AnalogyAnalogyFigurative and Figurative and ArgumentativeArgumentative

General CharacteristicsGeneral Characteristics Analogy compares items via Analogy compares items via

certain key similarities in order certain key similarities in order to:to:

a. Make something more a. Make something more understandable and:understandable and:

b. As part of the premises to b. As part of the premises to argue for a conclusion.argue for a conclusion.

Everyday ExampleEveryday Example I am going to buy a new pair of shoes or I am going to buy a new pair of shoes or

choose a class for next quarter. Focus on choose a class for next quarter. Focus on similarities.similarities.

This pair of shoes is of the same make, This pair of shoes is of the same make, composition, and style as the old pair and composition, and style as the old pair and the old pair was comfortable and lasted a the old pair was comfortable and lasted a long time and thus this new pair ought to long time and thus this new pair ought to also be comfortable and last.also be comfortable and last.

Another ExampleAnother Example I have taken three Psychology I have taken three Psychology

classes with Dr. Pigeon and they classes with Dr. Pigeon and they were all enjoyable and good and were all enjoyable and good and thus this new Psychology class thus this new Psychology class taught by Dr. Pigeon ought also to taught by Dr. Pigeon ought also to be enjoyable and good.be enjoyable and good.

Evaluation or CriticismEvaluation or Criticism Ask for Ask for relevant relevant differences and differences and

how they affect the conclusion.how they affect the conclusion. E.g. The new pair of shoes is E.g. The new pair of shoes is

made of an artificial material made of an artificial material rather than leather. The stitching rather than leather. The stitching in the new shoes is much looser in the new shoes is much looser rather than tight.rather than tight.

Criticism and QuestionsCriticism and Questions The new psychology class is The new psychology class is

about behavior modification in about behavior modification in rats while the other classes were rats while the other classes were about human psychology. about human psychology.

The new class meets at 8 a.m. The new class meets at 8 a.m. while the others were afternoon while the others were afternoon classes.classes.

Argumentative AnalogyArgumentative Analogy Two types of analogical argumentTwo types of analogical argument

1. Inductive analogical argument 1. Inductive analogical argument

2.Deductive analogical argument2.Deductive analogical argument

Thus, there are two ways to Thus, there are two ways to evaluate or critcize analogical evaluate or critcize analogical arguments. arguments.

Inductive AnalogyInductive Analogy An inductive analogy draws a An inductive analogy draws a

comparison between cases and comparison between cases and then suggests that since the then suggests that since the analogy holds in some analogy holds in some respects, it is respects, it is likely likely to hold in to hold in other respects.- only probableother respects.- only probable

Key Evaluative QuestionsKey Evaluative Questions What is the intended analogy?What is the intended analogy? What are the relevant similarities?What are the relevant similarities? What are the relevant differences?What are the relevant differences? Do these relevant differences weaken Do these relevant differences weaken

the conclusion?the conclusion? Relevancy= impact on the Relevancy= impact on the

conclusion.conclusion.

Characteristics- InductionCharacteristics- Induction

New evidence makes a difference-New evidence makes a difference-can strengthen or weaken the can strengthen or weaken the conclusion.conclusion.

I get bored by foreign movies, so I I get bored by foreign movies, so I will get bored by this one.- suppose will get bored by this one.- suppose the new one does not have subtitles the new one does not have subtitles and has an American star?and has an American star?

ExamplesExamples That the world was created by the That the world was created by the

chance coming together of atoms is chance coming together of atoms is as likely as producing a excellent as likely as producing a excellent essay by allowing the letters of the essay by allowing the letters of the alphabet to come together on their alphabet to come together on their own.own.

Another ExampleAnother Example

Just as the colonies of America Just as the colonies of America were united by a Constitution were united by a Constitution into the United States so it is into the United States so it is likely that we can unite the likely that we can unite the countries of Eastern Europe by countries of Eastern Europe by a constitution.a constitution.

Deductive Analogical ArgumentDeductive Analogical Argument

Deductive analogical arguments do not Deductive analogical arguments do not depend on additional evidence.depend on additional evidence.

They use an analogy to point to a They use an analogy to point to a principle that it is principle that it is assumedassumed we all accept we all accept and then claims that in order and then claims that in order to be to be consistentconsistent you must accept an analogous you must accept an analogous case that also fits under the principle.case that also fits under the principle.

Criticizing DeductiveCriticizing Deductive Focus on the Principle Focus on the Principle

expressed in the analogyexpressed in the analogy Question- Is the principle Question- Is the principle

relevant to the cases cited in the relevant to the cases cited in the argument?argument?

A Deductive ExampleA Deductive Example We should not require people to wear seatbelts when We should not require people to wear seatbelts when

they drive or ride in their cars. After all, if you they drive or ride in their cars. After all, if you choose not to wear your seatbelt, that is certainly choose not to wear your seatbelt, that is certainly hazardous to your health and it may be foolish, but hazardous to your health and it may be foolish, but it doesn’t harm anyone but yourself. Requiring it doesn’t harm anyone but yourself. Requiring adults to wear seatbelts is like requiring people to adults to wear seatbelts is like requiring people to exercise regularly. Like not wearing your seatbelt, it exercise regularly. Like not wearing your seatbelt, it may be foolish not to exercise, but it doesn’t harm may be foolish not to exercise, but it doesn’t harm anyone except you. Since, we think requiring anyone except you. Since, we think requiring people to get regular exercise would be wrong, we people to get regular exercise would be wrong, we ought to also conclude that requiring people to wear ought to also conclude that requiring people to wear seatbelts is wrong.seatbelts is wrong.

How do we criticize?How do we criticize? What is the principle?= It is What is the principle?= It is

right to require people to do right to require people to do special things as a condition of special things as a condition of use of public facilities.use of public facilities.

Do the compared cases fit Do the compared cases fit under this principle?under this principle?

Continual CriticismContinual CriticismSeatbelt use is required as a Seatbelt use is required as a

special condition for use of special condition for use of public facilities—requiring public facilities—requiring exercise is not. The exercise is not. The exercise case does not fit- exercise case does not fit- weak analogy.weak analogy.

Possible ResponsePossible Response Could not accept this principle Could not accept this principle

and restate a different principle, and restate a different principle, e.g., We should not accept e.g., We should not accept paternalistic restrictions on paternalistic restrictions on behavior.behavior.

Could say-should require both-Could say-should require both-promote safety and health.promote safety and health.

Figurative AnalogyFigurative Analogy Analogy is used to explain and make Analogy is used to explain and make

something more understandable.something more understandable.

“ “Trying to find the cause of cancer is like trying Trying to find the cause of cancer is like trying to find a feather in a haystack while the wind is to find a feather in a haystack while the wind is blowing: each time you think you have found it, blowing: each time you think you have found it, the whole darn stack shifts its composition and the whole darn stack shifts its composition and you are back to picking up the straws little by you are back to picking up the straws little by little.” little.”

Figurative AnalogyFigurative Analogy In a solid, the molecules can be pictured as In a solid, the molecules can be pictured as

a crowd of men all doing physical exercises-a crowd of men all doing physical exercises-the “daily dozen”- without moving from the the “daily dozen”- without moving from the spot where they stand….In a liquid the spot where they stand….In a liquid the molecules can be pictured as a swarm of molecules can be pictured as a swarm of men gathered together in a hall at a men gathered together in a hall at a crowded reception; they are tightly wedged, crowded reception; they are tightly wedged, but each works his way through the others, but each works his way through the others, with many a push and apology.with many a push and apology.

Analogical LiteralismAnalogical Literalism This fallacy occurs when you treat This fallacy occurs when you treat

the analogy too literally and then the analogy too literally and then dismiss the argument or analogy on dismiss the argument or analogy on that ground.that ground.

Thus, one might try to dismiss the Thus, one might try to dismiss the Thompson argument about abortion Thompson argument about abortion because a fetus is nothing like a because a fetus is nothing like a violinist.violinist.

Thompson analogyThompson analogy What is the conclusionWhat is the conclusion? A woman ? A woman

who is pregnant because of a rape who is pregnant because of a rape has a right to terminate.has a right to terminate.

Comparison- woman supporting a Comparison- woman supporting a fetus that is a result of a rape and an fetus that is a result of a rape and an individual who is supporting the life individual who is supporting the life of a violinist as a result of a kidnap. of a violinist as a result of a kidnap.

Thompson-Thompson-continuedcontinued

Similarities: (1) Both forced into the Similarities: (1) Both forced into the situation of supporting the life of situation of supporting the life of another. (2) Only way to escape is another. (2) Only way to escape is allowing other person to die.allowing other person to die.

Principle: No one has the obligation Principle: No one has the obligation to sustain the life of another when to sustain the life of another when one has done nothing to take on that one has done nothing to take on that obligation.obligation.

Counter to ThompsonCounter to Thompson Remote cabin in the woods example- p. Remote cabin in the woods example- p.

341- Obligation to save the life of the 341- Obligation to save the life of the kidnap victim though did nothing to take kidnap victim though did nothing to take on the obligation. (Obligation- innocent on the obligation. (Obligation- innocent victims of war, floods. etc.victims of war, floods. etc.

New principle: One has not special New principle: One has not special obligation to allow his/her body to be used obligation to allow his/her body to be used for another’s benefit. (-violinist again- for another’s benefit. (-violinist again- organ donation, etc.organ donation, etc.