AnalysingAnalysing Moving Image Moving Image Texts: 'Film Language'Texts: 'Film Language'

SIGNS, CODES and SIGNS, CODES and CONVENTIONSCONVENTIONS

Denotation, denotes, denoting; connotation, Denotation, denotes, denoting; connotation, connotes, connoting; iconic, iconicity; index, connotes, connoting; iconic, iconicity; index,

indexical, indexicality; symbol, symbolic, indexical, indexicality; symbol, symbolic, symbolism...symbolism...

MISE-EN-SCENEMISE-EN-SCENE (French for 'put in the scene')(French for 'put in the scene') EDITINGEDITING Some important edits are called: Some important edits are called:

continuity (or 'Hollywood') edits; continuity (or 'Hollywood') edits; MTV ('music television') edits; MTV ('music television') edits; cross-cuts; follow-cuts; match-cross-cuts; follow-cuts; match-cuts; jump cuts; eye-line cuts; jump cuts; eye-line matches; dissolves; fades; matches; dissolves; fades; montages; bridging; montages; bridging; flashbacks...flashbacks...

SHOT TYPESSHOT TYPES Establishing shot Establishing shot / / long-shot long-shot / /

mid-shot mid-shot / / close-up close-up / / point-of point-of view shot view shot / / soft-focus...soft-focus...

SemioticsSemiotics

Semiotics Semiotics is the name given to the study is the name given to the study of the way by which meaning is created in of the way by which meaning is created in the world, especially in the mass media. It the world, especially in the mass media. It is based upon the Idea of 'signs' and is based upon the Idea of 'signs' and 'codes', 'denotation' and 'connotation'. A 'codes', 'denotation' and 'connotation'. A sign sign is the basic unit of meaning in is the basic unit of meaning in semiotics. A sign is semiotics. A sign is any any individual thing individual thing that signifies meaning; for example, yourthat signifies meaning; for example, your

clothes are a group of 'fashion signs' which clothes are a group of 'fashion signs' which signify signify meaning (perhaps you are trying to meaning (perhaps you are trying to look 'cool'?). look 'cool'?).

There are two ways that signs create There are two ways that signs create meaning: all signs have a literal meaning, meaning: all signs have a literal meaning, which is called their which is called their denotation; denotation; but, but, depending on the context, many signs also depending on the context, many signs also suggest suggest other 'layers' of meaning, which is other 'layers' of meaning, which is called their called their connotation. connotation. For example, an For example, an image of a girl dressed all in white image of a girl dressed all in white denotes denotes just that, I.e. this is what you 'see'; but it just that, I.e. this is what you 'see'; but it may also may also connote connote innocence or purity (and innocence or purity (and all that this means in our society and all that this means in our society and culture), i.e. this is what you 'think'. culture), i.e. this is what you 'think'. Connotation, therefore, is always Connotation, therefore, is always more more than than the denotation.the denotation.

Signs rarely work alone. They are most Signs rarely work alone. They are most often combined with other signs to form a often combined with other signs to form a code. code. A code is a group of signs that weA code is a group of signs that we recogniserecognise as going 'naturally together' to as going 'naturally together' to signify signify meaning (e.g. a rose is a sign; butmeaning (e.g. a rose is a sign; but

being handed to a girl by a boy could being handed to a girl by a boy could create a 'romance code' and suggest love). create a 'romance code' and suggest love). Film and TV codes are often called Film and TV codes are often called technical codes technical codes because technical because technical equipment is used to create them. There equipment is used to create them. There are three ways through which codes and are three ways through which codes and signs can signify meaning:signs can signify meaning:

Iconicity:Iconicity:

Iconicity: an iconic Iconicity: an iconic sign or code sign or code looks just like the thing it seems to looks just like the thing it seems to represent, e.g. an image of a cowboy represent, e.g. an image of a cowboy seems to be just that; but it is called seems to be just that; but it is called iconic iconic because it suggests far more because it suggests far more than it should: for example, our than it should: for example, our culture tends to associate extra culture tends to associate extra meanings with the idea of 'cowboy', meanings with the idea of 'cowboy', such as toughness, heroism, such as toughness, heroism, masculinity, etc. Iconic signs are masculinity, etc. Iconic signs are never never reality: they are a reality: they are a representation of reality. representation of reality.

Indexicality Indexicality (an (an indexical indexical sign or sign or code) in a sign directly suggests code) in a sign directly suggests meaning because what it shows meaning because what it shows seems to be the result of something seems to be the result of something we associate with the thing it we associate with the thing it represents, e.g. smoke suggests fire, represents, e.g. smoke suggests fire, sweat suggests exercise, sweat suggests exercise, appearance can suggest wealth, etc. appearance can suggest wealth, etc. This can be a short-cut way for a film This can be a short-cut way for a film director to create meaning. director to create meaning.

Symbolism (a symbolic Symbolism (a symbolic sign or sign or code) suggests meaning code) suggests meaning because we have learned this because we have learned this meaning in our culture; a meaning in our culture; a symbol, in itself, has no symbol, in itself, has no association with what it means, association with what it means, e.g. a red heart shape suggests e.g. a red heart shape suggests love; letters combine to make love; letters combine to make words, etc.words, etc.

The meaning we gain from codes is The meaning we gain from codes is said to be said to be culturally determined culturally determined which means that our culture 'taught' which means that our culture 'taught' us that particular way to interpret the us that particular way to interpret the meaning. For example, when we see meaning. For example, when we see our national flag, the Union Jack, we our national flag, the Union Jack, we see more than what it simply see more than what it simply denotes - a piece ofdenotes - a piece of coloured coloured cloth: cloth: patriotism and pride, etc.patriotism and pride, etc.

An important code is an An important code is an enigma enigma code. code. These codes put a These codes put a fascinating question in the mind fascinating question in the mind of the audience that only of the audience that only watching the movie will answer. watching the movie will answer. They tempt the audience to They tempt the audience to watch and are often used in watch and are often used in trailers.trailers.

A convention A convention is simply a way of doing is simply a way of doing something that we are so used to we something that we are so used to we usually fail to notice it; conventions can usually fail to notice it; conventions can seem 'perfectly natural' or 'realistic' yet are seem 'perfectly natural' or 'realistic' yet are anything but. So: women in cowboys tend anything but. So: women in cowboys tend conventionally conventionally to be either 'very good' or to be either 'very good' or 'very bad' - and this seems 'normal' within 'very bad' - and this seems 'normal' within the genre of cowboy movies; the wheels of the genre of cowboy movies; the wheels of a car always screech; guns always kill a car always screech; guns always kill outright; a punch always knocks a person outright; a punch always knocks a person out cold. Genre and narrative are important out cold. Genre and narrative are important media conventions that are covered later, media conventions that are covered later, as are editing techniques and-the use of as are editing techniques and-the use of certain shot types (such as an establishing certain shot types (such as an establishing shot sequence or montage - see later).shot sequence or montage - see later).

Cinema and TV codes are created within an area Cinema and TV codes are created within an area bounded by the edges of a screen. By controlling bounded by the edges of a screen. By controlling what objects and action are in this frame, a film what objects and action are in this frame, a film director creates what is called a director creates what is called a mise-en-scene. mise-en-scene. Asking questions such as 'who, what and where' of Asking questions such as 'who, what and where' of the characters and objects the characters and objects and and their relative their relative positions, expressions, appearance, costume, positions, expressions, appearance, costume, make-up, scenery, props, lighting, sounds, etc. in a make-up, scenery, props, lighting, sounds, etc. in a mise-en-scene will help youmise-en-scene will help you analyse analyse it. Try to it. Try to consider consider what effects what effects are created in a mise-en-are created in a mise-en-scene', scene', what meaning what meaning they have (their denotation they have (their denotation and, most importantly, connotation), and, most importantly, connotation), how how they have they have been created and been created and why why they were created (which will they were created (which will be the director's be the director's purpose purpose - perhaps to develop a - perhaps to develop a character, a mood, character, a mood, the storyline or the storyline or plot plot and and sometimes to explore a deeper meaning or idea, i.e. sometimes to explore a deeper meaning or idea, i.e. a a theme).theme).

Editing Editing is the placing of separate is the placing of separate shots together. This allows a director shots together. This allows a director to manipulate space and time to manipulate space and time hundreds of miles or weeks of time hundreds of miles or weeks of time can be reduced to a few scenes that can be reduced to a few scenes that appear perfectly natural and appear perfectly natural and believable to the audience. A believable to the audience. A montage montage is a most important editing is a most important editing technique. It is a series of shots that technique. It is a series of shots that are edited together to create a kind are edited together to create a kind of ' individual unit' of meaning.of ' individual unit' of meaning.

Continuity edits Continuity edits - especially - especially matched cuts matched cuts - are - are called 'Hollywood editing'. This creates a sequence called 'Hollywood editing'. This creates a sequence that seems to flow naturally on from the previous that seems to flow naturally on from the previous one, and in which the edits are 'invisible'. These one, and in which the edits are 'invisible'. These have the effect of creating a realistic and seamless have the effect of creating a realistic and seamless flow to a story or flow to a story or narrative narrative (see below) where one (see below) where one event leads naturally onto the next. event leads naturally onto the next. Jump-cuts Jump-cuts are are dramatic edits; dramatic edits; MTV edits MTV edits are rapid sequences of are rapid sequences of fast jump cuts used to create a conscious effect as fast jump cuts used to create a conscious effect as used first in pop-videos; used first in pop-videos; cross-cuts cross-cuts follow different follow different actions such as two people talking; actions such as two people talking; follow-cuts follow-cuts follow an action to its consequence, e.g. a character follow an action to its consequence, e.g. a character looking edits to what they look at looking edits to what they look at eye-line matches eye-line matches are a kind of are a kind of follow cut). A sound-bridge follow cut). A sound-bridge is a is a sound edit that allows sound from one shot to cross sound edit that allows sound from one shot to cross into the next to create continuity.into the next to create continuity.

An establishing shot An establishing shot is usually the is usually the opening shot of a sequence; it 'sets opening shot of a sequence; it 'sets the scene' and locates the action. It the scene' and locates the action. It is often followed by a is often followed by a mid-shot mid-shot followed by a followed by a close-up shot. A close-up shot. A subjective point-of-view shot subjective point-of-view shot (POV) (POV) is at eye-level and appears as is at eye-level and appears as if you are viewing the scene from the if you are viewing the scene from the character's perspective (as in 'Blair character's perspective (as in 'Blair Witch'). An Witch'). An objective point-of-view objective point-of-view shot acts as if you are an observer shot acts as if you are an observer secretly looking into a scene.secretly looking into a scene.

CAMERA ANGLE CAMERA ANGLE Eye-line Eye-line match match / / high high / / lowlow

CAMERA MOVEMENT CAMERA MOVEMENT Zooming Zooming / / tracking tracking / / panning panning / / hand-held hand-held / / etcetc

LIGHTINGLIGHTING High key, neutral, low keyHigh key, neutral, low key

'DIEGESIS' AND SOUND'DIEGESIS' AND SOUND VISUAL EFFECTS / SFXVISUAL EFFECTS / SFX NARRATIVENARRATIVE GENREGENRE ICONOGRAPHYICONOGRAPHY THE 'STAR SYSTEM'THE 'STAR SYSTEM'

REALISM REALISM 'Verisimilitude' 'Verisimilitude' 'Generic verisimilitude' 'Generic verisimilitude' 'Cultural verisimilitude''Cultural verisimilitude'

Camera angles Camera angles can signify can signify meaning, e.g. a meaning, e.g. a subjective POV subjective POV high angle shot high angle shot can crate a can crate a superior feel.superior feel.

Different Different camera movements camera movements can create significant meaning - can create significant meaning - a a zoom zoom into a close-up of a face into a close-up of a face can create emotion, a can create emotion, a pan pan across a war scene can suggest across a war scene can suggest violence; violence; POV POV tracking shots tracking shots and and POV hand-held camera POV hand-held camera shot shot can create tension and can create tension and involvement by making you feel involvement by making you feel as if you are a part of the action.as if you are a part of the action.

Lighting can create atmosphere Lighting can create atmosphere and mood as well as signify and mood as well as signify meaning, e.g. in a horror movie, meaning, e.g. in a horror movie, light and shade are important light and shade are important codes of meaning. codes of meaning. High-key High-key lighting lighting is harsh; is harsh; soft-key soft-key lighting lighting creates a romantic creates a romantic atmosphere, atmosphere, spotlighting spotlighting picks picks out a character from a group, out a character from a group, etc.etc.

Diegesis Diegesis means the 'world of the means the 'world of the film': if something seems to be a part film': if something seems to be a part of the 'world of the film', it is called of the 'world of the film', it is called 'diegetic'. So, sound that is a part of 'diegetic'. So, sound that is a part of the action is the action is diegetic sound, diegetic sound, e.g. e.g. wind noise, screeching cars, etc; but wind noise, screeching cars, etc; but sound that is sound that is added’ to added’ to create, most create, most often, mood or atmosphere is called often, mood or atmosphere is called non-diegetic sound. Diegetic non-diegetic sound. Diegetic sounds sounds may also be added in after may also be added in after filming, or may be exaggerated for filming, or may be exaggerated for effect (e.g. loud footsteps).effect (e.g. loud footsteps).

SFX Special effects') often use SFX Special effects') often use computer-generated graphics to computer-generated graphics to create compelling realism and create compelling realism and meaning.meaning.

The use of a The use of a narrative structure narrative structure is a is a major convention of cinema and TV. We major convention of cinema and TV. We are all immersed in narratives and have are all immersed in narratives and have been since childhood as we tell of or hear been since childhood as we tell of or hear about the complex events of the world not about the complex events of the world not in the form of long-winded complex details in the form of long-winded complex details or bald information but as absorbing and or bald information but as absorbing and interesting stories. Yet this way of interesting stories. Yet this way of explaining real as opposed to fictional explaining real as opposed to fictional events greatly oversimplifies reality whilst events greatly oversimplifies reality whilst at the same time; paradoxically, appearing at the same time; paradoxically, appearing very realistic and believable. very realistic and believable.

For instance, real events are rarely clearly For instance, real events are rarely clearly 'connected' by such simple 'cause and 'connected' by such simple 'cause and effect' relationships as in stories (i.e. this effect' relationships as in stories (i.e. this leads to that because...). Yet in narrative leads to that because...). Yet in narrative they always are. And in the real world they always are. And in the real world people are not either good (i.e. 'heroes') or people are not either good (i.e. 'heroes') or evil (i.e. 'villains'); but in narrative they evil (i.e. 'villains'); but in narrative they always are to some degree at least. And so always are to some degree at least. And so on. For better or worse, we tell and hear of on. For better or worse, we tell and hear of world events as narratives and media world events as narratives and media producers know this and use it to create producers know this and use it to create media texts that rely on narrative structures media texts that rely on narrative structures and forms to be absorbing, compelling and and forms to be absorbing, compelling and convincingly realistic. Because of this, convincingly realistic. Because of this, filmed narratives can easily trick us into filmed narratives can easily trick us into thinking we are viewing a real 'window on thinking we are viewing a real 'window on the world'.the world'.

Genre Genre means the means the kind kind of of narrative narrative being being told, e.g. detective, sci-fi, horror, etc. Genre told, e.g. detective, sci-fi, horror, etc. Genre defines a text by its similarities to other defines a text by its similarities to other texts. Importantly, when we watch a genre texts. Importantly, when we watch a genre film we have many pre-existing film we have many pre-existing expectations of the types of characters, expectations of the types of characters, setting and events we want to see setting and events we want to see (prediction is a major aspect of our (prediction is a major aspect of our enjoyment of a film, and genre helps this). enjoyment of a film, and genre helps this). Genre conventions Genre conventions are an important way are an important way a director can create believable 'versions of a director can create believable 'versions of reality' because we fail to see that what is reality' because we fail to see that what is shown is not reality at, all, but a media shown is not reality at, all, but a media convention that we have become convention that we have become accustomed to seeing in that kind of film. accustomed to seeing in that kind of film.

So... we don't mind the owner of a So... we don't mind the owner of a casino being horribly killed because casino being horribly killed because we see him, in the gangster genre as we see him, in the gangster genre as naturally a 'villain'. Film companies naturally a 'villain'. Film companies use genre to sell and make films: a use genre to sell and make films: a popular genre creates a greater popular genre creates a greater chance of commercial success; and chance of commercial success; and genre can be cost effective, making genre can be cost effective, making it cheaper to write new stories and it cheaper to write new stories and reducing the need for entirely new reducing the need for entirely new sets.sets.

Iconography is an important aspect Iconography is an important aspect of of genre. genre. We come to expect to see We come to expect to see certain objects within the certain objects within the mise-en mise-en scene scene of a particular genre, for of a particular genre, for example, in a Western, we expect to example, in a Western, we expect to see dusty lonely roads, saloon bars, see dusty lonely roads, saloon bars, cowboy hats and horses, jails, cowboy hats and horses, jails, sheriffs badges, etc.; in a modern sheriffs badges, etc.; in a modern horror film, we expect lonely girls, horror film, we expect lonely girls, 'normal' objects, use of dark and 'normal' objects, use of dark and light, etc. These 'genre indicators' light, etc. These 'genre indicators' are called the are called the iconography iconography of the of the genre.genre.

Celebrities and film stars are an Celebrities and film stars are an important part of the important part of the iconography of cinema and TV. iconography of cinema and TV. Different stars can be important Different stars can be important signifiers of meaning. They can signifiers of meaning. They can create expectations of character create expectations of character and action, help identify genre, and action, help identify genre, and create powerful iconic and create powerful iconic representation of such as representation of such as masculinity and femininity.masculinity and femininity.

Cinema and TV are able to offer Cinema and TV are able to offer high levels of 'realism': the bright high levels of 'realism': the bright screen, the clear and powerful screen, the clear and powerful Dolby sound, darkened room, Dolby sound, darkened room, etc. are highly compelling and etc. are highly compelling and persuasive. Such 'appearance persuasive. Such 'appearance of reality' is given the odd name of reality' is given the odd name of of verisimilitude.verisimilitude.

This is yet another This is yet another convention convention of of course - there is nothing 'realistic' course - there is nothing 'realistic' about an image on a flat screen. about an image on a flat screen. There are two kinds of verisimilitude: There are two kinds of verisimilitude: generic verisimilitude generic verisimilitude is the is the 'realism' that convinces us because 'realism' that convinces us because of the genre we are watching (in the of the genre we are watching (in the horror genres it seems highly horror genres it seems highly realistic for a vampire to sink his realistic for a vampire to sink his teeth into a person's neck); teeth into a person's neck); cultural cultural verisimilitude verisimilitude is the kind of reality is the kind of reality that convinces us because it looks that convinces us because it looks like the way things are or should be like the way things are or should be within our own society.within our own society.