An Introduction to Buddhism

What is Buddhism? Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to Insight into the true nature of life. Buddhist practices such as meditation are means of changing oneself in order to develop the qualities of awareness, kindness, and wisdom. The experience developed within the Buddhist tradition over thousands of years has created an incomparable resource for all those who wish to follow a path — a path which ultimately culminates in Enlightenment or Buddhahood. Because Buddhism does not include the idea of worshipping a creator god, some people do not see it as a religion in the normal, Western sense. The basic tenets of Buddhist teaching are straightforward and practical: nothing is fixed or permanent; actions have consequences; change is possible. Thus Buddhism addresses itself to all people irrespective of race, nationality, or gender. It teaches practical methods (such as meditation) which enable people to realize and utilise its teachings in order to transform their experience, to be fully responsible for their lives and to develop the qualities of Wisdom and Compassion. There are around 350 million Buddhists and a growing number of them are Westerners. They follow many different forms of Buddhism, but all traditions are characterized by non-violence, lack of dogma, tolerance of differences, and, usually, by the practice of meditation. Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world, being exceeded in numbers only by Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. It was founded in Northern India by the first known Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama. In 535 BCE, he attained enlightenment and assumed the title Lord Buddha (one who has awakened) As Buddhism expanded across Asia, it evolved into two main forms, which evolved largely independently from each other: (1)Theravada Buddhism (sometimes called Southern Buddhism; occasionally spelled Therevada) "has been the dominant school of Buddhism in most of Southeast Asia since the thirteenth century, with the establishment of the monarchies in Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos." (2)Mahayana Buddhism (sometimes called Northern Buddhism) is largely found in China, Japan, Korea, Tibet and Mongolia. To which might be added: Tibetan Buddhism, which developed in isolation from Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism because of the remoteness of Tibet. Since the late 19th century: Modern Buddhism has emerged as a truly international movement. It started as an attempt to produce a single form of Buddhism, without local accretions, that all Buddhists could embrace.

http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism/buddha.html

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The Life of Siddhartha Gautama

Buddhism started with the Buddha. The word ‘Buddha’ is a title, which means ‘one who is awake’ — in the sense of having ‘woken up to reality’. The Buddha was born as Siddhartha Gautama in Nepal around 2,500 years ago. He did not claim to be a god or a prophet. He was a human being who became Enlightened, understanding life in the deepest w

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ay ossible.

realising that life includes the harsh facts of old age, sickness, and death.

as understood to be a very auspicious sign to say the least.

p Siddhartha was born into the royal family of a small kingdom on the Indian-Nepalese border. According to the traditional story he had a privileged upbringing, but was jolted out of his sheltered life on

There was a small country in what is now southern Nepal that was ruled by a clan called the Shakyas. The head of this clan, and the king of this country, was named Shuddodana Gautama, and his wife was the beautiful Mahamaya. Mahamaya was expecting her first born. She had had a strange dream in which a baby elephant had blessed her with his trunk, which w

As was the custom of the day, when the time came near for Queen Mahamaya to have her child, she traveled to her father's kingdom for the birth. But during the long journey, her birth pains began. In the small town of Lumbini, she asked her handmaidens to assist her to a nearby grove of trees for privacy. One large tree lowered a branch to her to serve as a support for her delivery. They say the birth was nearly painless, even though the child had to be delivered from her side. After, a gentle rain fell on the mother and the child to cleanse them.

It is said that the child was born fully awake. He could speak, and told his mother he had come to free all mankind from suffering. He could stand, and he walked a short distance in each of the four directions. Lotus blossoms rose in his footsteps. They named him Siddhartha, which means "he who has attained his goals." Sadly, Mahamaya died only seven days after the birth. After that Siddhartha was raised by his mother’s kind sister, Mahaprajapati.

King Shuddodana consulted Asita, a well-known sooth-sayer, concerning the future of his son. Asita proclaimed that he would be one of two things: He could become a great king, even an emperor. Or he could become a great sage and savior of humanity. The king, eager that his son should become a king like himself, was determined to shield the child from anything that might result in him taking up the religious life. And so Siddhartha was kept in one or another of their three palaces, and was prevented from experiencing much of what ordinary folk might consider quite commonplace. He was not permitted to see the elderly, the sickly, the dead, or anyone who had dedicated themselves to spiritual practices. Only beauty and health surrounded Siddhartha.

Siddhartha grew up to be a strong and handsome young man. As a prince of the warrior caste, he trained in the arts of war. When it came time for him to marry, he won the hand of a beautiful princess of a neighboring kingdom by besting all competitors at a variety of sports. Yashodhara was her name, and they married when both were 16 years old.

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/siddhartha.html

As Siddhartha continued living in the luxury of his palaces, he grew increasing restless and curious about the world beyond the palace walls. He finally demanded that he be permitted to see his people and his lands. The king carefully arranged that Siddhartha should still not see the kind of suffering that he feared would lead him to a religious life, and decried that only young and healthy people should greet the prince.

As he was lead through Kapilavatthu, the capital, he chanced to see a couple of old men who had accidentally wandered near the parade route. Amazed and confused, he chased after them to find out what they were. Then he came across some people who were severely ill. And finally, he came across a funeral ceremony by the side of a river, and for the first time in his life saw death. He asked his friend and squire Chandaka the meaning of all these things, and Chandaka informed him of the simple truths that Siddhartha should have known all along: That all of us get old, sick, and eventually die.

Siddhartha also saw an ascetic, a monk who had renounced all the pleasures of the flesh. The peaceful look on the monks face would stay with Siddhartha for a long time to come. Later, he would say this about that time:

When ignorant people see someone who is old, they are disgusted and horrified, even though they too will be old some day. I thought to myself: I don’t want to be like the ignorant people. After that, I couldn’t feel the usual intoxication with youth anymore.

When ignorant people see someone who is sick, they are disgusted and horrified, even though they too will be sick some day. I thought to myself: I don’t want to be like the ignorant people. After that, I couldn’t feel the usual intoxication with health anymore.

When ignorant people see someone who is dead, they are disgusted and horrified, even though they too will be dead some day. I thought to myself: I don’t want to be like the ignorant people. After that, I couldn’t feel the usual intoxication with life anymore. (AN III.39, interpreted)

At the age of 29, Siddhartha came to realize that he could not be happy living as he had been. He had discovered suffering, and wanted more than anything to discover how one might overcome suffering. After kissing his sleeping wife and newborn son Rahula goodbye, he snuck out of the palace with his squire Chandara and his favorite horse Kanthaka. He gave away his rich clothing, cut his long hair, and gave the horse to Chandara and told him to return to the palace. He studied for a while with two famous gurus of the day, but found their practices lacking. He then began to practice the austerities and self-mortifications practiced by a group of five ascetics. For six years, he practiced. The sincerity and intensity of his practice were so astounding that, before long, the five ascetics became followers of Siddhartha. But the answers to his questions were not forthcoming. He redoubled his efforts, refusing food and water, until he was in a state of near death.

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/siddhartha.html

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One day, a peasant girl named Sujata saw this starving monk and took pity on him. She begged him to eat some of her milk-rice. Siddhartha then realized that these extreme practices were leading him nowhere, that in fact it might be better to find some middle way between the extremes of the life of luxury and the life of self-mortification. So he ate, and drank, and bathed in the river. The five ascetics saw him and concluded that Siddhartha had given up the ascetic life and taken to the ways of the flesh, and left him.

In the town of Bodh Gaya, Siddhartha decided that he would sit under a certain fig tree as long as it would take for the answers to the problem of suffering to come. He sat there for many days, first in deep concentration to clear his mind of all distractions, then in mindfulness meditation, opening himself up to the truth. He began, they say, to recall all his previous lives, and to see everything that was going on in the entire universe. On the full moon of May, with the rising of the morning star, Siddhartha finally understood the answer to the question of suffering and became the Buddha, which means “he who is awake.”

It is said that Mara, the evil one, tried to prevent this great occurrence. He first tried to frighten Siddhartha with storms and armies of demons. Siddhartha remained completely calm. Then he sent his three beautiful daughters to tempt him, again to no avail. Finally, he tried to ensnare Siddhartha in his own ego by appealing to his pride. That, too, failed. Siddhartha, having conquered all temptations, touched the ground with one hand and asked the earth to be his witness. Siddhartha, now the Buddha, remained seated under the tree -- which we call the bodhi tree -- for many days longer. It seemed to him that this knowledge he had gained was far too difficult to communicate to others. Legend has it that Brahma, king of the gods, convinced Buddha to teach, saying that some of us perhaps have only a little dirt in our eyes and could awaken if we only heard his story. Buddha agreed to teach.

At Sarnath near Benares, about one hundred miles from Bodh Gaya, he came across the five ascetics he had practiced with for so long. There, in a deer park, he preached his first sermon, which is called “setting the wheel of the teaching in motion.” He explained to them the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. They became his very first disciples and the beginnings of the Sangha or community of monks.

King Bimbisara of Magadha, having heard Buddha’s words, granted him a monastery near Rahagriha, his capital, for use during the rainy season. This and other generous donations permitted the community of converts to continue their practice throughout the years, and gave many more people an opportunity to hear the teachings of the Buddha.

Over time, he was approached by members of his family, including his wife, son, father, and aunt. His son became a monk and is particularly remembered in a sutra based on a conversation between father and son on the dangers of lying. His father became a lay follower. Because he was saddened by the departures of his son and grandson into the monastic life, he asked Buddha to make it a rule that a man must have the permission of his parents to become a monk. Buddha obliged him.

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/siddhartha.html

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His aunt and wife asked to be permitted into the Sangha, which was originally composed only of men. The culture of the time ranked women far below men in importance, and at first it seemed that permitting women to enter the community would weaken it. But the Buddha relented, and his aunt and wife became the first Buddhist nuns.

The Buddha said that it didn’t matter what a person’s status in the world was, or what their background or wealth or nationality might be. All were capable of enlightenment, and all were welcome into the Sangha. The first ordained Buddhist monk, Upali, had been a barber, yet he

was ranked higher than monks who had been kings, only because he had taken his vows earlier than they!

Buddha’s life wasn’t without disappointments. His cousin, Devadatta, was an ambitious man. As a convert and monk, he felt that he should have greater power in the Sangha. He managed to influence quite a few monks with a call to a return to extreme asceticism. Eventually, he conspired with a local king to have the Buddha killed and to take over the Buddhist community. Of course, he failed.

Buddha had achieved his enlightenment at the age of 35. He would teach throughout northeast India for another 45 years. When the Buddha was 80 years old, he told his friend and cousin Ananda that he would be leaving them soon. And so it came to be that in Kushinagara, not a hundred miles from his homeland, he ate some spoiled food and became very ill. He went into a deep meditation under a grove of sala trees and died. His last words were...

Impermanent are all created things; Strive on with awareness.

The Buddha was not a god and he made no claim to divinity. He was a human being who, through tremendous effort of heart and mind, transformed all limitations. He affirmed the potential of every being to reach Buddhahood. Buddhists see him as an ideal human being, and a guide who can lead us all towards Enlightenment.

http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/siddhartha.html

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The History of Buddhism

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Soon after Buddha's death or parinirvana, five hundred monks met at the first council at Rajagrha, under the leadership of Kashyapa. Upali recited the monastic code (Vinaya) as he remembered it. Ananda, Buddha's cousin, friend, and favorite disciple -- and a man of prodigious memory! -- recited Buddha's lessons (the Sutras). The monks debated details and voted on final versions. These were then committed to memory by other monks, to be translated into the many languages of the Indian plains. It should be noted that Buddhism remained an oral tradition for over 200 years.

In the next few centuries, the original unity of Buddhism began to fragment. The most significant split occurred after the second council, held at Vaishali 100 years after the first. After debates between a more liberal group and traditionalists, the liberal group left and labeled themselves the Mahasangha -- "the great sangha." They would eventually evolve into the Mahayana tradition of northern Asia.

The traditionalists, now referred to as Sthaviravada or "way of the elders" (or, in Pali, Theravada), developed a complex set of philosophical ideas beyond those elucidated by Buddha. These were collected into the Abhidharma or "higher teachings." But they, too, encouraged disagreements, so that one splinter group after another left the fold. Ultimately, 18 schools developed, each with their own interpretations of various issues, and spread all over India and Southeast Asia. Today, only the school stemming from the Sri Lankan Theravadan survives.

Ashoka

One of the most significant events in the history of Buddhism is the chance encounter of the monk Nigrodha and the emperor Ashoka Maurya. Ashoka, succeeding his father after a bloody power struggle in 268 bc, found himself deeply disturbed by the carnage he caused while suppressing a revolt in the land of the Kalingas. Meeting Nigrodha convinced Emperor Ashoka to devote himself to peace. On his orders, thousands of rock pillars were erected, bearing the words of the Buddha, in the brahmi script -- the first written evidence of Buddhism. The third council of monks was held at Pataliputra, the capital of Ashoka's empire. There is a story that tells about a poor young boy who, having nothing to give the Buddha as a gift, collected a handful of dust and innocently presented it. The Buddha smiled and accepted it with the same graciousness he accepted the gifts of wealthy admirers. That boy, it is said, was reborn as the Emperor Ashoka.

Ashoka sent missionaries all over India and beyond. Some went as far as Egypt, Palestine, and Greece. St. Origen even mentions them as having reached Britain. The Greeks of one of the Alexandrian kingdoms of northern India adopted Buddhism, after their King Menandros (Pali: Milinda) was convinced by a monk named Nagasena -- the conversation immortalized in the Milinda Pañha. A Kushan king of north India named Kanishka was also converted, and a council was held in Kashmir in about 100 ad. Greek Buddhists there recorded the Sutras on copper sheets which, unfortunately, were never recovered.

Sri Lanka and Theravada

Emperor Ashoka sent one of his sons, Mahinda, and one of his daughters, Sanghamitta, a monk and a nun, to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) around the year 240 bc. The king of Sri Lanka, King Devanampiyatissa, welcomed them and was converted. One of the gifts they brought with them was a branch of the bodhi tree, which was successfully transplanted. The descendants of this branch can still be found on the island.

The fourth council was held in Sri Lanka, in the Aloka Cave, in the first century bc. During this time as well, and for the first time, the entire set of Sutras were recorded in the Pali language on palm leaves. This became Theravada's Pali Canon, from which so much of our knowledge of Buddhism stems. It is also called the Tripitaka (Pali: Tipitaka), or three baskets: The three sections of the canon are the Vinaya Pitaka (the monastic law), the Sutta Pitaka (words of the Buddha), and the Abhidamma Pitaka (the philosophical commentaries).

In a very real sense, Sri Lanka's monks may be credited with saving the Theravada tradition: Although it had spread once from India all over southeast Asia, it had nearly died out due to competition from Hinduism and Islam, as well as war and colonialism. Theravada monks spread their tradition from Sri Lanka to Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Laos, and from these lands to Europe and the west generally. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/siddhartha.html

Mahayana

(Sanskrit: Greater Vehicle), one of the two major Buddhist traditions and the form most widely adhered to in China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet. Mahāyāna Buddhism emerged in about the 1st century AD from the ancient Buddhist schools as a more liberal and innovative interpretation of the Buddha's teachings. Mahāyānists distinguished themselves from the more orthodox conservative schools, which they somewhat deprecatingly termed Hīnayāna (Lesser Vehicle). The Mahāyāna differ from the conservatives, represented in the modern world by the Theravādins of Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, in their views of the nature of the Buddha and the ideal goal of a Buddhist. While Theravāda Buddhists revere the historical Gautama Buddha as a teacher of the truth, Mahāyānists attribute to the Buddha a supramundane quality and interpret the historical Buddha as an earthly manifestation of a transcendent celestial Buddha. The ideal goal toward which all Buddhists should strive is to become not, as in Theravāda Buddhism, an arhat or perfected saint, which Mahāyānists consider to be a limited selfish goal, but a bodhisattva (q.v.), or person who has attained to the state of Enlightenment but has postponed his Buddhahood in order to work toward the salvation of all others. Thus, compassion, the chief virtue associated with the bodhisattva, is accorded an equal place with wisdom, the virtue emphasized by the ancient schools. The merit accrued by a bodhisattva is considered transferable to others, a concept that led to such devotional movements as the Pure Land Buddhism of China and Japan.

Other major schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism with a significant modern following are Zen Buddhism, Nichiren Buddhism, and Tendai. The Mahāyāna scriptures were composed mainly in Sanskrit, though in some cases they are known only in their Tibetan and Chinese versions, the original having been lost.

Encyclopedia britanica

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Madhyamaka

Madhyamaka means "the middle way." You may recall that Buddha himself called his way the middle way in his very first sermon. He meant, at that time, the middle way between the extremes of hedonistic pleasure and extreme asceticism. But he may also have referred to the middle way between the competing philosophies of eternalism and annihilationism -- the belief that the soul exists forever and that the soul is annihilated at death. Or between materialism and nihilism.... An Indian monk by the name of Nagarjuna took this idea and expanded on it to create the philosophy that would be known as Madhyamaka, in a book called the Mulamadhyamaka-karika, written about 150 ad.

Basically a treatise on logical argument, it concludes that nothing is absolute, everything is relative, nothing exists on its own, everything is interdependent. All systems, beginning with the idea that each thing is what it is and not something else (Aristotle's law of the excluded middle), wind up contradicting themselves. Rigorous logic, in other words, leads one away from all systems, and to the concept of shunyata.

Shunyata means emptiness. This doesn't mean that nothing exists. It means that nothing exists in and of itself, but only as a part of a universal web of being. This would become a central concept in all branches of Mahayana. Of course, it is actually a restatement of the central Buddhist concepts of anatman, anitya, and dukkha!

Yogachara

The second philosophical innovation, Yogachara, is credited to two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu, who lived in India in the 300's ad. They elaborated earlier movements in the direction of the philosophy of idealism or chitta-matra. Chitta-matra means literally mind only. Asanga and Vasubandhu believed that everything that exists is mind or consciousness. What we think of as physical things are just projections of our minds, delusions or hallucinations, if you like. To get rid of these delusions, we must meditate, which for the Yogachara school means the creation of pure consciousness, devoid of all content. In that way, we leave our deluded individual minds and join with the universal mind, or Buddha-mind.

China

Legend has it that the Chinese Emperor Ming Ti had a dream which led him to send his agents down the Silk Road -- the ancient trade route between China and the west -- to discover its meaning. The agents returned with a picture of the Buddha and a copy of the Sutra in 42 Sections. This Sutra would, in 67 ad, be the first of many to be translated into Chinese.

The first Buddhist community in China is thought to be one in Loyang, established by "foreigners" around 150 ad, in the Han dynasty. Only 100 years later, there emerges a native Chinese Sangha. And during the Period of Disunity (or Era of the Warring States, 220 to 589 ad), the number of Buddhist monks and nuns increase to as many as two million! Apparently, the uncertain times and the misery of the lower classes were fertile ground for the monastic traditions of Buddhism.

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Buddhism did not come to a land innocent of religion and philosophy, of course. China, in fact, had three main competing streams of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, and folk religion. Confucianisim is essentially a moral-political philosophy, involving a complex guide to human relationships. Taoism is a life-philosophy involving a return to simpler and more "natural" ways of being. And the folk religion -- or, should we say, religions -- consisted of rich mythologies, superstitions, astrology, reading of entrails, magic, folk medicine, and so on.

Although these various streams sometimes competed with each other and with Buddhism, they also fed each other, enriched each other, and intertwined with each other. Over time, the Mahayana of India became the Mahayana of China and, later, of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Pure Land

The first example historically is Pure Land Buddhism (Ching-T'u, J: Jodo). The peasants and working people of China were used to gods and goddesses, praying for rain and health, worrying about heaven and hell, and so on. It wasn't a great leap to find in Buddhism's cosmology and theology the bases for a religious tradition that catered to these needs and habits, while still providing a sophisticated philosophical foundation.

The idea of this period of time as a fallen or inferior time -- traditional in China -- led to the idea that we are no longer able to reach enlightenment on our own power, but must rely on the intercession of higher beings. The transcendent Buddha Amitabha, and his western paradise ("pure land"), introduced in the Sukhavati-vyuha Sutra, was a perfect fit.

Japan

A delegation arrived from Korea with gifts for the Emperor of Japan in 538 ad., including a bronze Buddha and various Sutras. Unfortunately a plague led the Emperor to believe that the traditional gods of Japan were annoyed, so he had the gifts thrown into a canal! But the imperial court on the 600's, in their constant effort to be as sophisticated as the courts of their distinguished neighbors, the Chinese, continued to be drawn to Buddhism.

Although starting as a religion of the upper classes, in the 900's, Pure Land entered the picture as the favorite of the peasant and working classes. And in the 1200's, Ch'an, relabeled Zen, came into Japan, where it was enthusiastically adopted by, among others, the warrior class or Samurai.

Zen was introduced into Japan by two particularly talented monks who had gone to China for their educations: Eisai (1141-1215) brought Lin-chi (J: Rinzai) Ch'an, with its koans and occasionally outrageous antics; Dogen (1200-1253) brought the more sedate Ts'ao-tung (J: Soto) Ch'an. In addition, Dogen is particularly admired for his massive treatise, the Shobogenzo.

Ch'an has always had an artistic side to it. In China and elsewhere, a certain simple, elegant style of writing and drawing developed among the monks. In Japan, this became an even more influential aspect of Zen. We have, for example, the poetry, calligraphy, and paintings of various monks -- Bankei (1622-1698), Basho (1644-1694), Hakuin (1685-1768), and Ryokan (1758-1831) -- which have become internationally beloved.

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One last Japanese innovation is usually attributed to a somewhat unorthodox monk named Nichiren (1222-1282). Having been trained in the Tendai or White Lotus tradition, he came to believe that the Lotus Sutra carried all that was necessary for Buddhist life. More than that, he believed that even the name of the Sutra was enough! So he encouraged his students to chant this mantra: Namu-myoho-renge-kyo, which means "homage to the Lotus Sutra." This practice alone would ensure enlightenment in this life. In fact, he insisted, all other forms of Buddhism were of little worth. Needless to say, this was not appreciated by the Buddhist powers of the day. He spent the rest of his life in relative isolation. The Nichiren School nevertheless proved to be one of the most successful forms of Buddhism on the planet!

Tibet

Finally, let's turn out attention to the most mysterious site of Buddhism's history, Tibet. Its first encounter with Buddhism occurred in the 700's ad, when a Tantric master, Guru Rinpoché, came from India to battle the demons of Tibet for control. The demons submitted, but they remained forever a part of Tibetan Buddhism -- as its protectors! During the 800's and 900's, Tibet went through a "dark age," during which Buddhism suffered something of a setback. But, in the 1000's, it returned in force. And in 1578, the Mongol overlords named the head of the Gelug School the Dalai Lama, meaning "guru as great as the ocean." The title was made retroactive to two earlier heads of the school. The fifth Dalai Lama is noted for bringing all of Tibet under his religious and political control.

The lineage continues down to the present 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, born 1935. In 1989, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts on behalf of his people and nation, which had been taken over by the Communist Chinese in 1951.

The West

It was in the latter half of the 1800's that Buddhism first came to be known in the west. The great European colonial empires brought the ancient cultures of India and China back to the attention of the intellectuals of Europe. Scholars began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts. Adventurers explored previously shut-off places and recorded the cultures. Religious enthusiasts enjoyed the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian traditions.

In England, for example, societies sprang up for devotees of "orientalia," such as T. W. Rhys Davids' Pali Text Society and T. Christmas Humphreys' Buddhist Society. Books were published, such as Sir Edwin Arnold's epic poem The Light of Asia (1879). And the first western monks began to make themselves know, such as Allan Bennett, perhaps the very first, who took the name Ananda Metteya. In Germany and France as well, Buddhism was the rage.

In the United States, there was a similar flurry of interest. First of all, thousands of Chinese immigrants were coming to the west coast in the late 1800's, many to provide cheap labor for the railroads and other expanding industries. Also, on the east coast, intellectuals were reading about Buddhism in books by Europeans. One example was Henry Thoreau, who, among other things, translated a French translation of a Buddhist Sutra into English.

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A renewal of interest came during World War II, during which many Asian Buddhists -- such as the Zen author D. T. Suzuki -- came to England and the U.S., and many European Buddhists --

such as the Zen author Alan Watts -- came to the U.S. As these examples suggest, Zen Buddhism was particularly popular, especially in the U.S., where it became enmeshed in the Beatnik artistic and literary movement as "beat Zen."

One by one, European and Americans who studied in Asia returned with their knowledge and founded monasteries and societies, Asian masters came to Europe and America to found monasteries, and the Asian immigrant populations from China, Japan, Vietnam and elsewhere, quietly continued their Buddhist practices.

Today, it is believed that there are more than 300 million Buddhists in the world, including at least a quarter million in Europe, and a half million each in North and South America. I say "at least" because other estimates go as high as three million in the U.S. alone! Whatever the numbers may be, Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world, after Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. And, although it has suffered considerable setbacks over the centuries, it seems to be attracting more and more people, as a religion or a philosophy of life.

From : Snelling, John (1991). The Buddhist Handbook. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions. The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion (1994). Boston: Shambhala. The Encyclopaedia Britannica CD (1998).

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The Basics of Buddhist Wisdom

The basic beliefs of Buddhism can be demonstrated in the concepts and doctrines: The Four Noble Truth and The Eight Fold Path. The four noble truths were the Buddha’s analysis of the cause of suffering. The Eightfold path was the solution. Together they found the Drama., or the Doctrine of Buddhism. The Four Noble Truths are: The First Noble Truth is the existence of suffering. Birth is painful and death is painful; disease and old age are painful. Not having what we desire is painful and having what we do not desire is also painful. The Second Noble Truth is the cause of suffering. It is the craving desire for the pleasures of the senses, which seeks satisfaction now here, now there; the craving for happiness and prosperity in this life and in future lives. The Third Noble Truth is the ending of suffering. To be free of suffering one must give up, get rid of, extinguish this very craving, so that no passion and no desire remain. The Fourth Noble Truth leads to the ending of all pain by way of the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is: The first step on that path is Right Views: You must accept the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The second is Right Resolve: You must renounce the pleasures of the senses; you must harbor no ill will toward anyone and harm no living creature. The third is Right Speech: Do not lie; do not slander or abuse anyone. Do not indulge in idle talk. The fourth is Right Behavior: Do not destroy any living creature; take only what is given to you; do not commit any unlawful sexual act. The fifth is Right Occupation: You must earn your livelihood in a way that will harm no one. The sixth is Right Effort: You must resolve and strive heroically to prevent any evil qualities from arising in you and to abandon any evil qualities that you may possess. Strive to acquire good qualities and encourage those you do possess to grow, increase, and be perfected. The seventh is Right Contemplation: Be observant, strenuous, alert, contemplative, and free of desire and of sorrow. The eighth is Right Meditation: When you have abandoned all sensuous pleasures, all evil qualities, both joy and sorrow, you must then enter the four degrees of meditation, which are produced by concentration. Buddhist five Precepts: There are five precepts taught by Buddhism that all Buddhists should follow:

1. Kill no living thing. 2. Do not steal. 3. Do not commit adultery. 4. Tell no lies.

125. Do not drink intoxicants or take drugs. http://webspace.ship.edu

Concepts of Gods in Buddhism

Some Buddhists believe in gods, some don't - but belief in gods is not at all required by Buddhism and, arguably, is actually recommended against. This makes Buddhism and atheistic religion - both in practice because of the Buddhists who are also atheists and in theory because of the lack of any defining teachings about the existence of gods.

This in an article for the Hindustan Times, contrasting the atheistic nature of Buddhism with the widespread prevalence of the worship of Hindu gods among Buddhists in Sri Lanka:

Buddhism is an atheistic religion, having no place for a God or Gods in it. "For the common people the Hindu Gods are like a pair of crutches and a wall to lean on in case their legs and back are weak," said a Sinhala-Buddhist lady devotee at the Kali Amman kovil at Modera, in north Colombo. "Buddhist monks say that there is no harm in taking such help, if it can give some relief," the devotee said. "Ordinary folk need help to solve their seemingly intractable personal, familial and social problems. But help is not accessible to them because of the stratified society. Perforce they have to appeal for divine intervention," the devotee added. But they have to turn to Hindu Gods for divine intervention because the Buddha is not a giver of boons or a dispenser of favours. He does not even want to be worshipped. He will not accept any offerings other than flowers. The Buddhist sangha is not meant to render social and economic services to anybody including the hoi polloi. The Hindu Gods, on the other hand, are dispensers of boons whether it is wealth, artistic abilities, education, or power in return for worship. ---–The Hindustan times

Balachanddran quotes Dr WG Weeraratne, editor of the Buddhist Encyclopaedia, at some length:

The Buddha himself never banned the worship of Hindu Gods or any God for that matter. "The Buddha himself had conversations with the Gods as in the Sakkasamyutta and Vanasamyutta," points out Dr De Zoysa. To the Buddha, it did not matter if someone worshiped Gods so long it did not harm anybody or society, and so long as he followed the Dhamma, or the code of right living, adds Dr Weeraratne. Buddha was not happy with the way the Brahmins were manipulating theistic ideas to suit their interests. "Through their control over religions practices, especially the sacrificial rites, the Brahmins were enhancing their social status and power at the expense of the masses. From the very inception, the Buddha considered this situation unsatisfactory. He felt that the theistic religion was enabling the Brahmins to exploit the people, through the caste system particularly," Dr Weeraratne said. "The Buddha realized that the main cause of this phenomenon was the idea of the Creator God. He examined the concept of the Creator God and found that it had no basis. He rejected it. The Buddha also rejected all other Gods," Dr Weeraratne said. "However, the Buddha did not debunk the popular belief in Gods and Goddesses, because they had taken deep roots in the minds of the common folk. He was aware that ordinary people did good things to get rewarded in their next life. They did not do bad things for fear of being punished in the next life. Therefore, the Buddha let this system of control remain. It did not matter to him so long as it played a positive social role," Dr Weeraratne explained.

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"But the Buddha kept on discouraging the dependence on Gods in the running of one's life, pointing out that the Gods really would not be able to help or hinder anybody. For him Gods were but human beings who had attained divinity through good karma or deeds. They were not to be feared," Dr Weeraratna said. According to Dr Weeraratne, there are three types of Gods in Buddhism: (1) Living human being to whom divinity is attached by popular acceptance like the Kings. These are called the Sammuti Devas (2) Human beings who become divinities after death because of their good deeds as human beings. These are called Upapatti Devas, (3) Those who have attained divinity through purification and righteous living as per the teaching of the Dhamma like the Pachcheka Buddhas and the Arahants ,the outstanding followers of the Buddha. These are the ones who have attained Nirvana and the freedom from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. They are called the Visuddhi Devas.

Thus, even when Buddhists do believe in gods of some sort, those gods are not all-knowing (or even very intelligent), all-powerful, or all-present. No, they are just human beings who have achieved an important position in the universe due to their good deed while here on Earth. They aren't even "above" the Buddha in terms of knowledge or understanding. Being a god also isn't permanent - gods, too, are subject to "decay and death" over time.

Balachanddran quotes the late Buddhist activist Gamini Iriyagolle: "In Buddhism, the Gods are not supreme beings. They are subordinate to the Buddha and are there to protect the Dhamma." In describing the folk Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Balachanddran adds that this view of gods, this is taken a bit further and they are treated "as protectors of individuals facing the mundane problems of life."

http://buddhism.about.com/mlibrary.htm

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Buddhism in Bangladesh

Bangladesh (historical Bengal) holds a unique place in the history of Indian Buddhism at least for two reasons. First, Bengal was the last stronghold of Indian Buddhism where it survived as a socio-cultural force until the twelfth century AD, despite its disappearance from other parts of the sub-continent. Secondly, it is generally claimed that Bengal was the home of a degenerate form of Buddhism known as Tantric Buddhism. Tantric Buddhism is a later development in Bengal and therefore it remains to be seen what specific factors are responsible for turning the pure form of Buddhism into tantricism and whether the mystic and esoteric practices in the Buddhism of Bangladesh are of distinctively Bengali origin. It is in association with the rule of emperors and kings and their support and sympathy for Buddhism at different periods of time that the history of Indian Buddhism, and hence of the Buddhism of Bangladesh, should be seen. The success of the Buddha's missionary activities during his lifetime and afterwards as well as the thriving of Buddhism both as religion and civilization in different parts of India were largely due to the patronage of kings such as Bimbisara, Ashoka, Kaniska etc. down to the Palas and Chandras of Bengal in the twelfth century AD. Although not all monarchs patronized Buddhism, and some of them were even hostile to its progress, Buddhism nevertheless was able to prosper and flourish in Bengal over a period of more than eight hundred years. It is possible that Buddhism entered Bengal before Asoka's time. After attaining enlightenment, the Buddha is said to have delivered his first sermon at Saranath and then moved to Magadha, Koshala, Vaishali and other places within what was known as Majjhimadesha or Madhyadesha. In the Divyavadana, the eastern boundary of the Majjhimadesha is said to have extended as far as pundravardhana (North Bengal). Furthermore, the Buddha is said to have received considerable support from King Bimbisara of Magadha who not only dedicated Venuvana as a residence for monks, but also remained his close friend and a great patron of his Dhamma throughout his life. Since Bengal was adjacent to Magadha, it is possible that the Buddha had visited parts of Bangladesh as suggested by Hiuen Tsang, who notes that Asoka had erected stupas at various places in Bengal and Orissa to commemorate these visits. Asoka's Reign and the Post-Maurya Period Epigraphic and other sources reveal that Buddhism had established a powerful footing in Bengal during Asoka's reign. The discovery of a Mauryan inscription in Brahmi characters at mahasthan in the district of bogra bearing the name Pudanagala (Pundranagara) and the recovery of many Mauryan coins and other artifacts dating from the fourth and third centuries BC suggest that the Gangetic delta was under the control of the Mauryan empire. The Chinese traveller, I-tsing, is said to have noticed Asoka's stupas near tamralipti (Tamluk) and Karnasuvarna (modern Burdwan and Murshidabad districts) in west bengal, in Pundravardhana (North Bengal) and in samatata (Bangladesh). The port of Tamralipti to the west of the Bhagirathi-Hughli river, in particular, played an important role during Asoka's rule. It was from here, according to Mahavangsa, that the Buddhist mission from Asoka's capital city, Pataliputra, sailed for Ceylon to spread the message of the Buddha. With the fall of the Mauryan Empire, Buddhism lost its royal patronage. Pusyamitra killed his master, Brhadratha, and captured the throne of Magadha, founding the Sunga dynasty in the second century BC. With the advent of the Sungas, Buddhism had its first setback. The once

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thriving religion declined not merely for lack of royal patronage but, most importantly, because of the hostile attitude of the Sunga kings towards Buddhism and the Sangha. However, some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Sunga kings were not intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the Sunga kings. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Sunga period can also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on exhibit at the Asutosh Museum, university of calcutta. Buddhism received a further impetus from the Kushanas in the first century AD when Kaniska raised Buddhism to the status of a state religion, erected stupas and chaityas, built monasteries and, like Asoka, sent missions abroad. The discovery of Buddha images, copper and gold coins and inscriptions also clearly throw light on the flourishing condition of Buddhism during the reign of Kaniska. Gupta Era As devout adherents of a Brahminical faith (Parama-Bhagavatas), the Gupta emperors patronized and revived Brahminism, but they also possessed a tolerant outlook which allowed Buddhism to flourish. Moreover the rise of the two powerful cults of Saivism and vaisnavism brought Buddhism closer to hinduism. In its spiritual nihilism, Buddhism was approximated to the Bhakti movements so much so that, in the middle of the 6th century AD, the Buddha was accepted as an avatar of vishnu. According to Chinese sources, Maharaja Gupta or Shri Gupta, the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty, built a Buddhist temple and offered it to Buddhist monks from China along with a gift of twenty-four villages. This temple is believed to have remained a sacred place till the 7th century AD. Samudra Gupta, despite being a devout worshipper of Vishnu, proved to be a great patron of Buddhism. It was during his reign that cultural relations between India and Ceylon were established, his teacher and guide, the celebrated Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu, was appointed minister, and, with the permission of the Ceylonese King Meghavanna, a monastery was built at Bodh-Gaya for the monks and pilgrims of Ceylon. Chandra Gupta II who, like his father Samudra Gupta, was a devout Vaisnava by faith, gave full freedom to the practice of other faiths in his empire. During his visit to Bengal, Fa-hien is said to have travelled eastward along the course of the Ganges, coming across Buddhist stupas and monks at different places. In Tamralipti, he is said to have spent two years and visited twenty-two monasteries, inhabited by monks who lived in accordance with the Buddhist Vinaya. There is archaeological evidence to corroborate Fa-hien's account about the thriving state of Buddhism in the Gupta period. An inscription found at Gunaigarh near comilla, bearing the year 188 of the Gupta era (506 or 507 AD), records a gift of land by Maharaja Vainya Gupta in favour of the Buddhist Avaivarttika Sangha of the Mahayana sect. The Sangha founded by the Acharya Shantideva was housed in a monastery called Ashrama-Vihara which was dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. The inscription also refers to other Buddhist monasteries, one of which was known as Raja-Vihara or the royal vihara. Two Buddhist sculptures, a standing image of the Buddha found at Biharail in rajshahi district and a gold-plated bronze image of Manjushri discovered at Balai Dhap mound at Mahasthana in Bogra, also bear testimony to the flourishing state of Buddhism during the rule of the Gupta kings.

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Both Hinayana and Mahayana continued to flourish side by side during the Gupta period. Buddhist inscriptions, seals, images and manuscripts in Gupta characters, discovered from the sites of different archaeological excavations, testify to the flourishing state of the early Hinayana schools, namely, the Sarvastivadins, the Sammatiyas or the Vatsiputriyas and Sthavirvadins. But gradually, Hinayana lost its hold and gave way to Mahayana. Mahayana, with its ultra-altruistic principles, its scope for devotion and worship, and its opening of the state of Bodhisattvahood to recluses and laity, began to capture the imagination of common people and became an important religious movement. As Mahayana grew popular, Bodhisattvas such as Manjusri, Avalokitesvara and the goddess prajnaparamita assumed important positions. The adi buddha and Amitabha Buddha also received special attention. Worship of Bodhisattva images along with the image of the Buddha turned into a common practice. The Mahayanists are said to have revered the Prajna texts just as the Hinayanists revered their Vinaya and Abhidharma books. The Mahayanists are also said to have practised spells (dharanis) for religious purposes. Hiuen Tsang visited India in the 7th century AD and visited almost all the major places associated with Buddhism in Bangladesh. According to him, there were six or seven Buddhist monasteries at Kajangala near Rajmahal, housing over three hundred monks. In the northern part of the country, he also claimed to have seen a belvedere built of stone and brick, with a broad and high base, artistic ornamentation and distinct carved images of the Buddha and the devas. At Pundravardhana he is said to have found twenty Buddhist monasteries with more than 3,000 monks who practised both Hinayana and Mahayana. The magnificent Po-shi-po, with spacious halls and storeyed chambers, occupied by over 700 monks, was located in the vicinity of the capital of Pundravardhana. There is also mention of a temple with an image of Avalokitesvara not far from this establishment, which attracted visitors from far and near. Fa-hien tells us that when he visited India in the 5th century AD, some of the old Buddhist centres like Kapilavastu and Saraswati were in a neglected and ruinous state, while Pataliputra, Mathura, Bodh-gaya, Sarnath and Nalanda were flourishing as active centres of Buddhism. The great monastery of Nalanda, which was founded by Kumara Gupta Mahendraditya, rose to prominence in the Gupta period and in course of time turned into a university and became the greatest centre of Buddhist learning in Asia. From an early date, the Buddhists of Bengal were closely linked with this great institution, although it was situated in Magadha. Prior to Hiuen Tsang's visit to Nalanda, Acharya Dharmapala had been the high priest of its monastery. He was succeeded by his disciple Acharya shilabhadra, a scion of a Brahmana king of Samatata. It was under Silabhadra's guidance that Hiuen Tsang studied Buddhist philosophy, including the vedas and Sangkhya Shastras, for five years. Not only scholars from Bengal but also its kings, the Guptas, the Palas etc., contributed to the development of the great institutions at Nalanda. Post-Gupta Age In the post-Gupta period, Harsavardhana gave Buddhism a new impetus. But in the 6th century AD, when Shashanka came to the throne, he was hostile to Buddhism. According to Hiuen Tsang's account, Shashanka ordered the extermination of the Buddhist monks in and around Kushinagara; he cut down the holy Bodhi tree of Gaya and threw into the Ganges a sacred stone bearing the footprints of the Buddha. He is also said to have removed a Buddha image from a temple close to the Bodhi tree and replaced it with an image of shiva. In sharp contrast to Shashanka's persecution of Buddhism, the reign of Emperor Harsavardhana (606-647 AD) was one of resurgence and renewed progress and development. Despite being a

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worshipper of Shiva and Surya, Harsa had great leanings towards Buddhism, with both his elder brother, Rajyavardhana, and sister Rajyashri being devout Buddhists. Harsa was at first a devotee of the Hinayana sect, but, in later life, became an ardent follower of Mahayana. Some of his notable contributions to the cause of Buddhism include erecting stupas on the banks of the Ganges, building monasteries at places sacred to Buddhism, and forbidding the slaying of animals. Another of his important contributions to Buddhism was his convening regularly the quinquennial convocation in which he gave away in religious alms everything he possessed. Harsa used to summon Buddhist monks once a year for religious discussions. Harsa was specially attached to Nalanda and extended help liberally. After Harsavardhana, the Khadga dynasty is said to be the first Buddhist dynasty to rule an independent Bengal between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. The discovery of two copperplates, one at Ashrafpur, 30 miles north-east of dhaka and another at Deulbari, 14 miles south of Comilla, gives us valuable information about this royal dynasty. These copperplates mention the names of three kings, Khadgodyama, Jatakhadga and Devakhadga, and include the names of the queen and the son of Devakhadga, Prabhavati and Rajaraja or Rajarajabhata. I-tsing's account notes that as many as fifty-six Buddhist priests from China visited India and its neighbouring areas in the latter half of the seventh century AD. One of these monks, Sheng-chi, who visited Samatata, mentions Rajabhata as its king and describes him as an ardent worshipper of the three gems (Triratna), i.e., the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. There were 30 monasteries with more that 4,000 monks in Samatata alone during the pilgrim's visit. It is clear from all these that during the reign of the Khadga kings, Buddhism continued to flourish in Bengal in the seventh century AD. Rule of the Pala Dynasty The Pala rule may be regarded as the golden age of Buddhism in Bengal. The Palas were devout Buddhists (Parama-saugata) who were, however, equally sympathetic to other faiths. They invoked the Buddha at the beginning of their official records. Buddhism survived and flourished in Bengal for four centuries under the patronage of the Pala kings, while it was almost wiped out in other parts of India. At the same time, it also became a dominant international force, extending its influence to Tibet in the north and the Malaya peninsula in the south. Archaeological and epigraphic evidence testifies to the lavish patronage of the Palas towards the cause of Buddhism. Instances of the Palas' patronage of Buddhism are numerous. King Gopala, according to Tibetan tradition, built a monastery at Nalanda and established many religious schools. According to Taranatha, many distinguished Buddhist teachers flourished during the reign of Gopala, prominent among them being Danashila, Vishesamitra, Sura and Prajñavarman. The Odantapuri Vihara was a specimen of rare architectural beauty. The famous Sam-ye monastery of Tibet is said to have been built on the model of this great vihara. dharmapala continued the religious policy of his father Gopala and extended his liberal support to Buddhist establishments. He is said to have founded the famous Vikramashila Vihara on a hill top on the bank of the Ganges in Magadha. The vihara soon rose to prominence as an international university, second only to Nalanda, maintaining contact with Tibet and graced by the presence of Tibetan scholars throughout the Pala rule. Many of the Vikramashila scholars, who once numbered 3000 in the 12th century AD, composed numerous books in Sanskrit and also translated them into Tibetan. The curricula of the university included logic, metaphysics,

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grammar, tantras, rituals etc. Importantly, the reigning monarch of the land awarded degrees to students. Dharmapala is also known to have built a monastery at Somapura, in Rajshahi district. The somapura mahavihara, Naogaon which became a model for many monasteries in South-east Asia, stands as a magnificent testament to the Pala patronage of Buddhism. Dharmapala is also said to have established as many as fifty religious schools designed to teach Buddhist philosophy and to study Prajnaparamita in particular. He was a great patron of the Buddhist writer, Haribhadra, and, during his reign, as in his father's, many distinguished Buddhist teachers, such as Purnavardhana, Prabhakara, Kalyanagupta, Sagaramegha, Bhuddhajñapada, flourished. Under devapala, the Pala empire reached the zenith of its glory, and Bengal became a paramount power. Devapala is said to have granted an endowment of five villages for the upkeep of a monastery founded by King Balaputradeva of Java, Sumatra and Malaya. Not only did he complete the Somapura establishment, he also showed keen interest in the well-being of the Vikramshila Vihara. Mahipala I, the ninth king of the Pala dynasty and rightly called the founder of the second Pala empire, is responsible for the revival of the past glory of the Buddhist establishments. He repaired the Buddhist monuments at Nalanda and constructed two new temples at Bodh-Gaya. Many famous monasteries were built during the Pala period of which mention may be made of Jagaddala, Traikutaka, Pandita, Devikota, Pattikeraka, Sannagara, Phullahari and Vikramapuri. Buddhism flourished during the reign of the Chandra dynasty in harikela (eastern and southern parts of Bengal). The discovery of a large Buddha stupa, Salbana Vihara and other inscriptions at the Mainamati hills, four miles to the west of Comilla, still bears testimony to the condition of Buddhism during the Chandra kings. According to Tibetan sources, Buddhist tantricism flourished under the Chandra rule. The famous Buddhist scholar of vikramapura, atish dipankar srijnan, is believed to be related to this Chandra dynasty. The Pala Kingdom was not only the last stronghold of dying Buddhism in India, it was also responsible for the rise of Tantric Buddhism. This new phase of Mahayana Buddhism has been variously designated by Charles Eliot and others as 'late', 'degenerate', and 'corrupt'. Such allegations are based on the assumption that when Buddhism entered Bengal, it gradually came under the powerful influence of tantric beliefs and practices, including what are known as sexo-yogic practices, which made it fall away from the purity of its early form and eventually develop into what came to be known as esoteric or magical Buddhism. Professor Trevor Ling opines that in Bengal from the time of Asoka to the Pala period, both the Hinayana and Mahayana, not the tantric, forms of Buddhism were practised. He describes the classical pattern of Buddhism as a three-cornered relationship between Sangha, king and people and emphasizes that the Buddhism of the Pala period was a true representative example of this classical pattern. Trevor Ling and many others believe that the Pala rule in Bengal heralded an era of progress in culture, religion, education, literature, art and sculpture. Amongst other achievements of the Palas, Ling has particularly mentioned their active patronage of Bangla language and literature. It was in a popular new language, a proto-Bangla form, that the Buddhist poets composed what are known to be the first poems of Bangla literature, the famous charyapada, a Tantric work of twenty-three Buddhist Tantrikists known as Siddhas.

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Tantric Buddhism The term tantra has several meanings; but when it is applied, in its special technical sense, to a religion, the religious system assumes some fundamental features with emphasis laid on the use of such practices as mystic syllables (mantras), magical diagrams (yantras), ritualistic circles (mandalas), physical gestures (mudras), spells (dharanis), etc. To these are added the elements of sex-play (maithuna), psycho-physical discipline (yoga), a pantheon of gods, worship and ritualism, magic, sorcery, charms, necromancy, astrology, symbolism, alchemy, the principle of an apparent duality in an absolute non-duality, co-efficiency of the female partner and the concept of the Great Delight (mahasukha) born of the union of male and female. Two of the earliest available texts on Tantric Buddhism are the Guhyasamajatantra and Manjushrimulakalpa, the former dealing with yoga and anuttarayoga (tantric forms of meditation), and the latter with mantras, mudras, mandalas, etc. In the Manjusrimulakalpa are also given instructions for painting the different gods and goddesses of the Tantric pantheon. Amongst other tantric works are mentioned Hevajratantra, Samvaratantra, Kalachakratantra, Jnanasiddhi, Karandavyuhasutra, Nilakanthadharani and Mahapratyangiradharani. This mystic form of Buddhism developed in Bengal during the Pala period and its profound impact entirely changed the course and history of Buddhism. This medieval Buddhist movement was founded by the tantric acharyas known as Siddhas who are traditionally believed to be men of psychic and supernatural powers. In the Buddhist tradition, the number of the Siddhas is put at eighty-four. Some of the principal figures amongst the Siddhas are Sarahapa, Nagarjuna, Tilopa, Naropa, Advayavajra, kahnapa, Savarapa, Luipa, Bhusuku, Kukkuripa, Dombi and Indrabhuti. The earliest form of tantric Buddhism is usually believed to be Mantrayana, a name derived from the word mantra. The mantras are set mystical formulae which were recited at religious ceremonies under the impression that their recitation and repetition were efficacious in attaining a desired goal and even emancipation. This religious cult was in course of time superseded by other forms of Buddhist tantricism, namely, vajrayana, sahajayana and Kalachakrayana. Both Vajrayana and Sahajayana dealt, though not in the same manner, with the stage of the same mysticism. But while the first laid emphasis on ceremonials, in the latter ceremonials had no place. Vajrayana attached great importance to the practice of mantra, mudra and mandala in the worship of gods and goddesses. In both Vajrayana and Sahajayana, the practice of yoga is required which, however, must be done with the help of the guru or teacher. The guru determines the right path of sadhana for his disciple and guides him along that path towards the goal, viz. mahasukha or perfect bliss. Decline and Resurgence Buddhism, as a typical tantric form of mysticism, reached a stage in Bengal in the hands of the Siddhas where it was easily assimilated to Shaktism. The fusion between Saktism and Buddhist mysticism gave rise to new schools of Saktism and some forms of popular religion in which Buddhism is said to have survived, despite its decline in the face of Brahmanism. One such school of Saktism came to be known as Kaula, which is derived from the word Kula, meaning Sakti. The followers of the school are called Kaula, Kulaputra or Kulina. Amongst other systems or forms of religion that Buddhist mysticism is said to have absorbed within itself, the most noteworthy are nathism, Avadhuta, sahajiya and baul. The leaders of Nathism or Nathamarga were known as Nathas who were also called yogis as they practised a form of yoga different from the one used by the Buddha or Patañjali. Instead of concentrating on one definite point in the process of attaining salvation, they tried to attain success (siddhi) by restricting the internal air and guiding it from below the abdomen to the forehead. Amongst the

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Nathas, the most famous are matsyendranath, Goraksanatha, Minanatha, Chauranganatha, the former being the founder of the Natha school. The Avadhuta sect also practised the Buddhist form of yoga which emphasized a thorough knowledge of the entire physiological system, including the countless nadis (veins) within the body of which the principal ones are lalana, rasana and avadhuti. The Avadhuta sect seems to be the revival of some old religious practices known as dhutangas, mentioned in old Buddhist texts but which were never practised by orthodox Buddhists. These rules of dhuta-discipline included living by begging, living far away from human habitation, wearing torn clothes etc. Nityananda, an associate of Sri chaitanya, was said to be a great follower of this Avadhuta sect. The Sahajiya sect is believed to have been established by the great Siddha Saraha, the other two great exponents of it being Kahna and Lui. The Sahajiyas were opposed to the worship of gods or goddesses and other ceremonies; instead they laid stress on the easy path of salvation which they wanted to achieve through carnal enjoyments. The Mainamati plate, an inscription of the 13th century, is believed to have the oldest reference to Sahajiya. In the writings and songs of chandidas, a Bengali poet of the 14th century, one can trace the ideas of the Sahajiya cult. In course of time, Buddhist Sahajayana is said to have been assimilated into Vaisnavism and lost much of its ancient traditions. It is the Bauls who are believed to have preserved the tradition more faithfully than the Sahajiyas, as they have not been carried away by the influence of Vaisnavism. The Senas, who followed the Palas, were orthodox followers of Saivaism or Vaisnavism and had little sympathy with Buddhism. Deprived of royal support, Buddhism soon began to decline and disintegrate. Its institutions disappeared and those which lingered on could not withstand the onslaught of muhammad bakhtyar khalji. Buddhist monks who outlived persecution by Muslim invaders fled to Nepal, Tibet or Bhutan. The Buddhist laity were either converted to Islam or were integrated into the fold of Brahmanism. Buddhism, as a separate entity, was almost extinct, surviving in many debased forms of popular practices such as dharma thakur puja or the puja of jagannath. The decline of Buddhism, however, did not result in its total disappearance from the land of its birth, and it continued to survive in various forms of popular worship, rites and rituals until its resurgence in modern India. With its rediscovery in its parent country, the traditions of Buddhism were significantly recognized so that the Asokan pillar, the sacred Wheel of Law (Dharmachakra) and the Singhanada sculpture from Saranatha are now a part of Indian national life and heritage. The renewal of Buddhism in India today is attributed to Dr BR Ambedkar, the architect of the Indian Constitution, who led the mass conversion of millions of untouchables or 'Scheduled Castes' to Buddhism in 1956. In Bengal, however, the revival of Buddhism seems to have taken place centuries before Dr BR Ambedkar's introduction of the neo-Buddhist movement in Maharastra and other places. In the districts of chittagong and the chittagong hill tracts, the south-eastern parts of Bangladesh, a Buddhist minority had been practising Theravada long before the Moghuls and the British arrived in Bengal. In course of time, these Buddhists reformed their Sangha and in 1887 founded the Chittagong Buddhist Association, believed to be the first Buddhist society to be formed in the sub-continent.

(Niru Kumar Chakma- Banglapedia)

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Buddhism Terms

Bhikkhu A Buddhist monk who wanders about depending upon others for his basic necessities . Bodhi A Buddhist term for the wisdom by which one attains enlightenment. Bodhisattva In Mahayana Buddhism, one who postpones attaining nirvana in order to help others achieve this goal. In Theravada Buddhism, it is one who is on the way to becoming a Buddha. Gautama was called a Bodhisattva before he attained enlightenment. Buddha"enlightened one"- This title was given to Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, upon his enlightenment. Likewise, a person can gain this position through following the fourfold path to enlightenment. BuddhismThe religion based upon the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama). The Buddha's main teaching revolved around the causes for human suffering and the way to salvation from this suffering could be achieved. The two main branches of Buddhism are called Mahayana and Theravada or Hinayana. Dhamma The teachings of the Buddha. Dukkha Suffering, which is rooted in desire and attachment. Mahayana The form of Buddhism prevalent in China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Literally translated, means "the great vehicle." Nirvana In Buddhism, it is basically a blissful spiritual condition where the heart extinguishes passion, hatred and delusion. It is the highest spiritual plane one person can attain. Pitaka Literally, "basket." Refers to the "three baskets" (Tripitaka) of sacred Buddhist writings. Samsara The cycle of birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Sangha The Buddhist monastic order literally translated as "group" or "community." Theravada Literally the "teachings of the elders." The form of Buddhism that arose early among Buddha's disciples. Also called Hinayana Buddhism. Prevails in Southeast Asia.

(http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/buddhism/terms.html)

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Meditation and Buddhism

Meditation is at the heart of the Buddhist way of life. It is basically a method for understanding and working on own mind. Meditation is a mental and physical course of action that a person uses to separate themselves from their thoughts and feelings in order to become fully aware. It plays a part in virtually all religions although some don't use the word 'meditation' to describe their particular meditative or contemplative practice.Successful meditation means simply being - not judging, not thinking, just being aware, at peace and living each moment as it unfolds. What is Buddhist meditation? In Buddhism the person meditating is not trying to get into a hypnotic state or contact angels or any other supernatural entity. Meditation involves the body and the mind. For Buddhists this is particularly important as they want to avoid what they call 'duality' and so their way of meditating must involve the body and the mind as a single entity. In the most general definition, meditation is a way of taking control of the mind so that it becomes peaceful and focused, and the meditator becomes more aware. The purpose of meditation is to stop the mind rushing about in an aimless (or even a purposeful) stream of thoughts. People often say that the aim of meditation is to still the mind. There are a number of methods of meditating - methods which have been used for a long time and have been shown to work. People can meditate on their own or in groups. Meditating in a group - perhaps at a retreat called a sesshin or in a meditation room or zendo - has the benefit of reminding a person that they are both part of a larger Buddhist community, and part of the larger community of beings of every species. Methods of meditation Some classical meditation methods use the meditator's own breathing. They may just sit and concentrate on their breathing... not doing anything to alter the way they breathe, not worrying about whether they're doing it right or wrong, not even thinking about breathing; just 'following' the breathing and 'becoming one' with the breathing. It is important not to think: "I am breathing". When a person does that they separate themselves from the breathing and start thinking of themselves as separate from what they are doing - the aim is just to be aware of breathing. A meditation candle This is more difficult than it sounds. Some meditators prefer to count breaths, trying to count up to ten without any distraction at all, and then starting again at one. If they get distracted they notice the distraction and go back to counting. But there are many methods of meditation - some involve chanting mantras, some involve concentrating on a particular thing (such as a candle flame or a flower). Nor does meditation have to involve keeping still; walking meditation is a popular Zen way of doing it, and repetitive movements using beads or prayer wheels are used in other faiths.

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/customs/meditation_1.shtml http://1stholistic.com/Meditation/hol_meditation_intro. tm

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hhttp://www.aboutbuddhism.org/what-is-buddhism.php)

The Holy Book of Buddhism- Tipitaka Tripitaka Buddhist sacred scriptures that contain the religion, philosophy, sayings and advices of gautam buddha. The Tipitaka, which is divided into three sections, is the fundamental scripture of Buddhism The word 'Tripitaka' means Triple Baskets or three parts: Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka an Abhidhamma Pitaka. . Theravada Buddhists regard the Tipitaka as the complete teachings Buddha. Mahayana Buddhists also use the Tipitaka, but they regard the Mahayana sutras, or journals of the Buddha, as more important.

Vinaya Pitaka is the first of the Tripitaka and it contains all the disciplinary rules of ecclesiastical acts and duties formulated by the Buddha himself for the conduct and guidance of monks and nuns. It consists of five books: Parajika, Pachittiya, Mahavagga, Chullavagga and Parivara. The Parajika deals with the eight kinds of transgressions of the Vinaya. The Pachittiya is commentary on the Parajika and is modelled on the Patimokkha and designed for nuns. These two canonical books are collectively known as the Sutta Vibhanga. Vinaya is violated in eight ways which are divided into Parajika and Pachittiaya. The penalty of Parajika offences is expulsion from a sangha. For Pachittiya offences a Bhikkhu has to undergo expiation for the period indicated. Mahavagga traces the growth and development of Buddhist monks. It also includes the rules about admission to the order, Uposatha ceremony, Pravarana, barsabas (retreat), food, dwellings, medicaments, cloths etc for monks. The Chullvagga contains details of ecclesiastical punishments to be inflicted and accepted by the guilty, process of suspension, rehabilitation, and the special rules laid out for the nuns. Both of them are collectively called Khandhakas or Treatises.

Parivara is a manual of guidelines for the use of the monks. Its object is to help monks not only to remember the rules but also to be aware of the facts and circumstances. It contains lists created to help in memorising the rules. In addition to the above books, Vinaya Pitaka is an important part of the Tripitaka. Some look upon it as part of the Canon. It contains 227 rules. Buddha gave much stress on the Vinaya as 'the life of his teachings'. [Sumangal Barua]

Sutta Pitaka is the second part of the Tripitaka. It contains some suttas, or religious advice, concerning the basic principles of buddhism which were given by Buddha to his disciples, including both monks and laypersons. The Sutta Pitaka explains shila, Samadhi and Prajna the three steps of Buddhist practice. It also highlights the four Aryan truths of Buddhism: Pratityasamutpada, Karmavada and Nirvana. The society, economy, politics and religious faith of Buddha's age are also discussed in it. Sutta Pitaka consists of five Nikayas. Of these Dighanikaya contains thirty-four long discourses such as Brahmajala, Samanna Phala, Mahaparinivvana, Mahanidana etc on the life of Buddha and various aspects of Buddhism. Majjhamanikaya contains 152 discourses which analyse various aspects of Buddhist doctrines. Sangsuttanikaya contains 2889 small suttas that have been classified into 56 groups (samsuttas). Anguttaranikaya contains about 2308 small suttas divided into eleven sections. The Khuddakanikaya contains 15 books of various lengths, namely Khuddakapatha, Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka, Suttanipata, Bimanavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragatha, Therigatha, Jataka, Niddesa, Patisambhidamagna, Apadana, Buddhavangsha and Chariyapitaka, which are store-houses of information.

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Abhidhamma Pitaka the third part of Tripitaka, treats subjects similar to the Sutta Pitaka but differs from the latter in being more scholastic as well as drier and monotonous, being overloaded with endless synonyms. It is composed in the form of questions and answers with the ideas classified and outlined. It contains seven books: Dhammasangani, Vibhanga, Dhatukatha, Puggalapannatti, Kathavasthu, Yamaka, and Patthana. Dhammasangani deals with the definition and classification of psychical conditions and phenomena like chitta and chaitasika belonging to mundane and super-mundane realms. Vibhanga synthesises the psychical conditions and phenomena which are analysed in the Dhammasangani. Puggalapannatti contains discussions on the nature of the personality according to the different spiritual stages. Dhatukatha discusses the elements of psychical phenomena and their mutual relations which have been referred to in Dhammasangani and Vibhanga. Kathavasthu, compiled by Moggaliputtatisutha, criticises many heretical views from the theravada standpoint. Yamaka analyses psychological subjects while Patthana discusses the twenty-four causal relations. [Binayendra Chaudhury]

The three section of the Tipitaka are the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Rules and regulations for Buddhist monks and nuns are described in the Vinaya Pitaka. The actual experiences of Buddha are documented in the Sutta Pitaka. Along with the documentation of his experiences, there are extensive commentaries on myths and legends about Buddha. The doctrine of the absence of self and suffering is also found in this section of the Tipitaka. The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains works that teaches on the Theravada positions from Buddha's teaching. These works are now considered to be mainly for advanced students of Buddhism.

According to Buddhist sources, the Tipitaka was written down after 50 BC in Sanskrit. The word "tipitaka" means "three baskets". The Tipitaka spread with the growth of Buddhism.

(www.newadvent.org/cathen/03028b.htm, Banglapedia.)

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Buddhism and Science

Buddhism goes beyond modern science in its acceptance of a wider field of knowledge than is allowed by the scientific mind. Buddhism admits knowledge arising from the sense organs as well as personal experiences gained though mental culture. By training and developing a highly concentrated mind, religious experience can be understood and verified. Religious experience is not something which can be understood by conducting experiments in a test-tube or examined under a microscope. Buddhists' View of Science The truth discovered by science is relative and subject to changes, while that found by the Buddha is final and absolute: the Truth of Dharma does not change according to time and space. Furthermore, in contrast to the selective theorizing of science, the Buddha encouraged the wise not to cling to theories, scientific or otherwise. Instead of theorizing, the Buddha taught mankind how to live a righteous life so as to discover Ultimate Truths. By living a righteous life, by calming the senses, and by casting off desires, the Buddha pointed the way through which we can discover within ourselves the nature of life. And the real purpose of life can be found. The Importance of Practice Practice is important in Buddhism. A person who studies much but does not practice is like one who is able to recite recipes from a huge cookery-book without trying to prepare a single dish. His hunger cannot be relived by book knowledge alone. Practice is such important prerequisite of enlightenment that in some schools of Buddhism, such as Zen, practice is put even ahead or knowledge. Buddhists' Approach The scientific method is outwardly directed, and modern scientists exploit nature and the elements for their own comfort, often disregarding the need to harmonize with the environment and thereby polluting the world. In contrast, Buddhism is inwardly directed and is concerned with the inner development of man. On the lower level, Buddhism teaches the individual how to adjust and cope with events and circumstances of daily life. At the higher level, it represents the human endeavor to grow beyond oneself through the practice of mental culture or mind development. Buddhism has a complete system of mental culture concerned with gaining insight into the nature of things which leads to complete self-realization of the Ultimate Truth - Nirvana. This system is both practical and scientific, it involves dispassionate observation of emotional and mental states. More like a scientist than a judge, a meditator observes the inner world with mindfulness.

(This article was extracted from "What Buddhist Believe", written by Ven (Dr) K Sri Dhammananda.)

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Holy Days

Festivals play a big part in the lives of many Buddhists. Most Buddhists, with the exception of the Japanese, use the Lunar calendar. The dates of Buddhist festivals and the way they are celebrated vary from country to country, and between Buddhists traditions.The Buddha advised his followers that if they were to thrive they should ‘meet together regularly and in large numbers.’ So festivals are central to the life of the Buddhist community. They provide an opportunity for celebration and the expression of devotion and gratitude to the Buddha and his teachings. The dates of Buddhist festivals are celebrated vary from country to country, and between Buddhist tradition. The principal Buddhist festivals celebrate ‘the Three Jewels’, the Buddha, the Dharma (the Buddhist Teaching), and the Sangha (the spiritual community). The main Buddhist Festivals are: Dharma Day- the Celebration of the Buddha's Teaching, the Full Moon of July Dharma day marks the beginning of the Buddha's teaching. The word Dharma can be translated as truth and is the term used for the path to enlightenment, or the Buddhist teaching. Soon after his Enlightenment the Buddha went to find his former disciples and share his experience with them. This event could be seen as the start of the Buddhist religion, and is what Dharma day celebrates. The first teaching to the Buddha's original five disciples is known as ‘The First Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma (Dharmachakra) In early Buddhism, the time around what has now become Dharma Day (the eighth lunar month in the traditional Indian calendar) marked the beginning of the rainy season. At this point, the Buddha and his monks and nuns would suspend their nomadic lifestyle for three months. They would shelter together until the monsoon season was over, and use this time as a period of further meditation and reflection. Dharma day is now seen as a chance to express gratitude that the Buddha, and other enlightened teachers, have shared their knowledge with others.Dharma day is usually celebrated with readings from the Buddhist scriptures, and is an opportunity to reflect deeply on their content. If an individual practices Buddhism within a monastic tradition, Dharma day is, wherever possible, celebrated in a temple, Buddhist centre or monastery in the presence of monks or nuns. Kathina The Kathina festival, which originated 2,500 years ago, celebrates the largest alms-giving ceremony of the Buddhist year.It occurs at the end of the Vassa, or monsoon, period, in October and November. During the Vassa period, normally nomadic Buddhist monks will have remained in one place for three months, and the Kathina celebration marks the time for them to move on. The festival also celebrates the offerings of cloth that are given to the monks upon their leaving by the lay people.The offering can take place up to one month following the end of the Vassa period and is celebrated by buddhists of the Therevada tradition.

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History: According to the scriptures, a group of thirty monks were journeying together with the intention of spending the Vassa period with the Lord Buddha, but the Vassa began before they reached their destination and so they had to stop. The monks were upset that they were unable to be with Buddha, who later heard of their plight. As a reward Buddha gave some cloth, which he had acquired as a gift from one of the lay community, to the monks and told them to sew a robe and then bestow it upon one of their company. The Buddha said that there was nothing as uplifting as generosity and sharing, and so the monks set about sewing a new set of robes. They used a frame, called a Kathina, on which to spread the cloth as they were making it. The Festivals: Lay supporters now continue this tradition at the end of the Vassa. The cloth giving is a gift of the followers of Buddhism, and therefore no monk is allowed to request or organise the festival. The cloth, according to Buddha, must be offered to the whole Sangha community, who will then decide among themselves who receives the gift. Buddhist families take joy in offering cloth to their teachers. About three metres of cloth is all that is needed, but very often other items are offered as well. On the day of the festival, people begin to arrive at the monastery and begin by sharing a meal. At about 1 o clock, they will formally offer the cloth and other gifts. Two monks will be presented with the cloth on behalf of the whole Sangha community. These monks will then formally announce the member of the community who will receive the cloth once it has been made up. The formal Sangha act (Sangha Kamma) of presenting the cloth to the chosen monk may take place much later in the evening, when it is ceremonially presented to the nominated monk. Parinirvana This is a Mahayana Buddhist festival that marks the death of the Buddha. It is also known as Nirvana Day: the Death of the Buddha The Full Moon of February Buddhists celebrate the death of the Buddha, because they believe that having attained Enlightenment he achieved freedom from physical existence and its sufferings. The Buddha's death came when he was eighty years old, and had spent forty years teaching after his Enlightenment. He died in a state of meditation, and attained nirvana, a release from the cycle of death and rebirth. The Paranibbana Sutta describes the Buddha's last days, and passages from it are often read on Parinirvana Day. Buddhists celebrate Parinirvana Day by meditating or by going to Buddhist temples or monasteries. As with other Buddhist festivals, celebrations vary throughout the world. The day is used as an opportunity to reflect on the fact of one's own future death, and on friends or relations who have recently passed away. The idea that all things are transient is central to Buddhist teaching. Loss and impermanence are things to be accepted rather than causes of grief. Meditations are carried out for the newly deceased to give them help and support wherever they might be now.

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Sangha Day-: the Celebration of Spiritual Community The Full Moon of November This festival is also known as Fourfold Assembly or Magha Puja Day. Sangha Day is the second most important Buddhist festival. It is a celebration in honour of the Sangha, or the Buddhist community. For some Buddhists Sangha refers only to monks and nuns. It is a chance for people to reaffirm their commitment to Buddhist practices and traditions. At this festival, the Buddha gave his first sermon, or recitation of the Patimokkha (the rules and regulations of the monastic order). Sangha is the term used for the Buddhist spiritual community. On Sangha Day Buddhists celebrate both the ideal of creating a spiritual community, and also the actual spiritual community which they are trying to create. The Sangha is precious in Buddhism as without those in the community to look up to or share aspirations with, the spiritual life would be very challenging. Sangha Day is a traditional time for exchange of gifts; it has become a prominent festival among Western Buddhists even though it is less well known in the East. Celebrations vary, but can include chanting, meditation, the lighting of oil lamps, and the reaffirmation of people's commitment to Buddhist practice. Wesak- The Celebration of the Buddha's Enlightenment Wesak is the most important of the Buddhist festivals and is celebrated on the full moon in May. It celebrates the Buddha's birthday, and, for some Buddhists, also marks his birth and death. Buddha literally means 'one who is awake' and has become enlightened. It is a term that denotes a person who has attained the supreme wisdom and compassion of Enlightenment. To Buddhists Enlightenment is a blessed state in which the individual attains Nirvana - the transcendence of desire and suffering. Buddha's disciples-Many of Buddha's disciples have attained Enlightenment, and there have been many other Enlightened teachers. The celebration of Wesak is a chance to remember the story of how the Buddha gained Enlightenment, and to reflect on what it might mean for individual Buddhists to move towards Enlightenment themselves. Celebrations-The festival is celebrated with much colour and gaiety. Homes may be cleaned and decorated. In Thailand, for example, special Wesak lanterns are made of paper and wood, and often there a large ceremonial releases of caged birds. Chanting and praying are an important part of Wesak. The 'Bathing the Buddha' ceremony is also often included. Water is poured over the shoulders of the Buddha and serves as a reminder to purify the mind from greed, hatred and ignorance. Chinese Buddhists incorporate elements of their country's culture into their religious celebrations like the traditional dancing dragons. Gifts are taken to an altar to be offered to the Buddha statues. This shows respect and gratitude to the Buddha for his life and teachings. If there is food it is usually vegetarian as Buddhists try not to harm animals.

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/holydays/ http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism.html)

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Conclusion

Buddhism is one of the four religions of the world which is based on the teaching of Buddha-the enlightened. As there is no specific concept of God in Buddhism, some people do not think it as a religion but a disciplined way of leading a good life. After the death of Gautama Buddha, His followers, in course of time, started to accept Buddha as the God. Buddha described the life of pleasure that he had first known, and then the life of severe asceticism that he had practiced. Neither of these was the true path to nirvana. Instead, the Buddha advised the middle way, which keeps aloof from both extremes. The Buddha said, “To satisfy the necessity of life is not evil”. “To keep the body in good health is a duty, for otherwise we shall not be able to trim the lamp of wisdom, and keepour mind strong and clear. Actually the teaching, morality and wisdom of Buddha attracted many people during his life time and after his death. At that time, Buddhism spreaded throughout Asia. However, he had set in motion a religious movement that would spread throughout the world and still remains a vital force 2500 years after his death.

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Snelling, John (1991). The Buddhist Handbook. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions.The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion (1994). Boston: Shambhala. The Encyclopaedia Britannica CD (1998). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism/buddha.html http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/siddhartha.html http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/siddhartha.html. “What Buddhist Believe",written by Ven (Dr) K Sri Dhammananda. www.newadvent.org/cathen/03028b.htm. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/customs/meditation_1.shtml. http://1stholistic.com/Meditation/hol_meditation_intro.htm. http://www.aboutbuddhism.org/what-is-buddhism.php. http://buddhism.about.com/mlibrary.htm, http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/buddhism/terms.html. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/holydays

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