Ancient civilization &

Geotechnical Engineering collected by

Ing. Jaafar Mohammed

2013 - 2014

Abstract

Geotechnical engineering is one of the oldest engineering types which deals with the ancients civilization and can provide effective tools for evaluating the methods used in the construction of historic monuments, determining the reasons for the destruction of some, as well as providing rational explanations for the survival of others to this present day.

Mesopotamia (MEHS•uh•puh•TAY•mee•uh). The word in Greek means “land between the rivers.”

The rivers framing Mesopotamia are the Tigris (TY•grihs) and Euphrates (yoo•FRAY•teez). They flow southeastward to the Persian Gulf.

Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC. The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC. Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks.

The number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but there is no archaeological evidence for this and the only textual evidence is from Herodotus. Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. The Mesopotamian ziggurats were not places for public worship or ceremonies. They were believed to be dwelling places for the gods and each city had its own patron god. Only priests were permitted on the ziggurat or in the rooms at its base, and it was their responsibility to care for the gods and attend to their needs. The priests were very powerful members of Sumerian society.

How did the ancient Mesopotamia build the

Ziggurat ?

This question has been the subject of speculations

throughout the ages. There have been many and

varying theories about the Great Pyramid’s

construction techniques in particular. In fact, no

certain conclusions have ever been reached in this

regard even with the modern investigations.

Introduction

The birth of civilization on the Iraqi some 4000 or 5000 years ago on the ancient Mesopotamian. It has been shown that the oldest sites located to the North of the Iraq by some thousands of years the sites in Mousel which were traditionally considered the birth place of civilization in Iraq. While the early world cultures never attained the levels of the ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, the expertise and skill shown in the building of large structures, the organization of labour, artistic merit, and political system demand a favourable comparison with their Old World contemporaries. The ancient Ziggurat of Ur, as the oldest civilization in Iraq.

Ancient Babylonia - The Ziggurats

One of the most important aspects of Babylonian religion and

tradition, and probably the best known, is the ziggurat.

Ziggurats were huge "stepped" structures with, on their

summit, far above the ground, a temple. This Temple would

have been to the city god. The city ziggurat would easily be

the most conspicuous building in the city, towering above any

visitors coming to their city. Therefore the ziggurat was not

just a religious center but also a center of civic pride. The

ziggurats were built on an immense scale. In the time of

Hammurabi they would sometimes reach the height of 150

feet.

Around the base there might be more temples or in some

case accommodation for priests.

A ziggurat "to build on a raised area" is a temple tower of the ancient Mesopotamian valley and Iran, having the form of a terraced pyramid of successively receding stories.

Ziggurats were a form of temple common to the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians of ancient Mesopotamia.The earliest examples of the ziggurat date from the end of the third millennium BCE and the latest date from the 6th century BCE.

Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance.

Unfortunately, not much of even the base is

left of this massive structure, yet

archeological findings and historical accounts

put this tower at seven multicolored tiers,

topped with a temple of exquisite proportions.

The temple is thought to have been painted

and maintained an indigo color, matching the

tops of the tiers. It is known that there were

three staircases leading to the temple, two of

which (side flanked) were thought to have

only ascended half the ziggurat's height.

Archaeological Map of Iraq by Entidhar Al-Taie, Nadhir Al- Ansari, Sven Knutsson

Ancient Mesopotamia

By Ivo Herle

Excavation and preservation

The remains of the ziggurat were first described by William Kennett Loftus in the early 19th century. The first excavations at the site were conducted by John George Taylor in the 1850s, leading to the identification of the site as Ur. After World War I, preliminary excavations were performed by Reginald Campbell Thomson and Henry Hall. The site was extensively excavated in the 1920s by Sir Leonard Woolley by appointment of the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania and the British Museum in the period of 1922 to 1934. The remains of the ziggurat consist of a three-layered solid mass of mud brick faced with burnt bricks set in bitumen. The lowest layer corresponds to the original construction of Ur-Nammu, while the two upper layers are part of the Neo-Babylonian restorations. The façade of the lowest level and the monumental staircase were rebuilt under the orders of Saddam Hussein.

The ziggurat was damaged in the First Gulf War in 1991 by small arms fire and the structure was shaken by explosions. Four bomb craters can be seen nearby and the walls of the ziggurat are marred by over 400 bullet holes.

Etemenanki, the name for the structure, is Sumerian and means "The Foundation of Heaven and Earth." Most likely being built by Hammurabi, the ziggurat's core was found to have contained the remains of earlier ziggurats and structures. The final stage consisted of a 15 meter hardened brick encasement constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar.

It has been suggested that the ziggurat was a symbolic representation of the primeval mound upon which the universe was thought to have been created. The ziggurat may have been built as a bridge between heaven and earth. The temples of the Sumerians were believed to be a cosmic axis, a vertical bond between heaven and earth, and the earth and the underworld, and a horizontal bond between the lands. Built on seven levels the ziggurat represented seven heavens and planes of existence, the seven planets and the seven metals associated with them and their corresponding colors.

Campbell further explores the geometry of the ziggurat and its philosophical and spiritual repercussions. According to Campbell, ziggurats first appeared during a sudden scientific and philosophical golden age where such other discoveries were made such as the invention of the wheel, the discovery of the calendar and astronomy, as well as the invention of the written word. For Campbell these are all related.

The Earth needs 365 days to make a single revolution around the Sun, which is also an approximation of the number of degrees in a circle. Ziggurats, like all pyramidal structures, have a square base which could be encompassed within a circular area. The square base theoretically represents the additional five days. The five days can be seen in the four points of the square as well as the fifth point in the middle, which is the point of the square's equilibrium as well as the point of equilibrium of whatever circle that encompasses it.

The Two Rivers 1. Euphrates

2. Tigris

The river comprises the land of Sumer, Akkad and occupied successively by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians.

The world's oldest civilization, Mesopotamia, was built by the Sumerians on the fertile land between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, 5000 years ago.

The Sumerians invented cuneiform characters, and built city states. This is the ancient city of Ur, built around 2000 BC, by Ur Nammu, the founder of the third Ur dynasty.

Cuneiform - the oldest writing known to mankind; An ancient wedge-shaped script used in Mesopotamia and Persia. Ur - An ancient city of Sumer located on a former channel of the Euphrates River (Birthplace of Abraham).

Massive architecture

Mud brick construction set with clay mortar.

Heavy walls articulated by pilasters and recesses and faced with glazed bricks.

Columns were rare.

Small and infrequent windows.

Actuated architecture system.

• Doorways were spanned by double semi circular arches.

Buildings were designed for both internal and external effects.

Roofs were burnt brick vault.

Mouldings were rare.

Temples:

Principal Building type.

Tripartite Plan.

o The standard and basic layout of Mesopotamian cult structures.

o Originally employed in ziggurats of Sumer.

Sumer

An ancient region in southern Mesopotamia, where a number of independent cities and city-states were established as early as 6000 BCE.

Major cities and archaeological sites:

I. Eridu

II. Uruk

III. Ur

IV. Lagash

V. Kish

VI. Nippur

ARCH. JAYSON BRAZA PORTEM, UAP

The Assyrians (4000 BC to 612 BC)

The most important cities of Assyrian kingdom were Assyria (built on the projection of rock limestone), Kaleh and Nimrod. The kings of this kingdom were interested to build those cities and fortified them by walls and high defence towers as well as the construction of palaces, temples and ziggurats from stone material. The buildings were characterized by the carved the winged bulls and winged lions from stone, inscriptions and writings. The city of Dor-Churkin (Khorspad) was almost square in shape 1760 m * 1675 m, having thick walls 66.7m which made it like a fort [Seton, 1993]. On both side of each door, there were eruptions winged. This is evidence on the evolution of greatness of architecture and construction at the time (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Khorsabads palace, Temple [Rawlinson, 2011]

Environmental Challenges in Sumer

People first began to settle and farm the flat, swampy lands in southern Mesopotamia before 4500 B.C. Around 3300 B.C., the people called the Sumerians, arrived on the scene. Good soil was the advantage that attracted these settlers. However, there were three disadvantages to their new environment.

Unpredictable flooding combined with a period of little or no rain. The land sometimes became almost a desert.

With no natural barriers for protection, a Sumerian village was nearly defenseless.

The natural resources of Sumer were limited. Building materials and other necessary items were scarce.

Solving Problems Through Organization Over a long period of time, the people of Sumer created solutions to deal with these problems.

To provide water, they dug irrigation ditches that carried river water to their fields and allowed them to produce a surplus of crops.

For defense, they built city walls with mud bricks.

Sumerians traded their grain, cloth, and crafted tools with the peoples of the mountains and the desert. In exchange, they received raw materials such as stone, wood, and metal.

These activities required organization, cooperation, and leadership. It took many people working together, for example, for the Sumerians to construct their large irrigation systems. Leaders were needed to plan the projects and supervise the digging. These projects also created a need for laws to settle disputes over how land and water would be distributed.

Last Babylonian times (646 BC to 539 BC)

Babylon was the capital of the Babylonian kingdom. The city was

surrounded by two walls. They were built with liben and bricks (figure

7). Ishtar was the most famous gate of the city. Its height is 14 m. The

summer palace which was referred to as “Babylon Mountain” due to its

height was built in a square shaped having an area 250m * 250m. It was

18 m above the level of the street. Construction techniques and

decorations reached its climax in the Babylonian era using glazed

bricks to decorate the walls and floors and bench throne.

The most important materials used in building palaces, temples and

other buildings were large stones of basalt and diorite and other hard

rocks. They were used in the foundations and in the work of hook and

spin. The asphalt and tar have been used to prevent the commune of

moisture in building foundation and walls, also they used lime

commune as a good cohesion to prevent moisture in the building,

foundations and walls [Mohammed Ail, 1977].

Figure 7 Plan of Babylon City and its Model [Yosaf, 1982]

The beginning of civilization started with people

living in caves in the northern part of Iraq. Then

the inhabitants lived in land and started to build

houses. These houses were of rounded shape

(figures 1) and foundations were made of natural

large stone [Seton, 1993]. After that the houses

become rectangular in shape. The materials used

for building were mainly mud and stone for

foundation. Later they used liben (mixture of clay

and remains of barley). They used long liben like

cigar in their buildings [Yuosaf, 1982].

Figure 1 Ound House [ Yosaf , 1982 ]

Ziggurat of Nanna at Ur (2300 BC)

Ziggurat of Ur in Mesopotamia About 2500 B.C.

The houses were circular in shape and inside form of bees cells were constructed (figure 2). Foundation was built by stone and the walls by mud. Clay was the main material to be used in northern part of Iraq. In southern part of Iraq the early inhabitants lived in huts of reeds. Then they developed their buildings using bricks made of mixture of mud and barely (liben). They also used these materials in building temples. Later houses and palaces were built with a raft (clay mixed with straw) and villages became cities.

By Entidhar Altaie

Figure 2 Circular with bees cells house [ Secton 1993

]

At Warka age, in Eridu, some of the houses were built with canes and papyrus and others using bricks. Temples were built with stucco and stones. The foundations of palaces become wide ranging from 3 m to 3.5m. The temples were built on an artificial hill. People learn the adobe industry [Yuosaf, 1982]. The temples started to be built on a new type of foundation which is terrace like of a height reaching 5 m. The temple was built on two terraces on land furnished with mud. The shape of terraces looks like D letter (figure 3). The highest terrace is coated with a layer of asphalt. During this period they started to use decorations [Zayed, 1967; Safar et al., 1981].

By Entidhar Altaie

Figure 3 Temple in D shape [Yuosaf, 1982]

The construction material was made of square

liben 45 cm*45 cm*10 cm, this liben was made of

silt clay soil or sandy clay soil. The mortar material

was used as an adhesive for liben or brick which

was made of mixed mud with water and sometimes

straw was add in order to preserve the construction

from natural symptoms for a longer period. Tar and

asphalt were also used as plaster in the foundations

of the buildings and walls because they are

available since ancient times in Hit. In addition,

lime was used as plaster to build the foundations

and walls because it is moisture proof and it has

good cohesive features [Mohammad Ail, 1977].

The inhabitants started to build another type of high temples which is referred to as “ziggurats”. These buildings form an important feature of Mesopotamia civilization. In Warka, a group of arched complex buildings were built representing the largest urban Sumerian engineering work were found. They used liben (convex-straight type) in the construction which was put in zigzag rows (figure 4). This stage represents the end of the

pre-historical period and the bases of Iraq’s civilization [Sousa, 1981].

By Entidhar Altaie

Figure 4 liben of convex-straight type [Seton, 1993]

Mud Brick

Mud brick was made primarily from local clay. Raw clay absorbs water, and then cracks after drying. As a binding agent and to provide elasticity and prevent cracking, Sumerian builders would add vegetable matter, such as straw, to the clay. By forcing the mud mixture into wooden frames, the brick makers obtained uniformly rectangular bricks. They then knocked the molded bricks out of the frames and placed them in the sun to bake. To erect walls, they joined the bricks together with wet clay. One disadvantage of mud brick is that it is not durable. The Sumerians would therefore seal important exterior walls with bitumen, a tarlike substance, or they would use glazed bricks.

Sometimes they covered interior walls with plaster.

Mud bricks

The remains of a substantial structure in the center of Uruk which can claim to be

the world’s first city. Most early Mesopotamian architecture was of mud brick, a

practical, cheap, and durable material but one that produced buildings that are not

visually as impressive as the stone monuments of other regions. (Nik

Wheeler/Corbis)

Early Mesopotamian

houses had flat roofs of

mud and reeds supported

by wooden beams.

(Zev Radovan/Land of the

Bible Picture Archive)

Ruins of the important Sumerian city of Kish, whose king may have

exercised some authority over other Sumerian rulers. (Corel Corp.)

Ur city was one of the famous cities in this era and it looks oval in shape [Bassmachi, 1972]. Its high and big famous ziggurat was built in three layers and on the top layer the temple was built. The ziggurat was red in colour due to the use of grill wage from the external sides. It was built with grilled wrapped bricks (brick red) (figure 5) with thickness of 2.4m between the mortar tars compatible with canes woven in thick layers, the Inside part was built with grill wage [Port, 1997]. One of the unique characteristics of this structure was that the walls look concave although they were vertical .Fire was used to dry the bricks used internally [Mohammad Ail, 1977].

By Entidhar Altaie

Figure 5 The Ur

Ziggurat and City Map

[Al Saadi, 2010]

By Grigor Doytchinov

By Grigor Doytchinov

Fig. 13· Path on south side of guard tower, showing steps of

alternate risers of stone and mud-bricks; the libn is marked with

deep grooves or finger-marks.

Comparison of slopes

Pyramid of Cheops, great Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico

By Ivo Herle

Pyramid cross-section (Meidum)

Slope of the nucleus (steps): 74, external coating walls

By Ivo Herle

Instability of the Meidum

Pyramid

By Ivo Herle

Dahshur Pyramid

Originally planed at 60 slope but poor quality of the subsoil

By Ivo Herle

Dahshur Pyramid – slippage in corridors

Punching effect, uneven settlement ; fractures and slip

By Ivo Herle

Horizontal restraint

Toe-in to rock providing horizontal restraint (Cheops

Pyramid)

By Ivo Herle

Original state (last century) before recladding with bricks. The remains of the

ziggurat consist of a three-layered solid mass of mud brick faced with burnt bricks

set in bitumen. The lowest layer corresponds to the original construction of Ur-

Nammu, while the two upper layers are part of the Neo-Babylonian restorations.

The façade of the lowest level and the monumental staircase were rebuilt under the

orders of Saddam Hussein.

Aerial photograph of a ziggurat, showing the complex of

support buildings that once surrounded it

Its remains were excavated in the

1920s and 1930s by Sir Leonard

Woolley. Under Saddam Hussein in

the 1980s, they were encased by a

partial reconstruction of the façade

and the monumental staircase. The

ziggurat of Ur is the best-preserved of

those known from Iran and Iraq,

besides the ziggurat of Dur Untash

(Chogha Zanbil).[citation needed] It

is one of three well preserved

structures of the Neo-Sumerian city of

Ur, along with the Royal Mausolea

and the Palace of Ur-Nammu (the E-

hursag).

http://www.ebay.com/itm/1849-1st-Ed-Layard-NINEVEH-amp-ITS-REMAINS Assyrians-IRAQ-Nestorians-YEZIDIS-Mosul-/380788336771

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List of Internet links

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http://www.bible-history.com/

List of Internet links

Arabic links

http://www.adnan11.com/vb/archive/index.php/t-8884.html list of Iraqi Government’s

http://www.mesopot.com/old/adad5/fahrast5a.htm …..

http://forum.sedty.com/t220845.html

http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A3

http://alghzil.com/vb/threads/4063-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA-

%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%85-

%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%81%D9%8A-

%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-

%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A

http://earth-arch.blogspot.cz/2012/04/307.html

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http://ahusenawe.blogspot.cz/

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http://www.shatelarab.com/thread257235.html

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http://www.tunisia-sat.com/vb/showthread.php?t=1873373 …maps

http://alghzil.com/vb/threads/4063-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA-

%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%85-

%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%81%D9%8A-

%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-

%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A

http://www.annabaa.org/nbanews/2010/07/345.htm

http://placeandsee.com/dur-kurigalzu

http://www.ahlalanbar.net/showthread.php?t=86945

http://www.dorar-aliraq.net/threads/66223-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-

%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%B2%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-

%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82

http://www.nasiriyah.org/ara/post/24000/%D9%88%D9%81%D8%AF-%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A-

%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%81%D9%82%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B9-

%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%86%D9%8A-

%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D9%81%D9%8A-

%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%E2%80%93-%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1-

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