analysis of the specifics of water resources management in regions

ISSN 0097�8078, Water Resources, 2015, Vol. 42, No. 5, pp. 735–746. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2015.

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1 INTRODUCTION

Regions with water deficiency (in various fields oflife support) become widespread in the world. Thisdeficiency may be due to either natural causes (lowprecipitation, river runoff, or groundwater reserves) orsocial factors (rapid population growth, economicdevelopment in a particular territory). In the lattercase, the shortage of water resources in different terri�tories demonstrates some common features [2, 11]:

a high population density in the urban agglomera�tion;

the active use of both surface and subsurface water;pollution of both surface water and groundwater;regulation of river flow and water transfers.The main principles of water management under

its deficiency are well known: (1) water saving, that is,its most efficient use for any purpose; (2) taking mea�sures to reduce water pollution; (3) the use of waterrecycling technologies. As a rule, management unitsare water basins. Most water laws are based on the so�called “basin principle” [31, 32]. In the case of waterresources management of large rivers subjected to ahigh anthropogenic impact, the basin principle is theonly possible control mechanism. Here, the watermanagement comprises evaluating water and pollutant

1 The article is published in the original.

balances for major water users. The result of these cal�culations is the choice of measures to optimize wateruse. These measures are aimed to ensure that waterresources are used within the balance considered asoptimal.

The space distribution of the load on water bodiesis extremely heterogeneous. There are zones of maxi�mum load (intensive water consumption, water pollu�tion by effluents) and areas with nearly no load. Wecan distinguish two types of impacts on river basins bythe ratio of the size of the object (the source of highanthropogenic impact) and the size of the basin:(1) the size of the river basin is much larger than theobject of high anthropogenic influence (urban settle�ments, agricultural irrigated land, industrial facilities);(2) the objects of high anthropogenic influenceinclude several river basins or their size is comparablewith basin area, and/or river cannot ensure water con�sumption of some settlements within the basin(Fig. 1).

Island Bali (Indonesia) and the Moscow Region(including Moscow and Moscow oblast) are referredto the second type. In both cases, there are a largeurban agglomeration (Denpasar City and Moscow,respectively) and large water consumers, in addition toresidents: agriculture in Bali and industry in the Mos�cow Region. Both regions use rivers as water sources(the Moskva River and rivers in Bali). In their natural

Analysis of the Specifics of Water Resources Management in Regions with Rapidly Growing Population under Different Climate

Conditions: Case Study of Bali Island and the Moscow Region1

I. Nyoman Raia, S. Shobab, N. Shchegolkovac, R. Dzhamalovc, E. Venitsianovc, I. Gusti Ngurah Santosaa, Gede Menaka Adnyanaa, I. Nyoman Sunartaa, and I. Ketut Suadaa

a Udayana University, Bukit Jimbaran, Bali, 80361 Indonesiab Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991 Russia

c Water Problems Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Gubkina 3, Moscow, 119333 RussiaE�mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Received March 3, 2015

Abstract—The paper analyzes long�term consumption dynamics of surface water and groundwater in twodifferent regions of the world, namely the current structure of water consumption and its change over the pastdecade, as well as forecasts of water consumption in the future. Changes in water resources of Bali and theMoscow Region, depending on water consumption, are illustrated based on long�term datasets. The specificsof water consumption in each of the two regions were characterized, and the effectiveness of the measures reg�ulating the amount of water in the regions was estimated. The paper provides the general principles and spe�cific recommendations for solving the problem of water deficiency in both regions.

Keywords: water consumption, water deficiency, rapid population growth

DOI: 10.1134/S0097807815050127

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT:ECONOMIC AND LEGAL ASPECTS

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state, these rivers cannot meet the historically formedwater demand. There is a rapid population growth inboth regions (including immigrants). For a long time(more than 100 years), both regions have been suffer�ing periodic water deficits: these were water shortagesfor the agriculture and population during the dry sea�son in Bali, and for the growing population and indus�try in the Moscow Region (before water transfer fromthe Volga River).

In Bali, this problem was solved as early as the firstmillennium A.D., by creating a unique system of riverwater redistribution. Rivers that direct from the centerof the island to the ocean were combined in a canalsystem enabling effective reallocation of waterbetween individual agricultural consumers, includingwater transfer from one river basin to another. Thewater system, which was reliably working for two mil�lennia, is spontaneously degrading now. Researchersfrom different countries have been studying this sys�tem, called Subak [18, 19, 21, 24, 29, 30, 34]. TheSubaks of Bali is one of the best examples of user�based allocation. The discovery of the sophisticationof these systems provided the basis for some early chal�lenges to assumptions that the governmental manage�ment of irrigation was necessary [6, 35]. These irriga�tion associations have developed and constructed theirown irrigation systems with very little external assis�tance. The systems have been sustained over time byelaborate management rules and practices that specifyobligations of each member in terms of labor and cashcontributions for operation and maintenance, includ�ing periodic rehabilitation. A key feature of the Subaksis the “tektek” principle of proportional water alloca�tion to each individual member. The tektek shares are

based on a proportion of flow through diversionsstructures. There is a strong emphasis on equity, so thatallocation takes into account the farmers' role in theassociation, the distance from the intake, the initialinvestment, soil conditions, and transfers of waterrights among members. The systems also exhibit a highdegree of flexibility and responsiveness to negotiationsamong members. Balinese Subaks have several advan�tages, which contribute to their effectiveness, and thesustainability of the institutions for user�based alloca�tion over time [3].

As for the Moscow Region, water scarcity for theindustry and households has been occurred since the1920–1930s due to the rapid growth in the urban pop�ulation and industrial development. In the sameperiod and earlier (since the early 20th century) theMoskva River showed unsatisfactory ecological condi�tions due to large amounts of untreated sewage itreceived. The cause of water deficiency was the loca�tion of an intensive growing metropolis on a river witha moderate runoff. It is worth noting that the MoscowRegion traditionally used groundwater for domesticneeds, while Moscow preferred surface water. Sincethe 1930s, Moscow has been using water reservoirs,which accumulate water of two rivers—the Volga andthe Moskva. The transfer of river water from the basinof another river (the Volga) solved not only the prob�lem of water supply to the population and industry, butalso the problem of increasing the Moskva River run�off to improve its ecological conditions. Before theconstruction of the Moscow water supply system, thedrainage basin of the Moskva River was as little as8000 km2. The construction of the system increasedthe basin area sixfold. Nowadays the drainage area of

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(a) (b)

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Fig. 1. Possible combinations of river basins (RB�2) and zones of high anthropogenic load (ZHAL�1): an RB contains severalZHALs (a); a ZHAL contains several RBs (b).


ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS 737

the Moscow water supply system, located on the terri�tory of Moscow, Smolensk, and Tver regions is about50000 km2 [8]. Thus, the scarce water resources werereplenished by the resources of the neighboring Volgabasin. The natural–technogenic water system in theMoscow Region has been operating for over 50 years.

At present, the structure of water use in bothregions is expected to change: the number of touristsincreases in Bali, and Moscow borders are expanded(the area of the capital increased by 2.5 times). Thechoice of the optimal scheme of water use requires acomprehensive study of the long�term dynamics ofwater consumption.

We have analyzed the structure of long�termdynamics of water use in both regions. For Bali, weused data obtained from the Statistical Office of Bali,reports of Environment Management Agencies,reports of the Department of Agriculture and otheragencies [1, 4, 5, 12, 33]. For the Moscow Region, weused statistical data of Rosstat [9], data of MPUE“Kanal imeni Moskvy”, and a database of JSC Mos�vodokanal [21].

Data on rainfall and evaporation for Bali wereobtained from materials of BPS Provinsi Bali (1995,1995–1999, 2014) [1], and for Moscow, from Davydovet al. [8], papers [16, 17] and the Internet resource ofGeocenter Moskva [10]. The available surface waterresources were evaluated based on the total river flow(in Bali) and the runoff of the Moskva River at itsmouth (for the Moscow Region).

Irrigation water consumption in the MoscowRegion was evaluated proceeding from 550700 ha ofsown areas, 5% of which are irrigated [9]; the irriga�tion rate was assumed 1000 m3/ha. Water use by indus�try in the Moscow Region is calculated for the mostwater�intensive industrial sectors (the production ofcement and reinforced concrete structures and powergeneration at TPP), according to Rosstat data. Spe�cific water consumption rates per production unitwere used [13, 20].

GEOECOLOGICAL FORMATION CONDITIONS OF THE VOLUME

AND QUALITY OF WATER RESOURCES

Bali

The main factors that govern the formation of waterresources of the island are (1) tropical marine climatewith pronounced seasonal rainfall: a wet period fromOctober to March and a dry period from April to Sep�tember; (2) hydrogeological characteristics: a veryhigh permeability of fractured rock and the absence ofaquicludes, i.e., groundwater is genetically uniformover depth; (3) the heterogeneity of rainfall over theterritory; the rainfall in different parts of the islandvaries from 1700 to 3300 mm/year, the amount of pre�cipitation tends to be higher in the central part of theisland and lower on the coast.

Water resources of the island are composed of sur�face waters (rivers, canals, and lakes) and groundwater.About 162 rivers and streams flow from the center ofthe island to the ocean, some of them originating inthe three largest lakes of volcanic origin, located in thecentral highlands of the island. The total volume ofthese lakes (Buyan Lake, Beratan Lake, and Tamblin�gan Lake) is about 0.2 billion m3, and the water yieldof lakes is more than 0.3 billion m3/year.

Groundwater supplies are 0.54 km3/year, and therunoff of rivers and canals are 4.43 km3/year.

The major aquifers in the Southern Bali include aPliocene lower calcareous sequence and a Quaternaryupper volcanic sequence. Both exhibit rapid lateraland vertical facies changes, and hence their hydrogeo�logic parameters are highly variable. Yields of up to90 L/s are known from the calcareous system and upto 60 L/s from the volcanic formations. A model forrecharge was prepared [23], using all relevant availablesoil, land use, hydrogeological, and meteorologicaldata for calibration. The annual recharge for differentsoils was 308–605 mm in a medium�rainfall year and267–481 mm in a dry year.

According to Nielsen et al. [23], the piezometricsurface of the Southern Bali (where groundwater ismost intensively consumed) is very heterogeneous.The depth of groundwater table in wells is less than10 m in the coastal area near the ocean, 30–75 m nearthe city of Denpasar, and up to 300 m and more in thecentral part of the island.

The irregularity of rainfall during the year deter�mines the temporal heterogeneity in the amount ofwater (Fig. 2), consisting of surface water and ground�water. The fractured rocks determine a direct relation�ship between the groundwater level and the amount ofprecipitation: the levels and consumption of ground�water significantly decrease in a dry season. The differ�ence in water resources between seasons reach tentimes (Fig. 2).

The main sources of water pollution are domesticwastewater, sewage of agricultural enterprises, live�stock waste, tourist and shopping complexes, diffuserunoff from agricultural fields, as well as from illegaldumps. In 2006 I. Ketut Sundra [33] found a high con�tent of organic matter (BOD and COD), nitrogencompounds, suspended solids, and bacteria ingroundwater in the Southern Bali. The water extractedfrom wells in the areas near the ocean in most cases issalty or brackish because of seawater intrusion.

Throughout the year, surface water quality dependson the following main factors: (1) surface water dilu�tion by clean rainwater; (2) seasonally dependentamounts of mineral fertilizers and chemical plant pro�tection products, (3) seasonally dependent amount ofpollutants from the tourist complexes; (4) continuousflow of domestic wastewater, which is virtually nottreated; (5) the self�purification processes that takeplace in surface waters.

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Moscow Region

The natural conditions that affect the formation ofregional water resources are the temperate continentalclimate, the hilly�plain relief, the hydrogeologicalstructure with pronounced aquicludes and aquifers.The distribution of precipitation over the year (com�pared with Bali) is nearly uniform with an average of40 to 90 mm per month. The average annual precipi�tation rate over the past 20 years is 705 mm (with aminimum of 485 and a maximum of 885 mm per year).The region shows pronounced seasonal variations inair and water temperature (4 seasons) and river waterflow (spring floods, winter and summer low waterperiods). All the rivers have steady flow, well�devel�oped valleys and floodplains; the spring flood takesplace in April–May. The hydrographic axis of theregion is the Moskva River. Before the construction ofthe Mozhaisk Reservoir, which flooded a part of itsmeandering riverbed, the river length was 502 km.Now it is taken equal to 473 km. Most of the rivers ofMoscow oblast are tributaries of the Moskva River.

The Moskva River and its tributaries are the mainresource of river water in the Moscow region for use.Therefore, the discharge of the Moskva River at itsmouth is an integral characteristic of river water avail�ability in the region. According to reference materialsat runoff modulus is 5.12 L/s km2 the annual runoffbefore the transfer of the Volga water was 89 m3/s,while in recent years, it averaged 199 m3/s. This wasthe basis for the calculation of water reserve of riversunder natural conditions (Table 1).

The largest reservoirs (or artificial water bodies)near Moscow were formed in the 1930s and 1960s.These include the Ozerna, Istra, Ruza, and Mozhayskreservoirs in the Moskva basin, and reservoirs of the

Volga basin: the Ivankovo, Iksha, Pyalovskoe,Pestovskoye, Klyazma, and Ucha. The total usefulvolume of all constructed reservoirs is 2399 million m3.

The main sources of water pollution are domestic,storm, and industrial effluents [26] and diffuse flow[14, 15]. As a result, many rivers in the region are mod�erately or heavily polluted. It is worth noting thatgroundwater is polluted in some areas of the MoscowRegion with a high concentration of industry (thetowns of Lyubertsy, Khimki, Elektrostal, Dzerzhinsky,and Schyolkovo). This is primarily due to contamina�tion introduced during water intake operation. About80% of groundwater withdrawal takes place withinindustrial and residential areas, where the likelihoodof aquifer contamination is maximal. The concentra�tions of ammonium, nitrates, and organic matter(COD) as indicators of anthropogenic stress are thehighest in Balashikha, Lyubertsy, Lotoshinsky, andLukhovitsy areas. For less urbanized regions of Mos�cow oblast, the industrial pollution of groundwatertakes place when there are no impermeable layersoverlying the aquifers. These conditions are typical ofthe Podolsk�Myachkovsky aquifer along the valleys ofthe Pakhra and Desna rivers.

Surface water quality within a year is determined bythe following major factors: short�time pollution peakfrom diffuse runoff, intense self�purification of waterbodies and streams in summer, the dilution of waste�water by receiving water bodies, self�purification inwastewater discharge zones [27].

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Fig. 2. Monthly water potential in Bali: 1—potency of surface water, 2—potency of groundwater, 3—potency of total availability[1].



THE STRUCTURE OF WATER RESOURCES

To assess potential water resources (PWR), avail�able in both regions, the following calculation wasmade:

PWR = (Precipitation – Evaporation) × Area.For Bali, we performed the separate calculation for

dry period. The results are presented in Table 1. Inaddition to the calculated data, the table shows thevalues for available water resources taken from statisti�cal reference books and public sources [1, 4, 5].

It should be taken into account that the MoscowRegion is greater than Bali in 8 times. However, poten�tial water recourses (as the difference between rainfalland evaporation) differ as little as 1.6 times. Moreover,real water resources according to the research ofgroundwater and surface water differ by 1.3 times.

The structure of the available water sources alsodiffers: the proportions of groundwater resources forBali and the Moscow Region are 11 and 57%, respec�tively. Groundwater reserves are proportional to thearea of the regions as confirmed by hydrogeologicalsurveys. Specific groundwater resources per 1 km2 are

almost the same for so different regions: 96.6 for Baliand 78.6 thousand m3 per year/km2 for the MoscowRegion. While the difference in rainfall is 2.5 times,the groundwater reserves differ by less than 20%(which is within the error of experimental studies).

The volume of water resources (due to the expan�sion of water�economic system to another river basin)has increased by 1.3 times in the 1930s–1960s in theMoscow Region. In Bali, there are nearly no regula�tory mechanisms to create large�scale reserves of sur�face and rainwater.

WATER CONSUMPTION

Bali

There is a centuries�old water system of Bali. Thissystem is degrading due to the intensive growth ofwater consumption and changes in its structure in therecent years. Bali is an island with an area of5636.66 km2, one of Indonesian provinces. Bali popu�lation is about 3.7 million, taking into account consid�erable number of tourists. The increment of the total

Table 1. Estimates of water resources structure in both regions

Parameter Units Bali Moscow Region

Area km2 5637 46890

Population with visitors (2000) 1000 person 3250 17561

Population with visitors (2010) 1000 person 4200 19142

Population density (2010) person/km2 745 408

Precipitation (rainfall) km3/year 11.29 28.13

Evaporation km3/year 6.76 21.10

Potential water resources* km3/year 4.53 7.03

Lakes** Volume km3 0.19 0.60

Volume of reservoirs (artificial)*** km3 No data 2.40

Reservoir’s water reserve (artificial)*** km3/year 0.0001 3.60

Groundwater reserve km3/year 0.54 3.69

Water reserve of rivers and canals under natural conditions

km3/year 4.43 2.80

Groundwater % of the total content 11 57

Rivers and canals under natural conditions % of the total content 89 43

Groundwater reserve per unit area 1000 m3 per year/km2 96.6 78.6

Real water resources (groundwater reserve + reserve of rivers and canals under natural condi�tions)

km3/year 4.97 6.49

Real water resources in dry season km3 per 1/2 year 0.31 No dry season

Total water resources (according to a study of groundwater and surface water) using regulatory measures****

km3/year 4.97 8.52

* Potential water resources = Precipitation (rainfall) – Evaporation. ** Buyan Lake, Beratan Lake, Tamblingan Lake. *** For Bali, it is Estuary Dam by utilizing the existing wastewater from the Badung River (Regional Water Company).**** For Bali, according to current data.

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population (including tourists) from 2000 to 2010 wasmore than 350000 [4]. Bali population is mostlyincreasing due to the tourism sector. More than300000 tourists stay in Bali nowadays. This numberreaches above 400000 tourists in some seasons.

The structure of water consumption for the mainexpenditure items in the recent years (2010) is: irriga�tion – 79.7, domestic water – 17.8, industrial water(including tourist business, education facilities,healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and airports,sports and general, livestock and fisheries) – 2.2, bot�tled drinking water – 0.02%.

The main water consumer is agriculture. From theearliest times in Bali, water resources have been allo�cated based on social criteria—maintaining the com�munity by ensuring that water is available for humanconsumption, sanitation, and food production. TheIndonesian island of Bali is famous for its unique sys�tem of irrigation. Guided and informed by religiousvalues, it combines impressive feats of engineeringwith complex and elaborate social structures. Most of162 large streams and rivers that flow from Bali’smountainous interior have cut deep channels into itssoft volcanic rocks. This has made impossible forfarmers to dam and channel water for irrigation in theusual way. Therefore, they constructed elaborate aque�ducts and bamboo piping systems to carry water to thetop of terraced rice fields. From here it can flow, withgravity, from field to field. Community organizations,called Subak, control the water irrigation system toensure reliable, fair, and equitable distribution.Besides its technical functions, the Subak also pro�vides social benefits including strengthening the possi�bilities of its members to maintain social contacts.Community groups and group activities are tradition�ally very important in the Balinese society. They reflectthe significance attached in Hindu philosophy to therelationships an individual has with other members ofthe society. This is a highly valued principle particu�larly in a rural society. Bali’s famous Subak system isone of the most vital components of the Balinese soci�ety. Built over the course of several centuries, Subaksystem remains an integral part of Balinese life and is aproduct of the island’s history and culture. The exist�ing subaks in Bali number 1583 unit organizationswhich cover an area of about 81744 ha [30].

The average area of Subak is about 52 ha. Thechannel system for supplying water is constructed insuch a way that all facilities are supplied with wateralternately in accordance with agreements inside thesystem. As it was mentioned, the channel system canredistribute water between Balinese river’s basins. Itshould be noted that almost all the plains and foothills,where it is possible to place terraced fields, participatein agricultural production. The population density inBali is high. On the average it is 700 person/km2, butfor different regencies it varies from 310 (in Jembrana)to 6400 person/km2 (in Denpasar Regency).

Now water supply in Bali is limited, and water defi�ciency is expected to decrease due to the pollution ofnatural waters. Meanwhile, water consumption willgrow rapidly because of population growth and thedevelopment of tourist industry. Thus, the imbalancebetween water supply and water demand will increase[24, 28]. There were officially fixed periods of acutewater deficit for the population (in 1997 in the regen�cies of Badung and Denpasar, in 2007 in Gianyar andTabanan).

Water shortage leads to lower crop yields, resultingin a decline in food production and employment of thepopulation. In addition, the domestic water deficiencyhas a negative impact on the tourism business throughthe increasing morbidity [34].

The total current water consumption (in 2010) is1567.14 million m3/year. The main consumers areagriculture—1247.16, the domestic sector—279.1,and the tourist industry—34.86 million m3/year(Table 2).

The one of the structural features of water con�sumption in Bali Island is the small specific (per cap�ita) water consumption in the domestic sector (131–182 L/day person), which is in 2 times less as com�pared to the Moscow Region (Table 2). Currently Baliis on the stage of increasing individual household con�sumption, similar to one that was in the MoscowRegion in the middle of 20th century. At that time, thisgrowth had resulted in excessive consumption, whichrequired taking special measures later.

The second feature of the region is the consump�tion of treated water from a reservoir, which was cre�ated by a dam in the estuary of one of the rivers. Clean�water demand is increasing continuously, respondedby the Regional Water Company by utilizing the exist�ing wastewater from the Badung River, known as Estu�ary Dam. The long�term program is aimed to increasethe water flow to the southern part of Badung Regency(Bukit Jimbaran). The growing local population andthe number of tourists in Bali have increased the waterdemand. To increase raw�water supply capacity, thegovernment has built the Estuary Dam.

Thirdly, water from wells is widely used in Bali fordomestic purposes. Tourist complexes use local watertreatment systems. Small settlements and individualusers use water for domestic purposes without purifi�cation. The quality of this water has recently becomeunsatisfactory for drinking purposes. A system of bot�tled drinking water supply has been developed on theisland in the last decades. This water originates fromsprings and is exposed to additional treatment at treat�ment plants (coagulation, filtration, disinfection).Thus, water for drinking and water for shower/kitchenare supplied separately by different companies. Itshould be noted that bottled water is not available tothe general population because of its price. It lacks insome parts of the island so far.



Over the last decades, pronounced trends in chang�ing of the structure of the water consumption havebeen observed (Table 2). The proportion of water usefor irrigation decreased, and the proportion of domes�tic consumption increased. The proportion of indus�trial water consumption (including education facili�ties, healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and air�ports, sports and general, livestock and fisheries)increases. Estimated projections show that the totalwater consumption in the next decade will increase byat least 20% due to the growth of domestic and non�domestic consumption, while the use of irrigationwater use will continue decreasing. Our calculationsshow an ascending trend in domestic consumption,even in the last decade–from 131 to 182 L/day per user(Table 2).

Wastewater from domestic sector, tourist com�plexes, and Subaks, discharged into canals, rivers, andocean are completely untreated or partially treated.Furthermore, intensive agricultural technologiesinclude a widespread use of fertilizers and plant pro�tection chemicals. Considering that the irrigationwater is partially returned back into the channels andreused for irrigation of downstream Subak; the con�centration of xenobiotics increases downstream bymany times. Thus, the deficit of fresh water increasesdue to the pollution of surface waters.

Moscow Region

Currently, the total use of surface water andgroundwater for supply in Moscow Region is 3.32,compared to 3.77 km3/year ten years ago. MoscowCity consumes about 4.2 million m3/day (including0.07 million m3/day of groundwater). Moscowoblast consumes 3.1 million m3/day (including2.8 million m3/day from groundwater sources). Thus,the proportion of groundwater in the water supply ofMoscow amounts to only 1.5%, whereas the watersupply of the Moscow oblast now is almost entirelybased on groundwater (about 90% of the total waterconsumption).

The present capacity of water supply system [21]can increase the water supply of the Moscow Regionby utilizing surface water. The main sources of watersupply are the Moskva–Vazuza and Volga water sys�tems, which include 15 reservoirs. There are 5 watertreatment stations (the Northern, Western, Eastern,Southwestern, and Rublevskaya stations) in Moscow.Their total capacity is 6.7 million m3/day (domesticwater supply) and 0.83 million m3/day (technicalwater supply). Surface water from Moscow is partiallysupplied to 8 districts of Moscow oblast at a rate of0.3–0.4 million m3/day.

Groundwater extraction in the Moscow Region isperformed through more than 8000 wells. Groundwa�ter quality reflects the joint effect of the two factors:natural geochemical anomalies of water and thedegree of anthropogenic pollution. Groundwater

Table 2. Estimates of water consumption structure in both regions

Units Bali Moscow Region

Irrigation (2000) km3/year 2.21 0.00003

Irrigation (2010) km3/year 1.61 0.00003

Domestic (2000) km3/year 0.15 3.13

Domestic (2010) km3/year 0.28 2.66

Industrial* total (2000) km3/year 0.03 0.64

Industrial total (2010) km3/year 0.32 0.90

Drinking product now 1000 m3/year 946 860

Drinking necessary** 1000 m3/year 4599 20961

Consumption total (2000) km3/year 2.40 3.77

Consumption total (2010) km3/year 1.93 3.32

Domestic (2000) L/(day person) 131 488

Domestic (2010) L/(day person) 182 381

Irrigation (2000/2010) % 92.1/83.5 0.0/0.0

Domestic (2000/2010) % 6.5/14.5 83.0/80.1

Industrial (2000/2010) % 1.5/1.8 17.0/19.3

Drinking (2000/2010) % 0.0/0.0 0.0/0.0

* For Bali, it is non�domestic including for tourist business, education facilities, healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and airports,sports and general, livestock and fisheries.

** 3 L/(day person).

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aquifers show diverse water chemistry, which variesfrom bicarbonate to bicarbonate�sulfate or evenhydro�chloride. Groundwater salinity increasessteadily northeastward, depending on its depth, andalso in the area of exploitation in urban areas from0.3 to 0.7 g/L. Natural pollutants of groundwaterinclude primarily iron, water hardness, lithium, fluo�rine and strontium. Most common anthropogeniccontaminants include dissolved organic matter, salts ofnitrogen compounds, as well as microbiological con�tamination.

The sewage systems of the Moscow City and Mos�cow oblast have been developed separately. Canalizedarea includes the entire Moscow City and about 50%of Moscow oblast. Sewage system receives onlydomestic, municipal, and industrial wastewater. Sur�face storm waters are collected by an independent sys�tem. All domestic and industrial wastewaters aretreated in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) with atotal design capacity of 6.34 million m3/day. The totallength of the sewerage network in the city is more than8178.4 km [21]. Wastewater is directed to Lyubertsyand Kuryanovsky WWTP. Treated wastewater is dis�charged into the Moskva River and its tributaries:Pekhorka, Desna, and Skhodnya.

The structure of water consumption in theMoscow Region for the main expenditure items in therecent years (2010) includes: irrigation – 0.0, domes�tic water – 80.1, industrial water (including the needsfor the production of reinforced concrete structuresand electric power on a cogeneration plant) – 19.3,bottled drinking water – 0.01% (Table 2).

The consumption of bottled drinking water is notwidespread in Russia. Water supplied from water treat�ment plants must conform with the quality standardsfor drinking water. However, because of the large dis�tances of supplying water pipes there is risk of second�

ary contamination of water that reaches the consum�ers. Therefore, the production and use of bottled waterhas emerged in Russia over the last 20 years. In addi�tion, residents actively use domestic filters to improvewater quality immediately before use.

In the 1990s, a complex of measures was taken toreduce domestic consumption, including replacingplumbing devices, installation of water meters, andincreasing water charges. The population growth by15% was accompanied with a 20% decrease in waterconsumption (Fig. 3). The capacity of five treatmentstations exceeded water consumption in the city. Theexcessive resources of clean water can now be used forthe consumption in Moscow oblast, where groundwa�ter is mostly consumed. This can slow down the devel�opment of depression cones in the region and enablethe resumption of groundwater reserves.

During the last decade, one could observe the fol�lowing trends in the restructuring of water consump�tion in the Moscow Region (Table 2). The proportionof domestic water consumption decreased, while theproportion of industrial water consumption increased.Estimated projections indicate that the total waterconsumption in the next decade will not increase oreven decrease due to the incipient trend of reductionof specific water consumption in the domestic sector.Thus, the domestic use decreased over the past decadefrom 488 to 381 L/day person and continues decreas�ing due to the use of the regulatory mechanisms: pay�ment for water is made in accordance with the read�ings of ubiquitous water meters (Table 2).

The pollution of surface water and groundwater ismainly due to domestic sewage and diffuse pollution(from urban and agricultural areas). Wastewaters fromvarious sources with different chemistry enter reser�voirs. The self�purification capacity of reservoirsdecreased significantly during their operation. For

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7500

7000

6500

19906000

Fig. 3. Reduced water consumption as a result of the measures taken: 1—The total number of water users, 1000 persons; 2—Totalwater consumption, 1000 m3/day.



many reservoirs (e.g. Klyasminskoye), it is almost at itslimit [15]. In addition, groundwater is contaminatedtoo: about one�third of extracted groundwater doesnot meet the standards for drinking water.

Water transfer from another basin also solves oneimportant problem in the region—an improvement ofthe ecological state of the Moscow River. In the early20th century, the Moskva River has become unsuitablefor recreational use because of anthropogenic over�load: the odor, the high content of pollutants, and lowoxygen in water [26]. Part of the Volga water suppliedthe Moskva River. By diluting with clean water of theVolga River, the ecological status of the Moskva Riverwas improved. Self�purification processes resumed,the structure of river ecosystem balanced. However,since 2010, the river has shown a decreased rate of self�purification processes. Estimates show that wateringof the river alone fails to maintain a sustainable eco�logical state [22]. The concentrations of all forms ofnitrogen, organic matter, and other pollutants in theriver’s water are higher now.

There are common features demonstrating theeffects of significant anthropogenic pressures for tworegions.

First, it is the formation of zones with a deficit ofgroundwater resources, i.e., the development ofdepression cones in aquifers (Fig. 4).

In Bali, a depression cone formed in the area ofurban development of Denpasar and its surroundings.The population density in the area exceeds 6000 per�sons/km2, while the average density in Bali is 745 per�sons/km2. The population density in the urban areas ofMoscow and adjacent satellite cities reaches 8000 per�sons/km2. Intensive groundwater consumption fromCarboniferous deposits in Moscow Region has led tothe formation of a regional depression cone. This coneembraces most part of the Moscow Region and partlyVladimir, Tver, and Kaluga oblasts. Because of the pro�longed use of groundwater, the level of aquifers hasmoved down in some areas, thus forming unconfinedgroundwater.

The second common feature of the two regions isthe increasing pollution of groundwater with anthro�pogenic contaminants (so�called organic xenobiotics:

plant protection products, detergents, drugs, productsof petroleum processing). Only surface waters are sub�ject to biological self�purification. The pollution ofgroundwater may be irreversible because there are nobiological processes in deep layers. There is a smallnumber of living organisms in groundwater layers.Groundwater may become unusable.

The third feature is the expansion of densely popu�lated urban areas where no large water streams arepresent; there are only small and medium streamshere. These areas are represented by tourist complexesin Bali and urban districts of the New Moscow. Thismeans that the wastewater will have a hydrologicalimpact on the nearby rivers. Sewage flow rate will becomparable with that of the rivers: the dischargedwater is abstracted from subsurface sources orextracted from another river basin. An increase in thehydrological load on the surface waters changes thenatural hydrological regime of rivers and streams. InBali, this problem was solved by constructing a systemof canals, fixing riverbanks. In the Moscow Region,there are changes of bed and collapses of riverbanks onsome rivers [25].

Regulatory mechanisms have been alreadyimposed to stabilize water consumption. For Bali, it isthe system of redistribution of water between Subaks,while for the Moscow Region, it is the system of waterredistribution between river basins. However, thesemeasures are not sufficient to fix the water scarcity(Bali) and to enhance the stability of self�purificationand improve water quality in rivers (for Bali and theMoscow Region). We calculated some specific indica�tors of water consumption structure in both regionsper area and per person (Table 3) for the present time.

Table 3 illustrates the similarity of these indicators(per 1 inhabitant) between such geographically differ�ent regions experiencing similar problems of waterconsumption. For both regions, the critical value ofreal water resources per person according to the resultsof groundwater and natural surface water studies isabout 1 m3 per day (for Bali—in dry season). Thecomparison of potential water resources and real waterconsumption demonstrates that these values havebecome almost identical.

Table 3. Specific indicators of water consumption structure in both regions

Units Bali Moscow Region

Real water resources according to the results of groundwater and surface water studies (per area)

1000 m3 per year/km2 882.2 138.5

Full water resources using regulatory measures (per area) 1000 m3 per year/km2 882.2 215.8

Real water resources according to the results of groundwater and natural surface water studies (per person)

m3/day person 3.24 0.93

Real water resources in dry season (per person) m3/day person 1.02

Water resources using regulatory measures (per person) m3/day person 1.43

Full consumption (per person) m3/day person 1.26 0.48

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NYOMAN RAI et al.

Taking into account the development of depressioncones in groundwater, growing pollution of waters,and the limited ability of self�purification of ground�water from organic xenobiotics, it is necessary to min�imize the use of groundwater and maximize the self�purification of surface water. To do this, the world has

already developed technologies and techniques thatcan be used in different regions [27].

To optimize water use in any region of the world,local governments always develop a complex of watermanagement measures and measures for protection ofwater bodies to achieve water quality targets. Taking

(a)

Bali

Denpasar

(b)

River Moskva

Laut Bali

Sela

t lom

bok

Seat B

ali

1

2

3

4 5 6

7

1

2

34

567

1

2

Fig. 4. Water spring potency in Bali (a) and location of depression cones in the Moscow region (b) [7, 11]. a: 1—inadequatequality for drinking water, 2—capacity <2 L/s, 3—capacity 2–10 L/s, 4—capacity 10–20 L/s, 5—capacity 20–30 L/s, 6—capacity >30 L/s, 7—lakes. b: 1—the old territory of Moscow, 2—the new territory of Moscow.



into account the development of such practices in var�ious regions, we can say that in most cases these mea�sures are based on calculations of water balanceswithin the basin (basin principle). However, as shownby our study, to select appropriate control measuresone should consider long�term dynamics of water usein the region, assess the changes in the structure ofwater use, and make the calculation of specific indica�tors of water. Of course, the “critical value” for bothregions that we found cannot act as the basis for deci�sion making in other regions, but we proposed a meth�odological approach to the evaluation of the availableresources. This approach can serve as a basis for thedevelopment of such activities.

The activities that primarily will solve the prob�lems:

(1) The development of scientific and technicalprograms of accumulation and optimal use of surfacewater, including rainwater;

(2) Separate supply of drinking water and domesticwater in case of possible water pollution in the pipingsystem;

(3) Extended governmental and industrial moni�toring of the entire water system;

(4) The development of technologies enablingeffective landscape self�purification of waterresources.

CONCLUSIONS

Regions with rapid population growth and highpopulation density that are not located on a majorwatercourse but include one or more basins of smalland medium rivers at certain stage of developmentbegin to suffer water scarcity, exacerbated by ground�water pollution. To assess the situation and forecast thestate of water complex, we propose to use specific indi�cators, calculated as the ratio of available waterresources per 1 inhabitant. We have shown that criticalvalue of real water resources according to the results ofgroundwater and natural surface water research fortwo geographically distinct regions is about 1 m3 perday per person. The recommended regulatory mea�sures after reaching such values include reducing theconsumption of groundwater, the construction of localreservoirs and purification plants for surface water, thedevelopment of measures to intensify the self�purifi�cation of surface water, and monitoring the entirewater system.

To solve the problem of water supply to the growingpopulation, industry, and agriculture of these territo�ries, one should begin by determining the boundariesof the water system, where the mechanisms of distri�bution of water resources will be implemented. Thedesign of the structure of a water�economic systemshould consider two options: (1) the creation ofgroundwater abstraction system, and (2) the creationof a surface water treatment system. It is necessary to

take into account that renewability of groundwater inthese areas may decrease because of groundwater pol�lution at a critical value of specific water consumption.Therefore, the problem of water scarcity must beaddressed only as a complex problem of creating a uni�fied water management system.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by the Russian Founda�tion for Basic Research, project no. 14�17�00672.

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