippi.

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s well s the Pgi. S he tured t the third bjective he hd iher-ited d tured his ifluece i Thessly t gd ccut. ere he ged t explit t his w beefit existig tesis betwee the Thessli Legue d the tyrt f Phere. e iterveed fr the first tie i 358, securig the psiti f his ewlyw frieds g the clss f Thessli bles. Phil-ip iterveed secd tie i 355 behlf f the Thessli Legue d it ws ly the tht he redered it cpble f udertkig i cpy with the Thebs the Scred Wr gist the Phcis, wh fr ver yer hd bee with ipuity i Delphi. Appretly, Philip hd relized tht the cplicted situti i cetrl Greece ight give hi the pprtuity t gi ifluece here s well thrugh persl iterveti; such ifluece culd perhps be lter ivked gist the Atheis.

I the fll f 354 it seeed tht the Scred Wr hd ce t ed. Philip sw pssibility fr iterveig i this wr, d i the sprig f 353 he pr-ceeded gist Thrce. But it ws t this pit tht the lgedfr tur f evets tk plce i cetrl Greece, i.e., the reigitig f cflicts betwee Thesslis d the tyrts f Phere. The ltter tured t the Phcis, the frer t Philip. e ppered d iitilly hd uber f victries, but lter fter suerig tw defets he ws frced t withdrw t Mcedi. wever, he retured i 352, ssuig geerl cd f the frces f the Thessli Legue d iflicted crushig blw the Phcis. Nt lg fterwrd the Phcis d their prt f Pgse succubed. It ws f curse bvius tht he eeded t explit his successes t dte d legitiize his psiti s c-der f the Thessli ry. Ad s Philip ved his frces gist Ther s Philip ved his frces gist Thers Philip ved his frces gist Ther Philip ved his frces gist TherPhilip ved his frces gist Ther ved his frces gist Therved his frces gist Ther-pyle, the held by the Phcis, i rder t del the decisive blw gist the usurpers f the sctury. This hwever ws lger tter tht c-cered ly Philip d the Thesslis the e hd d the Phcis the ther. Pssessi f Therpyle wuld w pe the wy suthwrd fr the Mcedi kig; s he fud the pssge clsed by the frces f the Ph-cis, Atheis, Aches, Sprts, d the expelled tyrts f Phere, d ws frced ce re t retret. This resulted i the ctiuti f cflict i cetrl Greece withut his prticipti d the utul werig dw f ppets. Ad this f curse served Philips purpses; thus he tured fr tie t ther trgets i the rth, i.e., Thrce d Epirus the e hd, d the ther t restrig his reltis with the Chlcidi Legue. This cli-ti hd by w fulfilled its rle s Philips lly i the wr gist the Athe-is d hd bee tured it freig crps gist the everexpdig Mcedi; its flishess i refusig t subit gve Philip the chce t i-tervee, ledig i 348 t the destructi f Olythus, t the Legues disslu-ti, d t the exti f its territry. Nt eve the ilitry llice the Chlcidis hd ccluded with the Atheis i the suer f 349 prtect-ed the fr this.

I fct, durig ll these yers, the Atheis hd t ged sigle ilitry victry gist Philip. Fr his prt, Philip hd vided y serius cflict whtsever with the Atheis; rther, he hd prvided tkes f his rediess t cclude pece. At the se tie, fter 352 his ilitry per-tis sigifictly decresed, thugh he did t give up his gl f plyig ledig rle i Greece. But he culd rd t wit. At lst, whe i 346 the Phcis were i their deth thres, they ccluded their cpitulti with Philip, d it ws t hi they wed the ilder ters f the surreder i re-lti t the deds f se f the Aphictyys ther ebers. Phil-ip culd w believe tht he hd regulted the situti i cetrl Greece i er fvrble t hiself. vig thus prvided fr his gig iflu-ece i this regi, he retied fr hiself the Phcis tw vtes the

12 O the ture d chrlgy f these itervetis cf. Griffith 1970.

13 O the sclled Third Scred Wr cf. i geerl Buckler 1989. d 1937 reis iprtt fr the chrlgy f the erly yers f this wr.

14 Fr list f surces ccerig the sur-reder see Begts 1975, 318.

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Aphictyic Cucil, while ls tkig persl dvtge f the vtes f the Thesslis d their eighbrs.

Shrtly befre this, e.g., i the sprig f 346, he hd ls ccluded pece, with the Atheis, the sclled Pece f Philcrtes, ely the bsis f the existig sttus qu. Thus the Atheis were frced t give up Aphip. Thus the Atheis were frced t give up Aphip-lis d ther regis they hd lst lg the cst f Mcedi d Thr-ci. I their plce, Philip gurteed the pssessi f the Thrci Cher-sese, which ws f vitl iprtce fr the Atheis. e destrted i the curse f egtitis fr pece tht this ws geuie ct f gd will his prt: while csulttis were gig i Athes regrdig the ters prpsed by hiself i Pell, Philip rched with lightig speed gist Cersbleptes d frced hi ce re t ckwledge Mcedi supre d frced hi ce re t ckwledge Mcedi supre-cy. Fr there it ws ly shrt distce t the Chersese. Despite the predice Philip ce gi destrted i 346, he grted the Athe-is pece reltively fvrble ters.

It wuld s be shw, hwever, tht Philip hd ivested excessive ex-pecttis i this pece, d tht it ws ipssible t the e hd but-tress his ifluece i Greece while siulteusly itiig gd reltis with the Atheis. I the first phse, he cfied hiself ver the ext yers t cslidtig d expdig his rule i the rth. I 345 he uder-tk cpig gist the Illyris, while i 344 he prceeded t tke ili-try esures i Thessly. I witer 343/2 he ppered i Epirus d by er-ig its ruler uber f Greek cstl cities thus drew hi eve clser. Next, diistrtive refr ws ccplished i Thessly fr which Philip cslidted his ctrl i this regi eve re. Ad s, hvig secured re-ltis i the suth (Thessly), the suthwest (Epirus), d the rthwest s fr s Illyri, i 342/1 the cpig i Thrce culd begi.

Suth f Thessly Philip ws t seekig territril expsi f his kig-d, thugh he by es resiged fr expdig his ifluece there t. At the se tie, it bece bvius tht he ws ctiully curryig the Atheis fvr d tteptig t vid cflict with the. e first de-strted this i the suer f 346, whe despite their llice with Philip the Atheis tk prt i the cpig gist the Phcis, d set represettive t the Aphictyic Cucil. They risked eve greter prv-cti t the Pythi Ges by sedig represetti t the ges beig held uder Philips ledership. I light f the Atheis stce i fvr f the Phcis durig the teyer Scred Wr d give the geerl clite tht previled g the ebers f the Aphictyy, it wuld hve bee esy fr Philip t prvke the declrti f ew Scred Wr, this tie gist the Atheis. Nt ly did he vid ilitry perti gist the Atheis; shrtly lter he tk cre tht decisi by the Aphictyic Cucil tk Athei iterests it ccut. O the ther hd, i 344 he supprted Spr-ts ppets i the Pelpese, givig the ey d sedig ercer-ies, thus prvkig ppsig issi by the Atheis t the Pelpese.

ere is reveled the dile tht Philip culd t vid, d which i the ed led t the chge i his plicy. A gd greeet with the Atheis i the wke f the blws gist the i recet yers wuld certily t be esy t chieve. O the ctrry, his siulteus ttepts t expd his w i-fluece i Greece ust hve further disturbed their reltis d de rp-prcheet re difficult. I the begiig, Philip hped t chieve se-thig with vrius ccessis, d i the witer f 344/3 he prpsed t the Atheis egtitis fr the revisi f the pece trety f 346; the Athei-s brught these egtitis t filure with their excessive deds. I the fllwig yer, 343, Philip rected by exercisig his ifluece ce gi

15 Fr clssificti f surces d refer-ece t erlier etis see Begts p. cit., 312.

16 Accrdig t Mrkle (1974) d Ellis (1982), s f 346 Philip still hd the i f wek-eig the Thebs t the beefit f the Athei-s (sethig which, s we shll see, ctully ccurred fter the bttle f Chere); these pls, hwever, were thwrted by the chi-tis f Athei pliticis. Sice ur i surces fr the Pece f Philcrtes re the r-tis delivered by Desthees d Aeschies three yers lter t the tril the disptchig f bssdrs (On the False Embassy), d sice bth e spke t the tril fr their w side d i their lter refereces t thse evets were t bjective, Philips ctul itetis c lger be deteried with y certity; hw-ever, we will ls see tht fr tht perid the Mcedi kig ws seekig t rech be i gd ters with the Atheis.

17 See Wst 1938 s well s Ryder 1994.

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the destic irs f Greek cities such s Elis, Megr, d Eube i ther wrds very clse t Athes. Fllwig this wrig, he pprched the Atheis i the sprig f 342 with ew prpsl t better their utul re-ltis. Up gi eetig with refusl, he uderstd tht fil c-frtti ws w uvidble. wever, he hiself wted t deterie the cditis uder which this wuld ccur. S he w rched t cquer Thrce, which util tht tie hd itied reltis f lse depedece Mcedi, with the gl f exig the etire regi s fr s the elle-spt. Pssessig these regis, he culd brig the Atheis t their kees.

The cpig gist Thrce, hwever, ws t ly gist the Athe-is: The Gret ig hd recvered Cyprus i 344 d Pheici i 343, d t judge fr gig ret, his ext bjective ws t recver Egypt. Of curse, the picture preseted by the Persi kigd durig recet decdes did t cprise lrig prspect r thret fr Mcedi, but the gi, recstituted Persi Epire culd lter the blce f pwer i the Aege. wever, this culd be preveted by the expsi f Mcedi t the ellespt.

Philip ws t the ly e wh csidered fil cflict with the Athe-is s uvidble, lthugh he wished t vid it; Desthees t sw wr s the ly wy ut. I ctrst, hwever, with Philip, the Athei De-sthees wrked with deteriti twrds the gl f brigig this cflict but. I fct he succeeded thrugh trgeted prvctis t ifle the cri-sis, d, filly, i the sprig f 340 he prpsed Phelleic llice gist Philip, the elleic Legue, which i dditi t Athes icluded Eube, Megr, Crith d its clies Leucs (Lefkd) d Crcyr (Crfu), s well s Ache d Acri, thugh it hd purely defesive chrcter.

Fllwig Thrces subjugti, Philip led his frces gist Perithus, which, hwever, he ws uble t tke, pririly becuse it ws supprted by the ihbitts f Byztiu d the Persi strps beyd the Prp-tis. Ad s i the fll f 340 he ttepted ttck Byztiu. The Athe-i geerl Chres ws silig with his fleet i the viciity i rder t guide ships cig fr the Blck Se lded with gri thrugh the strits it the Aege. While this fleet ws gtherig, Chres et fr discussi with the Persi geerls. Philip ust w hve bee defiitely persuded f the iev-itbility f wr, d the Athei fleet, lyig befre hi like bty ripe fr the tkig, ws greter teptti th witig fr perhps yer fr siilr chce. Ad s he tk the ships durig Chres bsece d tgether with rich bty fud hiself with declrti f wr by the Atheis. It ust hve bee bvius t hi tht this culd hve bee the csequece. Oe c ly wder whether he ctully wted t eliite the Atheis i wr r whether with this blw gist their fleet he wished t persude the f their vl iferirity t. I y cse, the Atheis did t ccer hi t ll; rther he ctiued his ilitry pertis gist Byztiu. But the city ws w beig successfully supprted by the Atheis, d i the sprig f 339 Philip ws frced t susped pertis. But isted f rchig gist the Atheis, he rched gist the Scythis er the uth f the D-ube t secure his ew cquisiti Thrce this side s well, befre retur-ig t Mcedi thrugh the ld f the Triblli. Up returig he s re-ceived cll fr help fr his frieds i cetrl Greece.

Nturlly Philip hd t frgtte the Atheis, wh util tht tie hd bee uble t icite their llies gist hi, d thus he hiself udertk t islte the city further, sedig trusted sscites t preset ccusti gist Athes t the Aphictyic Cucil. The reprch ldged gist the hd bee dritly chse: durig the curse f the wr gist the

18 Fr the situti t tht perid i the Persi kigd cf. Zhrt 1983.

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Phcis, the Atheis hd hug vtives i ery f their victry gist the Persis d the Thebs i 479 t the sctury f Apll befre it ws csecrted. The Athei scrilege ws evidet, d due t the jrity r-ti i the Aphictyic Cucil it ws ticipted tht Athes wuld be c-deed t pyig lrge fie. Nturlly the Atheis wuld t py, r give such cuse wuld the Thebs be ble t vid prticiptig i due S-cred Wr fr the pyet f the debt. This pl, which hd bee wve with exceptil cuig, filed becuse Athei iterests t Delphi were beig represeted by Aeschies rivl Desthees, wh with exceptil dexter-ity ged t deflect the Aphictyys ger t little Aphiss, s tht Scred Wr ws the e hd declred, but tk dieret curse fr tht Philip hd pled. Fr the Thebs wh Philip hd wted t tur gist the Atheis fr his w iterests withut beig ivlved, t -ly std by the citizes f Aphiss, but tured gist Philip d tk c-trl f Therpyle fr hi by frce. It thus bece ipssible fr the rest f the ebers f the Aphictyy t led their trps suth d dvce gist Aphiss. I the fll f 339 they were frced t seek help fr Philip, wh hd just retured fr his Dube cpig. Ad s evets led t wr i cetrl Greece, which Philip bve ll wished t vid, d f curse fr hi t be plced t its hed, d which eve fter its declrti he edevred t settle it with repeted egtitis. But the decisi t ilitrily itervee ws w uvidble, d the decisive bttle tk plce i erly August 338 t Chere, with the Mcedi kig eergig victrius. e culd w ce re regulte his reltis with the Greeks.

is lgtie lly Thebes ws severely puished fr defectig t the eey cp. A peret Mcedi ilitry grris ws sttied Cde, the Acrplis f Thebes, d exiles were llwed t retur, which brught Philips frieds bck d led t chge i regie. The Beti Legue ws t disslved, d thus the Thebs, wh lst their ledership psiti i Beti, were eutrlized. The refudig f Beti cities destryed by the Thebs durig their rule ls served this purpse. Csequetly, these esures hd e d ly e gl: the ilitry pwer f Thebes hd t be reduced, d Thebes subjected t the ctrl f hstile eighbrs.

I 346 the Atheis hd chieved fvrble pece, s fr s Greek rel-tis re ccered d ccluded llice with Philip. This pece d l-lice were lter exteded t Philips successrs, d thus csidered eter-l. We hve lredy discussed Philips pursuit f the Atheis gd will durig the fllwig yers s well s Desthees ert t frustrte every rpprcheet, t crete uited frt f Greek cities gist Philip, d filly t istigte decisive clsh with hi. Thus i Philips eyes the Athe-is theselves ppered guilty d de thers pper s s well, while deservig leiecy by virtue f their rigid stce. Ad yet, he shwed the uexpectedly gret leiecy. Despite his egtive experieces, Philip delt with the Athei decrcy with ercy; he left it utuched, d did t eve csider ivdig Attic. Furtherre, he llwed the Atheis t reti their pssessis utside Attic, icludig Les, Ibrs, Skyrs, d Ss, ly cpellig the t surreder the Thrci Chersese t hi. Sice the Atheis depeded gri iprts fr the Blck Se re-gi, the lss f the Thrci Chersese ust hve frced the t i-ti friedly stce twrds Philip, d de the eietly wre f the pssibility f blckde f the ellespt. Furtherre, the Atheis w hd pssibility t prepre r udertke vl cpig gist Philip. Fr this res, whtever hd reied f the Secd Athei Allice ws w disslved.

19 Fr the esures tke t tht tie cf. Rebuck 1948.

20 O the estblishet f pece d l-lice betwee the Atheis d Philip see Sch-itt 1969, 1.

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We kw scrcely ythig but the tretet f ther Greek cities, es-pecilly thse whse ries tk prt i the bttle f Chere. Crith d Abrci were cpelled t receive Mcedi grriss. Tgether with Thebes, these were the three lctis where Mcedi trps were i, these were the three lctis where Mcedi trps were ithese were the three lctis where Mcedi trps were i were the three lctis where Mcedi trps were iwere the three lctis where Mcedi trps were i the three lctis where Mcedi trps were ithe three lctis where Mcedi trps were i three lctis where Mcedi trps were ithree lctis where Mcedi trps were i lctis where Mcedi trps were ilctis where Mcedi trps were i-stlled, d this sees t hve sufficed fr Philip. I y evet, these sites were chse with gret cre: Crith ctrlled ccess t the Pelpese, d the rder s ipsed there gurteed the peisuls gd cduct. Abrci, which ly betwee Aetli d Epirus, tw eergig regis tht util the hd bee supprted by Philip but were uwrthy f his trust, c-trlled rthwest Greece. Filly, he kew the Thebs perslly d ws wre f their erts t ipse their w rule i cetrl Greece. T prevet ythig f the srt, his w frieds eeded t ssue the reis f pwer i Thebes, d sice there were t gret y f the d they were c-frtig the hstility f the Des, he hd t secure their supprt by the i-psiti f Mcedi grris.

These were the esures tke ieditely fter the bttle f Chere, which hwever were very dieret s regrds their ters f pece: the tret-et f frer ilitry ppets is i tewrthy disprprti t their c-tul guilt. Ad the se is true f the esures Philip tk i the Pelpese. All thse wh belged t the ppsig llice i the rther Pelpese fud leiecy, while Sprt, which reied eutrl, ws sigifictly wek-eed by beig frced t surreder brder regis t her hstile eighbrs Mes-see, Meglplis, Tege, d Args t her w detriet. It ws t but t eliite Sprt cpletely, erely t stregthe its eighbrs t Sprts expese. Of these citysttes, e ws i psiti t ssue ledership f the etire Pelpese. They wed their territril gis t Philip, d thus s lg s Sprt existed d still thught f recverig its frcibly surredered lds, these sttes culd t frget wh their fried d lly ws.

Thrugh the rrgeets utlied here, Philip esured tht the frer rulig pwers f Greece wuld lger be i psiti t ply the rle f his ppets. All three hd bee wekeed d g ther thigs plced u-der supervisi: the Thebs thrugh the chge i gveret, the psses-si f Cde d the stregtheig d ultiplyig f idividul cities i the Beti Legue; the Sprts thrugh territril lsses d distrust f hstile citysttes surrudig the, d the Atheis just thrugh the lss f the Thrci Chersese d the dissluti f wht little reied fr their vl llice. The diereces i tretet bece clerer if we te wht the Atheis retied d by cpris wht ptetil ws reved fr the ther citysttes. Thebes d Sprt were strg ld pwers d s such were udubtedly wekeed. Athes pwer ws bsed its fleet, which Philip left uder their ctrl, eve thugh he hd thig cpr-ble with which t cfrt the. The leiet tretet f the Atheis c-sequetly cused greter surprise, d turlly there hve bee erts t iterpret it. Thus it is presued tht Philip wished t preserve the Athei fleet t be ble t use it lter i wr gist the Persis. This ls explis Philips cstt curtig f the Atheis gd will, which is lredy clerly discered s erly s 348. This is udubted, s such reltive leiecy twrds the Atheis ight hve bee bserved i the pst.

4.2Plig the expediti gist the Persis

This brigs us t the questi f whether Philip ws seriusly ctepltig the pssibility f cpig gist the Persis d hd directed his pli-cy i the suther Blks ccrdigly. I ur literry trditi, the ide f

21 See e.g. Griffith 1979, 619f; Ellis 1976, 11., 92 d Cwkwell 1978, 111., hypthesis de lredy fr the Pece f Philcrtes.

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cpig gist the Persis is first fud i 346, lthugh i lter surce. Didrus, i ctiuig his ccut f the ed f the wr gist the Phcis, speks f Philips desire t be prclied uthrized geerl f (ll) the Greeks d leder f the cpig gist the Persis. Didrus (r his surce) cer-tily kew tht this desire, which ws ttributed t Philip i 346, bece rel-ity fter the fct, whe there ws the pssibility f ujustified erly dtig fter the fct. O the ther hd, the pl fr wr gist the Gret ig ws t i itself urelistic, if we csider the situti i the Persi stte s Is-crtes describes it i letter ddressed t the Mcedi kig i the suer f the se yer. The letters i ws t icite Philip t cpig gist the Persi stte. Iscrtes culd hve subitted siilr pl s prpsl t the Mcedi kig ly if he culd cut the ltters csiderig it fesible due t the uderlyig blce f pwer d the situti i the Persi stte. Als, this ws t the first tie Iscrtes hd publicly prclied the pl fr Persi wr. Alredy i his Panegyric (380), he hd prpgdized fr cfr-terity g the Greeks d cpig gist the Persis, d he culd t hve hped fr y success with this text if his reders were t persud-ed f the pssibility f relizig wr gist the Gret ig. Oe f his red-ers ws certily Js, the tyrt f Phere, wh t tht tie represeted the jr pwer i cetrl Greece. Arud the ed f the 370s, his uceet tht he wuld udertke cpig gist the Persis hd bee credible. The histricity f this cli is vuched fr: the e hd, it is etied by Iscrtes i 346 i his letter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible i i 346 i his letter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible ii 346 i his letter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible i 346 i his letter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible ii his letter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible i his letter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible ihis letter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible i letter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible iletter t Philip, d the ther hd s credible i t Philip, d the ther hd s credible it Philip, d the ther hd s credible i Philip, d the ther hd s credible iPhilip, d the ther hd s credible i, d the ther hd s credible id the ther hd s credible i the ther hd s credible i the ther hd s credible i the ther hd s credible ithe ther hd s credible i ther hd s credible ither hd s credible i hd s credible ihd s credible i s credible is credible i credible i credible i credible icredible i ii-terediry fr the bitis f Js we hve Xeph, wh ws lger livig whe the wrk Philip ws writte, d wh presets the tyrt Js re-ferrig t his pls t subjugte the Gret ig d expliig the pssibility f relizig his wrds s fllws: Fr I kw, with wht type f frces (d this ccered bth the ry f Cyrus durig his dvce withi the cu-try s well s the ry f Agesilus) the Persi kig rrived t the brik f destructi.

ere, Xeph hs Js rgue fr ilitry pertis i which he hi-self tk prt. Iscrtes hd lredy give his tteti t these exples i 380, d i the 2d cetury Plybius beefited by eplyig the whe i referrig t Philips pl fr cpig gist the Persi kig he ers flshbck f the destrted ibility f the Persis gist Greek ries (Iscrtes, Panegyric 1429; Plybius 3.6.9 14). Plybius des t refer t the tie t which this pl ws cceived by the Mcedi kig, sice he ws ly iterested i its presuppsitis, which were lredy give fr the erly 4th cetury. After the successful retur f the 10,000 (Greek erce-ries), d eve re fllwig Agesilus pertis i wester Asi Mi-r, the icpbility d ilitry filigs f the Persis hd bece ll t cler. It ws csequetly etirely relistic fr Iscrtes i his Panegyric i 380 t eti Phelleic cpig gist the Persi kig. Siilrly, shrtly therefter Js, tyrt f Phere, culd publicly cteplte wr with the Persis withut fer f ridicule, sice i dditi Js ws t tht tie represetig the lrgest ld pwer i cetrl Greece, i.e., i regi whse geerl ledership Philip hd ssued i 352. Ad bsiclly, it ws ly e f the territries exed by Mcedi, which i the etie hd bee cslidted d expded i ll directis. I cpris, dur-ig the first yers f Philips rule the Persi stte preseted ige tht de ttck gist it re teptig th t the begiig f the ce-tury. This ws eve re the cse fllwig the cpleti f the secd phse f Mcedis rise fr 352 t 346, d t its cclusi Iscrtes, i his pe letter t the Mcedi kig, urged hi t udertke cpig

22 O Philips presued pls i 346 see Didrus 16.60.5. Fr the situti i the Persi stte see Iscrtes, Philip 99104, d fr Jss pls see ibid., 119.; Xeph, Hellenica 6.1.12.

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gist the Persis. The success f such udertkig wuld w be re fesible. Als, sypsis f Philips ctis d ctivities culd destrte tht durig his lifetie, his chief ccer ws Mcedis pwer d ex-psi. Fr this stdpit, plig fr Persi wr ight hve plyed rle i his thikig fr very erly . Filly, we ust sk whe se-thig f the srt ight hve eerged d t wht extet it deteried his Blk plicy.

Befre his rise t the thre, Philip hd lived fr uber f yers s hstge i Thebes, i the huse f the geerl Pees. I erly 353, the lt-ter udertk issi with 5,000 e t Asi Mir, hsteig t the id f the strp Artbzus, wh hd revlted. Philip fcilitted his pssge thrugh Mcedi d Thrce, d csequetly ws wre f hw y sldiers were required fr the risky ilitry eterprise gist the ry f the Gret ig. I dditi, Philip ws ifred f Pees victries fllwig his brek with Artbzus d f his flight t Mcedi. Oe y thus esily igie tht s erly s the lte 350s, Philip hd tured t the ide f c-pig gist the Persis. But the cditis required fr such udertk-ig d the lg bsece due t the cpig were t yet fvrble. e ws lredy t wr with the Athei vl frce, d lthugh the Atheis hd t yet ged t ijure hi rther, they were lsig e fter ther lly (r bse) evertheless, s pssible llies f the Gret ig they ight still be-ce dgerus. Als, i 352 Philip hd secured Thessly gist the tyrts f Phere d the dvce f the Phcis, but hd t ged t tke Ther-pyle. Ad thus the pssibility t exercise decisive ifluece irs i cetrl d suther Greece did t yet exist.

Philip, hwever, culd prepre fr wr gist the Persis i th-er wy. Ieditely fter his withdrwl fr Therpyle, he led his r-y gist Thrce s fr s the Prptis. This cpig ws turlly ls shw f frce t the Atheis, cler wrig tht t y tie he culd threte their gri iprts d hldigs i the Chersese. The subjug-ti f Cersbleptes, hwever, s Philips vssl d the Mcedi kigs llice with Byztiu, d perhps with ther cities lg the cst, si-ulteusly secured regi tht wuld sedy be eeded fr the ld rys rch gist Asi Mir. The pl fr such cpig, which ws lredy plyig se rle i Philips thikig, ust hve seeed eve re ppelig shrtly fterwrd, whe the Gret ig t ly filed yet gi t recver Egypt, but urest brke ut i Egypts eighbrig strpies i cse-quece f this defet. It des t see t hve bee cicidece tht begi des t see t hve bee cicidece tht begides t see t hve bee cicidece tht begi t see t hve bee cicidece tht begit see t hve bee cicidece tht begi see t hve bee cicidece tht begisee t hve bee cicidece tht begi t hve bee cicidece tht begit hve bee cicidece tht begi hve bee cicidece tht begihve bee cicidece tht begi bee cicidece tht begibee cicidece tht begi cicidece tht begi cicidece tht begi cicidece tht begicicidece tht begi tht begitht begi begibegi-ig i the fall f 351 d fr the ext year d a hlf, we her thig but ilitry pertis by Philip gist the Atheis, d tht these strted ce gi ly i cecti with his ttck gist the Chlcidi Legue, while eve durig tht perid Philip ctiued his peceful vertures t the Atheis. S there is uch t rgue i fvr f the hypthesis tht s erly s the lte 350s, Philip hd cceived the pl fr wr gist the Persis, d tht his plicy twrd Greece ws directed twrds this ed. This plicy y hve relied up the fllwig thikig: fr cpig gist the Persis, Greeks were eeded, if t s cfighters the t lest s fvrblydispsed, eutrl bservers, d he hd t esure tht they wuld t be rused by the Gret ig behid his bck, d perhps cuse difficulties. The ltter chief-ly ccered Athes, whse city d hrbr fred citywll which culd hrdly be cquered d which culd i cse bece Persi ilitry bse Eurpe territry. It wuld be preferble, f curse, t wi ver the Atheis d their vl experiece fr hiself, s tht he culd ppse the Persi fleet with equivlet frce.

23 This is ls the view f thse schlrs etied i te 21 bve. Ag the, El-lis csiders tht Philip ws lredy tyig with the ide f Persi wr fr lte 350; Cwk-well d Griffith ccept sethig f the srt s certi ly durig the perid f the Pece f Philcrtes. Nturlly, such ccurrece f views g re recet schlrs culd t g uquestied. Thus, Errigt (1981) rejects ll three f the bve termina post quem, ttrib-utig t Philip the iitil ide fr cpig gist the Persis t shrtly befre the bttle f Chere. Sice his dipltic strtegy i cetrl Greece filed, he wted t reccile the Greeks t Mcedi pwer; with the pl fr cpig gist the Persis he prceeded t drtic gesture fr the Greeks prt, ebrcig til cuse s his w. Accrdig t Buckler (1996), y pssible ttepts by Philip t estb-lishig his hegey i Greece left trces be-hid the. As fr his bitis visvis the Per-si stte, ly ssuptis c be de, while his ctul bjective till the ed ws the Athei-s. Excessive thereticl bjectis re super-fluus fter the extesive refereces i the text.

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Up grspig Philips itetis, e will better cprehed his plicy twrds the ther Greek citysttes, which ws etirely dieret fr tht twrds the brbris f Illyri d Thrce, wh he frequetly ttcked withut shwig y prticulr restrit. Philip struck gist the Greeks -ly whe bslutely ecessry, but with such frce tht sigle strike ws suffi-ciet. After his victry, he shwed prper cleecy. But he preferred whe his victry, he shwed prper cleecy. But he preferred whehis victry, he shwed prper cleecy. But he preferred whe victry, he shwed prper cleecy. But he preferred whevictry, he shwed prper cleecy. But he preferred whe, he shwed prper cleecy. But he preferred whehe shwed prper cleecy. But he preferred whe shwed prper cleecy. But he preferred wheshwed prper cleecy. But he preferred whe prper cleecy. But he preferred whe prper cleecy. But he preferred whecleecy. But he preferred whe But he preferred whe-ever pssible t vid wr gist the suther Greeks ltgether. The ltter prved illusi, but fter the victry t Chere, Philip ce gi but fter the victry t Chere, Philip ce gi -ged t regulte his reltis with the Greeks i the suth d ce d fr ll ly fir fudtis fr his future pls. The gl f cretig the presuppsi gl f cretig the presuppsigl f cretig the presuppsi f cretig the presuppsif cretig the presuppsi cretig the presuppsicretig the presuppsi the presuppsithe presuppsi presuppsipresuppsi-tis fr his safe d legthy bsece d successful ttck the Persi stte ws served by the rrgeets istituted ieditely fter his vic-try, which re esily uderstd withi the frewrk here described. Bth his geerus leiecy twrds the Atheis s well s his hrsh tretet f the Thebs were i Philips iterest. I ctrst t the cse f the Athei fleet, it ppers tht prticipti by Theb hplites i wr gist the Persis hd less sigificce; Philip culd recruit sufficietly lrge iftry frce i Mcedi. O the ther hd, the Thebs were still the strgest Greek ld pwer, d by virtue f their pliticl bitis culd prve d-gerus if they disturbed the pece i cetrl Greece durig Philips bsece.

With the excepti f the Thebs, Philip rlly reserved leiet ters fr his wr dversries, but despite his derte behvir twrds the cre-ted sud fudtis fr the cslidti f Mcedi rule i Greece. Furtherre, s regrds the Sprts he hd wekeed eutrl but pte-tilly dgerus pwer. I the ed, hwever, these were ly prtil esures, d Philip rightly dubted the extet t which they cprised s whle slid fudti fr the ctrl f Greece. Fr this cuse, he wuld eed rrgeet tht icluded ll the sttes d tht wuld t utticlly be see s es fr ipsig Mcedi suprecy. The best thig wuld be c istituti, sethig lredy existig i Greek trditi, but which wuld t refer t the hegeic systes f the Atheis, Sprts, r Thebs.

Thus, Philip cvetilly secured the sttus qu he hiself hd eect-ed with Phelleic pece trety (the common peace), the sclled Legue f Crith, which wuld ls fr the bsis fr Alexders reltis with the ther Greek sttes. I the first hlf f 337, t Philips ivitti there cveed i Crith represettives f the Greek sttes, d s hd hp-peed i previus treties f c pece, they greed t c pece fr the freed d uty f ll Greeks. Nt ly were ilitry ttcks gist ech eber f this pece frbidde; the greeet, i dditi t gurteeig the existig territril itegrity f ebersttes, ls gur-teed their existig cstitutis fr beig verthrw. Furtherre, the greeet icluded dtry efrceet cluse tht bliged ech sigtry t prvide ilitry ssistce t victis f ttck, d t csider ll thse wh disturbed this pece s eeies. Erlier pece treties hd ls ctied a siilr cluse, except tht i these there hd bee the prble f hw it culd bligtrily be deteried wh hd vilted the pece, d hw sctis gist the viltr were t be vlid. Fr the first tie istitu-tis were creted which wuld t ly versee the bservce f its prvi-sis, but which wuld tke ll ecessry esures t restre the rder whe eeded. At the hert f this c pece ws Cucil, cittee (Koi-non) f the Greeks, which ll prticipts were represeted by delegtes whse decisis were bidig fr ll ebers. Fr the ipleetti f the decisis f the Cucil, there ws creted the ffice f hege, wh

24 Fr verll d detiled pprisl f the surces see Schitt 1969, 3. Jehe 1994, 139. is fudetl regrdig Philip IIs Legue f Crith. Cf. Perl 1985 fr further ifr-ti the bckgrud f the iterstte rel-tis durig the 4th cetury.

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ssued the ledership fr executive decisis by the Koinon. As ws t be ex-pected, Philip ws elected t this ffice.

I prvidig substce t the Legue f Crith, Philip estblished his led-ership i Greece cvetil legl bsis, d thus he seled the rise f Mcedi itertil lw. Fr this, he dpted the existig cpre-hesive ctrcts filir t the Greeks, develpig it further fter cretig bdy fr supervisig d ipleetig f decisis, d ddig the ffice f hege f the i with executive respsibility. wever, the best prvisis d ters i the greeet wuld hve hd vlue if the leder chse t tht tie hd t represeted pwer which e i the suther Blks wuld hve dred questi, eve i the bsece f greeets.

The Legue f Crith ws uquestibly the st eective geerl pece trety ccluded up t tht tie, d it seeed tht it wuld speedily gurtee the itece f pece. T be sure, this pece hd bee ipsed by the victr d ws es f cslidtig his suprecy d gur-teeig his rule i Greece, but this wier clked the whle tter st skillfully i the tle f geerl iterstte pece i fr ccepted by ll sttes, fr the chieveet d ctiuce f which y vi erts hd bee de i Greece ver fiftyyer perid. It ws thus t be expected tht specificlly the sller sttes wuld welce the ew rrgeet, sice thrugh it they culd ticipte prtecti fr their re pwerful eigh-brs. Als, pece ppered geerlly secured withi Greece w, d fr the ske f pece it ws pssible fr stte eve t ccept se ccessis t its idepedece. But the gurtee f the existig sttus qu ws first d fre-st the pers f the hege hiself, d the C Pece, the vw prtilly preserved i iscriptis, ls icludes the bligti t t lk dw the rule f Philip d his successrs. I ll this, hwever, Philip ws t iig t estblishig direct fr f rule i the Greek cities, but ere-ly its idirect ipsiti s presuppsiti fr wr with the Persis, f which he ppretly hd i id t be the leder s erly s the lte 350s. The fct tht he ws ctiuusly frced t pstpe these pls ws the fult f his ppets i Greece, Athes i prticulr. Nw, hwever, it ppered tht thig wuld std i his wy.

At Philips suggesti, the Cucil f Crith decided i fvr f wr gist the Persi kigd. Alredy i the sprig f 336 Mcedi r i the sprig f 336 Mcedi ri the sprig f 336 Mcedi r the sprig f 336 Mcedi rthe sprig f 336 Mcedi r sprig f 336 Mcedi rsprig f 336 Mcedi r f 336 Mcedi rf 336 Mcedi r 336 Mcedi r Mcedi r Mcedi rMcedi r rar-y f 10,000 sldiers hd crssed the ellespt, iitilly t icite the Greek cities f Asi Mir t revlt. Philip wuld fllw ce his frces were fully red. But this ever hppeed, becuse the kig fell victi t ssssi-ti i the fll f 336. This tie, the chge i ruler prceeded withut prb-les. Whe Alexder ebrked his cpig gist the Persis i er-ly 334, he culd ct i full cfidece the fudtis lid by his fther; fter se ceturies whe peple beg t cll hi the Gret, they were verlkig the fct tht he ws ctully the s f eve Greter.

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1Introduction

Mcedi prvides uique ige f Greece, firstly fr the viewpit f its gegrphy, with its rich lluvil sil, brd plteus, d rlly sth cstlies, ll f which re i ctrst t the frgetti f the re Medi-terre ldscpes f the rest f Greece. But it ls is uique fr the view-pit f histry: despite the bsece f Ache kigd i Mcedi, its trsiti t the Ir Age cicided ccrdig t leged with the istll-ti f rchy with its cpitl t Aege (derdy Vergi) d, st iprttly, this ciet fr f pliticl rgizti ws retied there thrughut its etire histry, whe ild Greece ws divided it poleis. Mcedi i the wider gegrphicl sese did t experiece the pliti-cl phee f the citystte except thrugh Greek clies fuded i the rther Aege durig the rchic perid. I the 5th cetury, kig Al 5th cetury, kig Alth cetury, kig Al, kig Alkig Al-exder I expded his rel, which ws rigilly cfied t Bttie d Pieri, exig territries t bth west d est t the expese f eighbr-ig kigds. I the 4th cetury, tw exceptil kigs, Philip II d his s Alexder the Gret, expded Mcedis rule, the frer t lrge prt f the citysttes f Greece d the secd t Asi, extedig the brders f elleis fr beyd its turl birthplce.

But Mcedi is ls distiguished fr the rest f Greece fr the std-pit f histrigrphy, sice it reied essetilly utside the rute f the Grd Tur, i.e., the trvels f schlrs, tiquris, d the literti wh first de the ciet uets f Greece kw betwee the 17th d 19th ceturies. The first scietific issi t Mcedi, uder L euzey, dtL euzey, dt euzey, dt euzey, dt, dt-ed t 1861. Althugh fter the liberti f Greece i 1827 there ws er-us ert expeded t brig t light the c heritge tht ctributed t creti f the idetity f the ewlyfred stte, Mcedi reied uder Turkish rule util 1912, d the Ott uthrities there did little t prte rchelgicl reserch. After Wrld Wr I, excvtis lg re-tied their sprdic chrcter, sice Mcedi did t geerte the se iterest s the regis which were csidered Greek pr excellece, viz. the Greece f the citysttes. The fillig f these gps hs bee recet but ipres-sive, lbeit still icplete. It ws triggered by spectculr discveries like tht f the uetl tbs f Vergi i 1977, d hs beefited fr the uique gepliticl situti i the Blks. Durig the lst few decdes, r-chelgicl uthrities, bve ll the services f the Miistry f Culture, Aruthrities, bve ll the services f the Miistry f Culture, Ar-isttle Uiversity f Thessliki, d the Archelgicl Sciety t Athes, hve itesified bth systetic d rescue excvtis, e.g., lg the rute f the ew Egti Ods, ctributig t the substtil erichet f ur

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kwledge but Mcedi with the discvery f ther Greece, ryl Greece just s dirble s tht f the citysttes. Withut exggerti, we y sy tht Mcedi is the plce where the reewl f the spirit f clssi-cl rchelgy is tkig plce.

Netheless, Mcedi ct er the ipsig ruis f teples r public buildigs filir t us fr the rest f Greece. This is t due t the prticulr culturl cfigurti f the regi, but t the bsece f dur-ble buildig terils, sice rble qurryig ws cfied t the slpes f Mt. Beri. ece we bserve t the se tie the scrcity f uetl buildigs, their greter frgility due t the use f sft lieste, d filly the ltig f buildig terils, which ws fr re systetic th else-where, d fr which ly the uetl tbs escped s they were prtected by beig cvered by erth.

It is ppret tht ccut f the etirety f teril culture fr r-chic, clssicl, d elleistic Mcedi, s well s f the high vlue f recet discveries exceeds the pssibilities f this brief survey. Fr this re-s we will fcus se key spects tht cstitute the uiqueess f Mc-edi, d specificlly the fields f city plig d plce, destic, d fuerry rchitecture. We decided t t brek up the eleets tht fr uity, seeig thus ll types f uets withi their surrudig ctext, i.e., etire cplexes fred by huses, plces, r tbs. Therefre, the pitigs the fuerry uets, which cprise ivluble evidece s uique exples f lrgescle Greek pitig which hs bee irretriev-bly lst, will be csidered withi the ctext f the tbs they dred. Siilrly, the luxury prducts f idustril wrkshps will ls be exied withi the ctext f the tbs where they were depsited s sig f piety twrd the ded the prt f prticulr elite. Filly, the sics will be delt with s prt f the cplex f huses d plces.

2City planning and monumental complexes 2.1Trditil city plig

Due t the bsece f extesive excvtis, ur kwledge f city pl-ig i Mcedi cities reis idequte, with few iprtt excep-tis. Aciet settleets develped withut predeteried pl, i c-crdce with wht Le Crbusier clled dkey urbis (urbise de le), where the rd etwrk ws deteried by the rutes fllwed by bests f burde. The rrw d widig rds f the ld city f Olythus, fuded durig the rchic ge by the Btties i the Chlcidice r-rw hill t the est f the lter city, ers e f the st chrcteristic exples. Recet excvtis hve prvided ifrti but Aie, the cpitl f the kigd f Eliei i Upper Mcedi. Its huses d public buildigs, built icreetlly ver three successive steep plteus, revel re bitius fr f urb rgizti s erly s the lte rchic peri-d, lg befre the uificti f the Mcedi kigd by Philip II. The urb plig f Aege, the kigds first cpitl, ls ppers t hve relied the priciple f grduted terrces which exteded ver the slpe belw the crplis.

We d t yet kw uch but the urb plig f Greek clies fuded durig the rchic ge i the rther Aege. wever, the ex-ples f Stgir d Argilus, bth clies f Adrs, shw tht the regulr pls with which we re filir fr clies i Sicily, Suth Itly, d the Blck Se were t the rule.

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2.2The urb plig f the geeters

I the clssicl d elleistic perids, hwever, y cities were creted, refuded, r expded i Mcedi the bsis f precisely this priciple f regulr pl, which ws defied by etwrks f rds itersectig t right gles d which ws further elbrted by ippdus f Miletus. Olythus ers ur erliest exple f this. istricl cditis d the chge i the citys rle which tk plce i 432 whe it bece the cpitl f the cfed-ercy f the Btties d Chlcidis, led t the creti f ew residetil qurters with rud five hudred huses. The plteu which exteds rth f the hill which the ld city ws built ws divided by fur veues ru-ig NS, built t irregulr itervls. These veues, f which the st i-prtt hd width f 9 (30 ft), were itersected by twety rds ruig EW with width f 5 (17 ft). The rds deliited the residetil blcks, which hd width f 35.60 (120 ft) d vryig legths, depedig the distce betwee the NS veues. Ner the ceter f this syste, thrugh which the i veue pssed, there ws public spce where the pliticl d cercil grs were ppretly lcted; ther re t the west ws perhps iteded fr se kid f sctury. The ew qurters quickly filled with huses tht were built lg the wlls t ccdte the ppulti iflux resultig fr the Athei rids gist the cities f Chlcidice dur-ig the Pelpesi Wr. A suppleetry residetil qurter ws built t the est i the first hlf f the 4th cetury, shrtly befre the citys cquest d destructi by Philip II i 348.

Pell the gretest city i Mcedi ccrdig t Xeph (Hellenica 5.2.13) d t the tie still cstl city ls wed its ipsig city pl, which ppers t hve bee creted i the first hlf f the 4th cetury, t its ew rle fter becig the cpitl f the Mcedi kigd by the de-cisi f either Archelus (lte 5th c.) r re likely his successr Ay-ts III. O crplis with slight iclie, the erus plce (see belw 3.3.2) seeed detched fr the city tht exteded t the suth. wever, the city d plce were jied i uique d clerly structured rectgu-lr grid. The EW rds, seprted fr e ther by 110 t 150 , were 9 wide with the excepti f the i rd, which hd width f 15 d fred prt f the jr rd rtery likig the hiterld f wester Mcedi with Thessliki. The NS rds, which were 47 fr e -ther, were 6 wide with the excepti f the tw i the iddle, which hd width f 9 d led fr the plce dw t the hrbr. At the ceter f this grid, which ws deliited by these rds d bisected by the EW rd s s t hve better fucti, there exteded the erus re f the i ficil gr (see belw 4). The blcks creted by the rds rud this cetrl ze icluded scturies, public uets, d luxurius privte resideces (see belw 3.2); hubler huses wuld hve ccupied the peripherl blcks.

Eve thugh the preset stte f reserch des t llw us t recstruct with certity beeth Byztie d R levels the residetil pls f ther clssicl d elleistic cities, we y surise tht the se serch fr fuctility predited withi the frewrk f structured rectgu-lr rd etwrk. We y cite s exples f this Di, idsized tw tht wed its iprtce exclusively t its rle s the scred city f the Mcedi-s fr the ge f kig Archelus, d Thessliki, which ws fuded i 315 by Cssder t the site f ciet There. Thus, the Mcedi kig-d prticipted t lrge extet i the urbizti veet tht chrc-terized the elleistic ge.

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2.3The public fcilities f cities

Fr cultivted Greek f the 2d cetury AD, city tht hd either dieither dieither di-istrtive buildigs r gysiu, either theter r gr, r futi with ruig wter (Pusis 10.4.1) ws t wrthy f beig cl (Pusis 10.4.1) ws t wrthy f beig cl (Pusis 10.4.1) ws t wrthy f beig cl-led city. The cities f Mcedi uquestibly pssessed ll the public f-cilities tht chrcterized Greek urb life, eve if these rei t lrge ex-tet ukw.

Aprt fr Pell, recet excvtis hve begu t yield evidece f the public ceter f ciet Miez by the fthills f Beri er Lefkdi (Nus), lthugh the buildigs there hve essetilly bee destryed dw t the bse f the wlls. The rthwest crer f very bitius ue-tl cplex (t lest 300 100 ) ifestly cstructed i uifr fshi i the secd hlf f the 4th cetury hs bee reveled. It icluded t lest three terrces extedig ver firly sth hillside fcig est, surru-ded by lg sts (peristyles) d buildigs, d cected by stircses d rps. O the rrw rth side f the iddle terrce, there ws srt f -uetl pssgewy betwee tw rps, with iterir wll tht icluded egged clus, while bve this std sll Dric distyle in antis teple. The cplex culited the wester terrce, which hd lrge shped structure with eleve hestiatoria (bquet hlls) d hydrulic istlltis. This cplex ppretly uited the public fuctis f the gr with reli-gius wrship, give tht it hs bee prpsed tht the upper terrce be ide-tified s Asclepieu. Regrdless f its rle, hwever, this prticulr c-plex kes Miez e f the st iprtt cities i the kigd, erig e f the erliest exples f the eclsed public spce f Iic type.

Ifrti fr literry surces sheds se light t the itellectul life f the Mcedi kigd, such s the fct tht Euripides lived fr se yers t the curt f Archelus. The Mcedi kigs fdess fr literry rts is bvius fr the theter lcted little belw the plce f Aege. OO-ly the fudtis f the skene, the gutter surrudig the rchestr (dithe gutter surrudig the rchestr (di-eter 28.5 ), the first rw f sets, d the rditig stirs f the cavea (koilon) were de f ste; the reiig structure ws f wd. It ws i this the-ter tht Philip II ws ssssited i 336 while celebrtig the rrige f his dughter t kig Alexder f Epirus. The sctury f the Nyphs er Miez is ls cected with the Mcedi ryl huse. Withi verdt ldscpe, cplex f sts hs bee ucvered where, ccrdig t Plutr-ch (Alexander 7), Philip II kept Alexder islted fr the curt t be educt-ed by his pedggue Aristtle.

There ws ls theter t Di er the sctury f Diysus, utside the wlls suth f the city, t lest fr the er whe kig Archelus estb-lished drtic ctests i hr f the Olypi gds; Euripides preseted his Bacchae there. This clssicl theter ws replced i the elleistic ge by structure tht ws i y wys ivtive. I ctrst t the prctice i Greek theters, the koilon ws t built turl slpe, but rther ws lcted tp rtificil fill. O the side f the parodoi, it eded i siple slpe withut the usul retiig wll, while the stds were de f lrge cly bricks tht ust hve hd rble revetet. Mrble hd ls bee used fr certi height upwrd the ipsig skene buildig which tdy is lrgely destryed, thugh we c surise its rrgeet twisled skene with paraskenia bth sides, d proskenion i frt d its rder, which ws Dric with egged clus. Belw the rchestr (dieter 26 ) ws rre detil, Chrs stircse, thrugh which ctrs prtryig chrcters scedig fr the Uderwrld ppered.

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As regrds the gysiu, plce fr physicl s well s itellectul triig fr yug Greeks, we hve rchelgicl dt ly fr the e i Aphiplis. Built i the secd hlf f the 4th cetury, it fithfully fllwed the estblished type f the gysiu t Olypi, icludig the plestr (47 36 ) t which ccess ws prvided by uetl stirwy, d tw ruwys (legth: 1 stde), e f the cvered (the xystos), the ther pe (the paradromis). The plestr preises, which were iteded fr physicl exercise, the cre f the bdy (bths), s well s educti, sypsi, d the wrship f ercules d eres, the ptr gds f thletes, were dispsed rud Dric peristyle curtyrd.

Bths were ther eleet f urb eities. Pell gives us the erli-est exple f public bths i rther Greece; its bths were built i the lte 4th cetury i residetil blck i the rthest prt f the city. This very crefully-fiished buildig with uetl etrce, flrs with pebble sics d rble revetets icluded tw rs with sseblges f i-dividul bthtubs, s well s lrge pl. etig ws prvided by uder-grud htir cduit, which is the erliest freruer f the R hy-pcust kw t us i Greece. I Thessliki, beeth the suthwest crer f the R gr, prt f elleistic (2d c.) bth cplex hs bee exc-vted, where we y discer pririly lvely circulr hll with twetyfive bthtubs, s well s the djcet tver.

2.4Scturies

Althugh sigifict reis f scturies i Mcedi re preserved, there is dubt tht this spect the regi did t dier fr the rest f Greece s regrds its pthe d buildigs, r s fr s its ritul d vtive prctices re ccered.

The erliest kw scturies re thse i Di, rrged utside the wlls suth f the city. This lcti shws tht they were the scturies t ly f the ihbitts f Di, but f ll the Mcedis, fr wh Di ws their scred city. The st iprtt f these ws the sctury f Ol-ypi Zeus, where the iscriptis tht ccered the c irs f the Mcedis were set up, d where the gret celebrti f the Olypi with thletic d drtic ctests ws held. At the site, uetl l-tr (legth 22 ) hs bee reveled, with which ivtive echis fr hectbs is cected. It llwed thirtythree xe destied fr the se scrifice t be bud i three rws. The ly kw exple tht culd be cpred with these rws f blck which rig ws fsteed is i Ii, t the sctury f Apll t Clrs. Ner the sctury f Olypi Zeus were the teples f Zeus ypsists, Deeter, Diysus, Asclepius, d Aphrdite d Arteis. The lst tw were