The History of The History of Critical Thinking Critical Thinking

(abridged)(abridged)~ 85,000,000 b.c.e – July 21~ 85,000,000 b.c.e – July 21stst, ,

20082008

Critical Thinking in the 21Critical Thinking in the 21stst CenturyCentury

• Critical thinking, due to its continually Critical thinking, due to its continually growing significance in the 21st century, is growing significance in the 21st century, is an idea that is highly deserving of an idea that is highly deserving of attention. attention.

• It receives it, however, mostly in the form It receives it, however, mostly in the form of lip service. of lip service.

• While educational leaders, teachers, While educational leaders, teachers, parents, government officials, business, and parents, government officials, business, and the public are increasingly calling for its the public are increasingly calling for its development and use in virtually every development and use in virtually every sector of life, it is an idea which is still sector of life, it is an idea which is still largely misunderstood. largely misunderstood.

In Search of a History of In Search of a History of Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

• Part of this misunderstanding is due to the Part of this misunderstanding is due to the fact that, though it is widely popular (in the fact that, though it is widely popular (in the sense that almost no one denies its sense that almost no one denies its importance), its place in history has not been importance), its place in history has not been firmly established. firmly established.

• In one sense, it is a relatively new term which In one sense, it is a relatively new term which only entered the lexicon in the 1930’s. only entered the lexicon in the 1930’s.

• Yet in another sense it is ancient, in that its Yet in another sense it is ancient, in that its roots are traceable to Socrates, and perhaps roots are traceable to Socrates, and perhaps indeed to our pre-human ancestors. indeed to our pre-human ancestors.

• In a still further sense it is non-existent, in In a still further sense it is non-existent, in that no one, as far as we can tell, has ever that no one, as far as we can tell, has ever attempted to write a history of the idea. attempted to write a history of the idea.

Why a History of Critical Why a History of Critical Thinking?Thinking?• A history of critical thinking is vital if we are to A history of critical thinking is vital if we are to

understand its relationship and function in current understand its relationship and function in current world societies and ways of living (and therefore of world societies and ways of living (and therefore of thinking). thinking).

• Having a sense of the social conditions under which Having a sense of the social conditions under which critical thinking has either taken root or been weeded critical thinking has either taken root or been weeded out, allows us to see more clearly the extent to which out, allows us to see more clearly the extent to which societies today either foster or hinder its development.societies today either foster or hinder its development.

• Knowledge of the manner in which historical thinkers Knowledge of the manner in which historical thinkers have thought about, argued for, or developed various have thought about, argued for, or developed various aspects of critical thinking gives it more life and figure. aspects of critical thinking gives it more life and figure. It also makes us aware of the fact that the idea of It also makes us aware of the fact that the idea of critical thinking has been an implicit part of human critical thinking has been an implicit part of human evolution, and is a major key to our survival in a future evolution, and is a major key to our survival in a future which promises to continue to increase in complexity. which promises to continue to increase in complexity.

• These insights, which a history of critical thinking, These insights, which a history of critical thinking, properly written, will provide, will allow us to more fully properly written, will provide, will allow us to more fully assess the work necessary to establishing societies in assess the work necessary to establishing societies in which criticality is a central cultural value. which criticality is a central cultural value.

Our Approach to this Our Approach to this HistoryHistory

• The purpose of this history is to construct a The purpose of this history is to construct a dual narrative. dual narrative.

• One will focus on the implications of One will focus on the implications of stratification in societies and on the effect of stratification in societies and on the effect of that stratification on the way and the extent that stratification on the way and the extent to which critical thinking was encouraged or to which critical thinking was encouraged or discouraged, historically speaking. discouraged, historically speaking.

• Our second narrative will seek to document Our second narrative will seek to document those who were able to move beyond those those who were able to move beyond those social conditions and, in doing so, form the social conditions and, in doing so, form the roots of critical thinking. roots of critical thinking.

First Narrative: Social First Narrative: Social Conditions Necessary for Conditions Necessary for

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking• Freedom of thought, belief and actionFreedom of thought, belief and action• A society which values criticality, reason, A society which values criticality, reason,

and questioning and questioning • A society which values the development of A society which values the development of

intellectual traits of mindintellectual traits of mind• Widespread public education (in the true Widespread public education (in the true

sense)sense)• The availability of a strong sense concept The availability of a strong sense concept

of critical thinkingof critical thinking• Available leisure time for allAvailable leisure time for all• Work which encourages critical thoughtWork which encourages critical thought

Second Narrative: Second Narrative: Contributions of Individual Contributions of Individual

ThinkersThinkersIn its “pure” form, critical thinking In its “pure” form, critical thinking cannot be found in history, for the simple cannot be found in history, for the simple reason that critical thinking is an ideal reason that critical thinking is an ideal and ideals do not exist as fully embodied.  and ideals do not exist as fully embodied.  Hence, in seeking to begin to develop a Hence, in seeking to begin to develop a historical account of critical thinking, we historical account of critical thinking, we are looking for emergent “threads” of are looking for emergent “threads” of critical thinking, aspects of critical critical thinking, aspects of critical thinking, forerunners of critical thinking.  thinking, forerunners of critical thinking.  Not the pure stuff, but the impure stuff Not the pure stuff, but the impure stuff out of which the “pure” is being refined.  out of which the “pure” is being refined. 

““Threads” of Critical ThoughtThreads” of Critical Thought• the acceptance of freedom of thoughtthe acceptance of freedom of thought• the need to become intellectually disciplined and to the need to become intellectually disciplined and to

think systematicallythink systematically• the belief that the mind can reason and through the belief that the mind can reason and through

reason figure out the nature of things reason figure out the nature of things • the need to think within multiple points of view the need to think within multiple points of view • the need to develop intellectual humility the need to develop intellectual humility • the need to think for oneself and the courage to speak the need to think for oneself and the courage to speak

against established views against established views • the need to develop reasoning skillsthe need to develop reasoning skills• the need to apply intellectual skills internally in order the need to apply intellectual skills internally in order

to take charge of one’s life to take charge of one’s life • the need to apply intellectual skills to important the need to apply intellectual skills to important

human problems in an effort to alleviate suffering and human problems in an effort to alleviate suffering and pain pain

• the need to think about a wide range of subjects the need to think about a wide range of subjects • The concern for understanding the manner in which The concern for understanding the manner in which

the human mind can be flawed or problematicthe human mind can be flawed or problematic• The commitment to lifelong learning and intellectual The commitment to lifelong learning and intellectual

growthgrowth

Prehistory Prehistory (~85,000,000 b.c.e. – (~85,000,000 b.c.e. –

500 b.c.e.)500 b.c.e.)Animal criticality?Animal criticality?

Prehistoric ThinkingPrehistoric Thinking• For millions of years we lived much as our pre-For millions of years we lived much as our pre-

human ancestors (Chimpanzees and their kin) do human ancestors (Chimpanzees and their kin) do today. today.

• We might characterize our thinking at this stage We might characterize our thinking at this stage as almost wholly uncritical. as almost wholly uncritical.

• It is difficult, however, to make judgments about It is difficult, however, to make judgments about the criticality of animals and pre-human creatures. the criticality of animals and pre-human creatures.

• Perhaps there was a primitive form of criticality Perhaps there was a primitive form of criticality which allowed us to use basic tools, utilize which allowed us to use basic tools, utilize primitive communication, work together in groups, primitive communication, work together in groups, and make small change to our environment. and make small change to our environment.

““The Bushmen of South Africa are intimately The Bushmen of South Africa are intimately acquainted with the way of life of more than acquainted with the way of life of more than fifty animals. They can follow a herd of antelope fifty animals. They can follow a herd of antelope even over hard dry ground which holds only the even over hard dry ground which holds only the very faintest impressions of hoof prints, and very faintest impressions of hoof prints, and can detect the almost invisible hoofprint can detect the almost invisible hoofprint pattern that distinguishes a wounded animal pattern that distinguishes a wounded animal from its fellows in the herd. Furthermore...in an from its fellows in the herd. Furthermore...in an area hundreds of square miles they know ‘every area hundreds of square miles they know ‘every bush and stone, every convolution of the bush and stone, every convolution of the ground…they do not read or write, but they ground…they do not read or write, but they learn and remember. If all their knowledge learn and remember. If all their knowledge about their land and its resources were about their land and its resources were recorded and published, it would make up a recorded and published, it would make up a library of thousands of volumes.” - John E. library of thousands of volumes.” - John E. Pfeiffer. Pfeiffer. The Emergence of ManThe Emergence of Man (New York: (New York: Harper and Row, 1969) pp 134-135Harper and Row, 1969) pp 134-135

• Looking back, we see that each step in human Looking back, we see that each step in human evolution has occurred over shorter and shorter evolution has occurred over shorter and shorter time periods, but has resulted in increasingly time periods, but has resulted in increasingly significant differences. significant differences.

• The first known primate was a shrew-like creature The first known primate was a shrew-like creature which appeared about 85 million years ago. which appeared about 85 million years ago.

• It took almost 80 million years for the first It took almost 80 million years for the first hominids to appearhominids to appear

• It was five million more until the first “human” (in It was five million more until the first “human” (in the genus the genus homohomo).).

• It took two million years until It took two million years until homo sapiens homo sapiens arrivedarrived..

• And it was two hundred thousand until the advent And it was two hundred thousand until the advent of agriculture and established settlementsof agriculture and established settlements

• And just barely over 12,000 years to the modern And just barely over 12,000 years to the modern day. day.

Significance of Prehistory Significance of Prehistory to the History of Critical to the History of Critical

ThinkingThinking• It is quite easy to forget our extended history, but It is quite easy to forget our extended history, but

a cursory look reveals its significance to a cursory look reveals its significance to understanding our present stage of evolution. understanding our present stage of evolution.

• How far have we truly evolved? To what extent are How far have we truly evolved? To what extent are we still ruled by our primitive instincts and we still ruled by our primitive instincts and passions? What will be our next evolutionary step? passions? What will be our next evolutionary step? Will it be from Will it be from homo sapiens homo sapiens (thinking human (thinking human being) to being) to homo criticus sapienshomo criticus sapiens (critical thinking (critical thinking human being)? Are we already in the process? human being)? Are we already in the process?

• It took seven million years to move from hominid to It took seven million years to move from hominid to homo sapiens, how many years will it take to go homo sapiens, how many years will it take to go from homo sapiens to homo criticus sapiens? What from homo sapiens to homo criticus sapiens? What would the world look like if this occurred? would the world look like if this occurred?

Ancient Greece and Ancient Greece and Rome Rome

(500 b.c.e. – 400 (500 b.c.e. – 400 c.e.)c.e.)

Critical Thinking EmergesCritical Thinking Emerges

Social Conditions in Social Conditions in Ancient Greece and RomeAncient Greece and Rome

The World – 6The World – 6thth Century Century B.C.E.B.C.E.

The World – 3The World – 3rdrd Century Century B.C.E.B.C.E.

The World – 2The World – 2ndnd Century Century C.E.C.E.

Greek City States – 550 Greek City States – 550 B.C.E.B.C.E.

Ancient Athens Ancient Athens

On the whole there was very little On the whole there was very little snobbery or social exclusiveness at snobbery or social exclusiveness at Athens. As Plato's dialogues show, Athens. As Plato's dialogues show, men formed readily into groups and men formed readily into groups and did not stand on ceremony with a did not stand on ceremony with a stranger. The gymnasium and stranger. The gymnasium and wrestling-ground were common wrestling-ground were common resorts. When Socrates got back resorts. When Socrates got back from the wars, so Plato relates, he from the wars, so Plato relates, he went straight to one of these and went straight to one of these and every one jumped up to greet him every one jumped up to greet him and ask the news from the front. and ask the news from the front. Conversation never flagged. For Conversation never flagged. For the Greeks were never so happy as the Greeks were never so happy as when talking. when talking.

But, if the Greek could appreciate the But, if the Greek could appreciate the country-side, he perhaps loved the city more; country-side, he perhaps loved the city more; and his favourite resort was the market-place and his favourite resort was the market-place or Agora. Along the sides were colonnades or Agora. Along the sides were colonnades with stately rows of pillars and brightly with stately rows of pillars and brightly frescoed walls. One, the Painted Stoa, gave frescoed walls. One, the Painted Stoa, gave its name to the Stoic philosophers who its name to the Stoic philosophers who originally foregathered and found their pupils originally foregathered and found their pupils there. Everywhere is a babel of voices; and at there. Everywhere is a babel of voices; and at time of full market the whole space is time of full market the whole space is crowded. Many walk up and down in the crowded. Many walk up and down in the adjacent colonnades. Groups form; and adjacent colonnades. Groups form; and conversation flows freely, ranging over all conversation flows freely, ranging over all manner of topics, from vulgar gossip to manner of topics, from vulgar gossip to political or even philosophic discussion. political or even philosophic discussion.

How is this Significant to How is this Significant to the History of Critical the History of Critical

Thinking?Thinking?• The author only mentions males. Perhaps this The author only mentions males. Perhaps this is innocuous or perhaps females were is innocuous or perhaps females were oppressed and excluded from intellectual oppressed and excluded from intellectual cultureculture

• The Greeks were very interested in sharing The Greeks were very interested in sharing ideas through discussion.ideas through discussion.

• There was a high level of openness. It does There was a high level of openness. It does not seem that Greeks were unduly prejudiced. not seem that Greeks were unduly prejudiced.

• There were many opportunities in Greek life There were many opportunities in Greek life to discuss ideas with others, which would to discuss ideas with others, which would have greatly facilitated intellectual growth.have greatly facilitated intellectual growth.

• Some took advantage of these opportunities Some took advantage of these opportunities to think through important ideas, and some to think through important ideas, and some did not, similar to modern day coffee shops. did not, similar to modern day coffee shops.

The MarketplaceThe Marketplace

Greek DressGreek Dress

Xenophanes went about from city to city, calling Xenophanes went about from city to city, calling in question on moral grounds the popular beliefs in question on moral grounds the popular beliefs about the gods and goddesses, and ridiculing the about the gods and goddesses, and ridiculing the anthropomorphic conceptions which the Greeks anthropomorphic conceptions which the Greeks had formed of their divinities. “If oxen had hands had formed of their divinities. “If oxen had hands and the capacities of men, they would make gods and the capacities of men, they would make gods in the shape of oxen.” This attack on received in the shape of oxen.” This attack on received theology was an attack on the veracity of the old theology was an attack on the veracity of the old poets, especially Homer, who was considered the poets, especially Homer, who was considered the highest authority on mythology. Xenophanes highest authority on mythology. Xenophanes criticized him severely for ascribing to the gods criticized him severely for ascribing to the gods acts which, committed by men, would be acts which, committed by men, would be considered highly disgraceful. We do not hear considered highly disgraceful. We do not hear that any attempt was made to restrain him from that any attempt was made to restrain him from thus assailing traditional beliefs and branding thus assailing traditional beliefs and branding Homer as immoral. Homer as immoral.

Significance to Critical Significance to Critical Thinking:Thinking:

• That questioning and dissent were That questioning and dissent were cultivated to the extent that some cultivated to the extent that some individuals were able to question individuals were able to question received beliefs and traditionsreceived beliefs and traditions

• That, at the very least, freedom of That, at the very least, freedom of thought and expression were thought and expression were protected to allow for critique of protected to allow for critique of established religious beliefsestablished religious beliefs

From what has been said already it will be clear From what has been said already it will be clear that Athenian citizens enjoyed considerable that Athenian citizens enjoyed considerable leisure; and it is natural to inquire how this came leisure; and it is natural to inquire how this came about. The explanation lay partly in the character about. The explanation lay partly in the character of their occupations. Farmers, for example, were of their occupations. Farmers, for example, were not always busy; there were slack times between not always busy; there were slack times between corn-harvest in May and the vintage in corn-harvest in May and the vintage in September, and again after the vintage till the September, and again after the vintage till the olive-picking in late autumn. Sailors, similarly, olive-picking in late autumn. Sailors, similarly, were unoccupied during winter when storms were unoccupied during winter when storms made the sea unsafe. The craftsmen, being made the sea unsafe. The craftsmen, being independent and not working for a regular independent and not working for a regular employer, were masters of their own time, and employer, were masters of their own time, and could knock off work when they chose. Retail could knock off work when they chose. Retail dealers, too, could close their shops to attend a dealers, too, could close their shops to attend a political meeting or dramatic performance. political meeting or dramatic performance.

Significance to Critical Significance to Critical Thinking:Thinking:

• Leisure time was not limited to the Leisure time was not limited to the upper classes. This gave many the upper classes. This gave many the opportunity (but not necessarily the opportunity (but not necessarily the inclination) for self-reflection. inclination) for self-reflection. Without time to develop one’s mind, Without time to develop one’s mind, critical thinking cannot flourish. critical thinking cannot flourish.

Of course these movements of intellectual Of course these movements of intellectual freedom were, as in all ages, confined to the freedom were, as in all ages, confined to the minority. Everywhere the masses were minority. Everywhere the masses were exceedingly superstitious. They believed that the exceedingly superstitious. They believed that the safety of their cities depended on the good-will of safety of their cities depended on the good-will of their gods. If this superstitious spirit were their gods. If this superstitious spirit were alarmed, there was always a danger that alarmed, there was always a danger that philosophical speculations might be persecuted. philosophical speculations might be persecuted. And this occurred in Athens…[as a result of anti-And this occurred in Athens…[as a result of anti-religious philosophers] they introduced and religious philosophers] they introduced and carried a blasphemy law, to the effect that carried a blasphemy law, to the effect that unbelievers and those who taught theories about unbelievers and those who taught theories about the celestial world might be impeached…Anti-the celestial world might be impeached…Anti-religious thought was liable to be persecuted...but religious thought was liable to be persecuted...but there was no systematic policy of suppressing there was no systematic policy of suppressing free thought…There was a large enough section free thought…There was a large enough section of influential rationalists to render impossible any of influential rationalists to render impossible any organized repression of liberty, and the chief evil organized repression of liberty, and the chief evil of the blasphemy law was that it could be used for of the blasphemy law was that it could be used for personal or party reasons personal or party reasons

Significance to Critical Significance to Critical Thinking:Thinking:

• Despite the remarkable freedoms which Despite the remarkable freedoms which existed in Ancient Athens (especially for existed in Ancient Athens (especially for the era), it was not an ideal state. In the era), it was not an ideal state. In addition to the persecution of women and addition to the persecution of women and slaves, free men were also constrained in slaves, free men were also constrained in the ideas they could think and express. the ideas they could think and express.

• We are reminded that the amount of We are reminded that the amount of strong sense critical thought that was strong sense critical thought that was present in Ancient Greece was confined to present in Ancient Greece was confined to a small minority of one city state.a small minority of one city state.

Influential Thinkers in Influential Thinkers in Ancient Greece and RomeAncient Greece and Rome

Pre-Socratics (650 – 450 Pre-Socratics (650 – 450 B.C.E.)B.C.E.)

• Key ideas: This group of thinkers was Key ideas: This group of thinkers was the first historical example to question the first historical example to question the natural world in ways that did not the natural world in ways that did not involve myth or superstition. Much of involve myth or superstition. Much of their writings have been losttheir writings have been lost

• Significance: They broke ground and Significance: They broke ground and in many ways set the stage for the in many ways set the stage for the thinkers that followed. Their secular thinkers that followed. Their secular stance influenced Athenian society, stance influenced Athenian society, making questioning the gods and making questioning the gods and established traditions more palatable. established traditions more palatable.

SocratesSocrates• Key Ideas: Socrates believed that the best way Key Ideas: Socrates believed that the best way

to teach and learn was through disciplined, to teach and learn was through disciplined, rigorous questioning, and almost all of his rigorous questioning, and almost all of his contributions to critical thinking are derived contributions to critical thinking are derived from his dialectics with unsuspecting Athenians. from his dialectics with unsuspecting Athenians.

• Socrates believed that people learned best, not Socrates believed that people learned best, not by being told what to believe or do, but by being by being told what to believe or do, but by being guided through questioning to what made most guided through questioning to what made most sense to believe or do. He often used sense to believe or do. He often used questioning to help people see either that what questioning to help people see either that what they said they believed they did not, in fact, they said they believed they did not, in fact, believe (because their “beliefs” were believe (because their “beliefs” were inconsistent with their behavior), or that what inconsistent with their behavior), or that what they said they believed was conceptually they said they believed was conceptually unsound or illogical.unsound or illogical.

Socrates Significance to Critical Socrates Significance to Critical ThinkingThinking

• From what we know Socrates was a From what we know Socrates was a paradigm critical thinker in many ways. paradigm critical thinker in many ways. He exemplifies all of the threads of He exemplifies all of the threads of critical thought, excepting that he did critical thought, excepting that he did not always distinguish between not always distinguish between questions which could be settled and questions which could be settled and those which could not.those which could not.

• His contributions to critical thinking are His contributions to critical thinking are widespread, but his most significant is widespread, but his most significant is his method of inquiry and teaching his method of inquiry and teaching which we now call the “Socratic which we now call the “Socratic Method”. Method”.

Plato and AristotlePlato and AristotleBoth were focused on explaining the world Both were focused on explaining the world in terms of metaphysics. They theorized in terms of metaphysics. They theorized and attempted to answer questions which and attempted to answer questions which are unanswerable. Both made are unanswerable. Both made contributions to critical thinking in contributions to critical thinking in various ways, but their metaphysical various ways, but their metaphysical underpinnings detracted from their work. underpinnings detracted from their work. In setting the stage for much of the In setting the stage for much of the reasoning which followed, as much reasoning which followed, as much Medieval thinking took Aristotle to be the Medieval thinking took Aristotle to be the highest authority, they did more to hinder highest authority, they did more to hinder the growth of critical thought than they the growth of critical thought than they did to advance it. did to advance it.

The SophistsThe SophistsKey idea: They highlighted the Key idea: They highlighted the importance of education and the role of importance of education and the role of intellectual dialogue in that process. intellectual dialogue in that process. They were ready and able to critique (or They were ready and able to critique (or to defend) social, ideological, or political to defend) social, ideological, or political traditions or realities. They reflected on traditions or realities. They reflected on the nature of language and culture. They the nature of language and culture. They were said to believe that they could find were said to believe that they could find the correct answers to all questions. the correct answers to all questions. Some of the sophists were skeptical of Some of the sophists were skeptical of absolute truth and conventional morality absolute truth and conventional morality and came eventually to teach the view and came eventually to teach the view that anything can be proved, if one has that anything can be proved, if one has the requisite skills of argumentation. the requisite skills of argumentation.

Significance of Sophists to Critical Significance of Sophists to Critical ThinkingThinking

• They did not fall prey to metaphysics or They did not fall prey to metaphysics or theology.theology.

• Like the Epicureans and Stoics, they focused Like the Epicureans and Stoics, they focused on human nature and human life.on human nature and human life.

• They advocated freedom of thoughtThey advocated freedom of thought• They typically questioned the status quo.They typically questioned the status quo.• They believed that the mind can reason and They believed that the mind can reason and

through reason to figure out the nature of through reason to figure out the nature of human life (if not of the laws of nature itself).human life (if not of the laws of nature itself).

• They recognized the need to think within They recognized the need to think within multiple points of viewmultiple points of view

• They recognized the need to develop They recognized the need to develop reasoning skills.reasoning skills.

• They believed that it is important to take They believed that it is important to take charge of one’s life.charge of one’s life.

• They believed that it is important to become They believed that it is important to become intellectually disciplined. intellectually disciplined.

Hippocrates (460 – 370 Hippocrates (460 – 370 B.C.) B.C.) Hippocrates took major steps in the field of medicine by Hippocrates took major steps in the field of medicine by

focusing on the scientific logic – as opposed to the focusing on the scientific logic – as opposed to the metaphysical logic - of sickness and disease. metaphysical logic - of sickness and disease. Hippocrates’Hippocrates’ ideas, though never synthesized or expressed in these ideas, though never synthesized or expressed in these terms, are based on the following two premises: “(a) Health terms, are based on the following two premises: “(a) Health is the natural state, disease is unnatural; and (b) Disease, is the natural state, disease is unnatural; and (b) Disease, no less than health, is governed by natural causes, which it no less than health, is governed by natural causes, which it is the task of the physician to understand.” is the task of the physician to understand.”

Hippocrates denounced those who explained sickness as a Hippocrates denounced those who explained sickness as a result of the gods as “magicians, ritualists, charlatans, and result of the gods as “magicians, ritualists, charlatans, and excorzists [sic]” concluding that the reason they “called excorzists [sic]” concluding that the reason they “called [maladies] sacred [was] to conceal their ignorance of [maladies] sacred [was] to conceal their ignorance of [them]. Though much of his work has since been lost, his [them]. Though much of his work has since been lost, his philosophy and method of inquiry has survived. philosophy and method of inquiry has survived. Consequently, he is now considered “the father of Consequently, he is now considered “the father of medicine”, and it is he for whom the Hippocratic Oath is medicine”, and it is he for whom the Hippocratic Oath is named.named.

Galen (129 – 200 A.D.)Galen (129 – 200 A.D.)GalenGalen, following Hippocrates’ doctrine, produced over , following Hippocrates’ doctrine, produced over

500 tracts on medicine, philosophy, and ethics. The 500 tracts on medicine, philosophy, and ethics. The article on Galen in article on Galen in Funk and Wagnalls New Funk and Wagnalls New EncyclopediaEncyclopedia includes some of his most notable includes some of his most notable discoveries: he proved that different muscles are discoveries: he proved that different muscles are controlled at different levels of the spinal cord, that the controlled at different levels of the spinal cord, that the brain controls the voice, he identified the functions of brain controls the voice, he identified the functions of the kidney and the bladder, and he conceived that the the kidney and the bladder, and he conceived that the body metabolizes in order to produce energy. body metabolizes in order to produce energy.

Galen performed many audacious operations — including Galen performed many audacious operations — including brain and eye surgeries — that were not tried again for brain and eye surgeries — that were not tried again for almost two millennia. To perform cataract surgery, he almost two millennia. To perform cataract surgery, he would insert a long needle-like instrument into the eye would insert a long needle-like instrument into the eye behind the lens; He would then pull the instrument behind the lens; He would then pull the instrument back slightly to remove the cataract. The slightest slip back slightly to remove the cataract. The slightest slip could have caused permanent blindness. could have caused permanent blindness.

Hippocrates’ and Galen’s Hippocrates’ and Galen’s Significance to Critical Significance to Critical

ThinkingThinkingThe significance of Hippocrates and Galen The significance of Hippocrates and Galen to the history of critical thinking lies in to the history of critical thinking lies in their questioning of dominant ideology and their questioning of dominant ideology and practice, their firm belief in the power of practice, their firm belief in the power of the human mind to solve problems using the human mind to solve problems using reason, and the systematic and disciplined reason, and the systematic and disciplined nature with which they approached the nature with which they approached the study of medicine. In essence, they study of medicine. In essence, they pioneered and formulated the nature of pioneered and formulated the nature of what it means to think like a physician. what it means to think like a physician.

Herodotus (484 – 425 B.C.) Herodotus (484 – 425 B.C.) and Thucydides (460 – 395 and Thucydides (460 – 395

B.C.) B.C.) What Hippocrates and Galen did for What Hippocrates and Galen did for medicine, Herodotus and Thucydides medicine, Herodotus and Thucydides did for history: they introduced did for history: they introduced secular history and explained human secular history and explained human events as being driven by human, events as being driven by human, rather than supernatural, action. rather than supernatural, action.

HerodotusHerodotusHerodotusHerodotus, for his work on the history of the wars , for his work on the history of the wars

between the Greeks and the Persians (500 - 478 between the Greeks and the Persians (500 - 478 B.C.E.), is often credited as being the “father of B.C.E.), is often credited as being the “father of history”. In the history”. In the Cyclopedia of World AuthorsCyclopedia of World Authors he is he is credited with writing the first known secular credited with writing the first known secular history, with attempting to establish a strict history, with attempting to establish a strict chronology of events, and with highlighting the chronology of events, and with highlighting the lessons inherent in his narrative (three fundamental lessons inherent in his narrative (three fundamental aspects of modern historical writing). However, aspects of modern historical writing). However, some of his work is questionable, as he often did not some of his work is questionable, as he often did not care to distinguish between fact and myth, leaving care to distinguish between fact and myth, leaving it to the reader to decide what to believe; it is for it to the reader to decide what to believe; it is for this reason that some scholars prefer Thucydides.this reason that some scholars prefer Thucydides.

ThucydidesThucydides• Thucydides’Thucydides’ has been called “The first truly critical has been called “The first truly critical

historian of the world.” historian of the world.” • Once a high ranking officer in the Athenian navy, Once a high ranking officer in the Athenian navy,

Thucydides was exiled for failing to defend Amphipolis from Thucydides was exiled for failing to defend Amphipolis from the Spartans during the Peloponnesian War. He spent the the Spartans during the Peloponnesian War. He spent the remainder of the war traveling and recording the testimony remainder of the war traveling and recording the testimony of veterans and civilians from both the Spartan and the of veterans and civilians from both the Spartan and the Athenian camps in order to write a history of the war. Athenian camps in order to write a history of the war.

• His account therefore portrays the viewpoints of both sides His account therefore portrays the viewpoints of both sides and provides excellent insight into the thinking of those and provides excellent insight into the thinking of those involved. involved.

• Though his thesis is never made explicitly clear (perhaps Though his thesis is never made explicitly clear (perhaps due to the fact that he died before he could complete his due to the fact that he died before he could complete his work), a close reading brings to light certain key themes: work), a close reading brings to light certain key themes: that clever, sophistic orators are able to sway uncritical that clever, sophistic orators are able to sway uncritical mobs to actions which ultimately are not in their interest; mobs to actions which ultimately are not in their interest; that this can be fatal in a democracy; and that war is a that this can be fatal in a democracy; and that war is a tragic and unjustifiable waste of human life and property, tragic and unjustifiable waste of human life and property, which energy would be better spent constructively. which energy would be better spent constructively.

Herodotus’ and Thucydides’ Herodotus’ and Thucydides’ Significance to Critical Significance to Critical

ThinkingThinkingHerodotus and Thucydides exemplified Herodotus and Thucydides exemplified essential critical thinking traits such as essential critical thinking traits such as thinking within multiple points of view; thinking within multiple points of view; attempting to write without undue bias attempting to write without undue bias towards their own frame of reference; towards their own frame of reference; having the goal of the alleviation of having the goal of the alleviation of suffering through historical lessons; suffering through historical lessons; and attempting to understand and and attempting to understand and develop the ability to think historically. develop the ability to think historically.

Stoic and Epicurean Stoic and Epicurean PhilosophyPhilosophy

Both saw the world as a place filled with Both saw the world as a place filled with fear and suffering, much of which was fear and suffering, much of which was beyond the control of individuals. Their beyond the control of individuals. Their solutions involved empowering solutions involved empowering individuals to use their rational individuals to use their rational capacities to overcome those pains which capacities to overcome those pains which every human inevitably experiences in a every human inevitably experiences in a lifetime. They both stressed the power of lifetime. They both stressed the power of the mind to, as Milton would say over the mind to, as Milton would say over two thousand years later, “make a hell two thousand years later, “make a hell out of heaven, or a heaven out of hell.” out of heaven, or a heaven out of hell.”

EpicurusEpicurus• EpicurusEpicurus believed that the main problem, and believed that the main problem, and

disturbance, in the human mind is a result of not disturbance, in the human mind is a result of not understanding the natural world, and fearing the understanding the natural world, and fearing the wrath of heaven. As he puts it “A man cannot dispel wrath of heaven. As he puts it “A man cannot dispel his fear about the most important matters if he does his fear about the most important matters if he does not know what is the nature of the universe but not know what is the nature of the universe but suspects the truth of some mythical story.”suspects the truth of some mythical story.”

• For Epicurus, the ultimate goal was to avoid pain and For Epicurus, the ultimate goal was to avoid pain and fear and to promote pleasure. It is for this, and fear and to promote pleasure. It is for this, and because of a superficial understanding of his ideas, because of a superficial understanding of his ideas, that he was slandered by the Stoics as a hedonist, but that he was slandered by the Stoics as a hedonist, but this was far from the truth. Epicurus defended himself this was far from the truth. Epicurus defended himself against these charges, saying “For it is not continuous against these charges, saying “For it is not continuous drinkings [sic] and revellings [sic], nor the satisfaction drinkings [sic] and revellings [sic], nor the satisfaction of lusts…which produce a pleasant life, but sober of lusts…which produce a pleasant life, but sober reasoning…and banishing mere opinions, to which are reasoning…and banishing mere opinions, to which are due the greatest disturbance of the spirit.”due the greatest disturbance of the spirit.”

Significance of EpicurusSignificance of EpicurusEpicurus contributed to the ideal of thinking by Epicurus contributed to the ideal of thinking by explicating a principle based system by which to live a explicating a principle based system by which to live a rational life (which is explicated in his “Principle rational life (which is explicated in his “Principle Doctrines”), as well as by re-enforcing and advancing Doctrines”), as well as by re-enforcing and advancing the scientific spirit and method of inquiry which was the scientific spirit and method of inquiry which was begun by the pre-Socratics and continued by begun by the pre-Socratics and continued by Hippocrates. He also firmly refused to divert into Hippocrates. He also firmly refused to divert into metaphysical arguments, stating that where there are metaphysical arguments, stating that where there are multiple reasonable explanations and no way to prove multiple reasonable explanations and no way to prove any of them, the reasoner should simply either pick any of them, the reasoner should simply either pick one at random or suspend belief until proof is made one at random or suspend belief until proof is made possible. He was interested in a wide range of subjects possible. He was interested in a wide range of subjects and maintained a disciplined approach to solving and maintained a disciplined approach to solving problems. However, most importantly, he aimed to problems. However, most importantly, he aimed to alleviate human pain and suffering by offering a means alleviate human pain and suffering by offering a means for overcoming fear of the world and of death. for overcoming fear of the world and of death.

StoicismStoicism• Stoic Stoic philosophers agreed with Epicurus’ refusal philosophers agreed with Epicurus’ refusal

to be afraid of death or of the world around him, to be afraid of death or of the world around him, however they did so on different grounds. however they did so on different grounds. According to the stoics, the events in a person’s According to the stoics, the events in a person’s life can be divided into two categories: those life can be divided into two categories: those which can be controlled, and those which which can be controlled, and those which cannot. Those which can be controlled should cannot. Those which can be controlled should be, and to the extent that it is possible, be, and to the extent that it is possible, individuals should seek to live a life of self-individuals should seek to live a life of self-examination and should treat others with justice. examination and should treat others with justice. Those events which cannot be controlled, Those events which cannot be controlled, however, should be forgotten or put aside, for however, should be forgotten or put aside, for worrying simply causes pain and stress. worrying simply causes pain and stress.

Significance of StoicismSignificance of StoicismStoicism is significant to the history of Stoicism is significant to the history of critical thinking because it represents a critical thinking because it represents a rational answer to an irrational world. For rational answer to an irrational world. For to expect the irrational to be rational, is to expect the irrational to be rational, is irrational. The Stoics, instead, contributed irrational. The Stoics, instead, contributed to the ideal of critical thinking by to the ideal of critical thinking by attempting to develop a disciplined system attempting to develop a disciplined system by which to take command of one’s own by which to take command of one’s own life and alleviate human pain and life and alleviate human pain and suffering, both in oneself and in others. suffering, both in oneself and in others.

General Conclusions General Conclusions regarding Thinkers in regarding Thinkers in

Greece and RomeGreece and Rome• These contributions, some of which may seem self-apparent These contributions, some of which may seem self-apparent

and unimportant, were profoundly progressive given the and unimportant, were profoundly progressive given the context under which they were developed. Greek and Roman context under which they were developed. Greek and Roman progressive thinkers opened the door to many avenues of progressive thinkers opened the door to many avenues of intellectual pursuit which had not existed before. For the first intellectual pursuit which had not existed before. For the first time in history, there was true scientific inquiry into the time in history, there was true scientific inquiry into the nature of the world and the human body which was not based nature of the world and the human body which was not based on the dominant religious ideology of the time. The advances on the dominant religious ideology of the time. The advances made Hippocrates and Galen greatly improved the treatment made Hippocrates and Galen greatly improved the treatment of illness and disease. Herodotus and Thucydides broke the of illness and disease. Herodotus and Thucydides broke the mold of history as myth and provided a secular example which mold of history as myth and provided a secular example which could be followed by later historians. They made it possible could be followed by later historians. They made it possible for historians and students of history to learn from the for historians and students of history to learn from the mistakes of the past and apply those lessons to the present. mistakes of the past and apply those lessons to the present. Socrates exemplified a substantive and powerful manner in Socrates exemplified a substantive and powerful manner in which to approach learning and the internalization of ideas. In which to approach learning and the internalization of ideas. In him we can see a very near approximation of the ideal of him we can see a very near approximation of the ideal of critical thinking. Epicureanism and Stoicism provided some critical thinking. Epicureanism and Stoicism provided some with the opportunity to study the human mind with regards to with the opportunity to study the human mind with regards to the manner in which it can be unsound, as well as ways in the manner in which it can be unsound, as well as ways in which its critical capacities can be developed and improved.which its critical capacities can be developed and improved.

What can we learn from What can we learn from this era?this era?

• That critical thinking as an idea is at least 2500 That critical thinking as an idea is at least 2500 years old, perhaps many millions more. years old, perhaps many millions more.

• That Socratic critical thinking is extremely rareThat Socratic critical thinking is extremely rare• For critical thinking to emerge, reason must be For critical thinking to emerge, reason must be

valued. valued. • Available leisure time is a necessary, but not a Available leisure time is a necessary, but not a

sufficient, condition for the development of sufficient, condition for the development of critical thinking.critical thinking.

• Without separating metaphysical questions Without separating metaphysical questions from questions focusing on science, human from questions focusing on science, human nature, etc., it is easy to become entangled and nature, etc., it is easy to become entangled and limited in thought.limited in thought.

• That even seemingly “free” societies often have That even seemingly “free” societies often have significant flaws which are largely invisible to significant flaws which are largely invisible to those within them. those within them.