American Indian Identity

American Indian IdentityNative American HistoryBrad JonesAmerican Indian identityWhat is politically correct?What is offensive?What should we call ourselves?What makes you Indian?American Indian identityA problem for most non-IndiansIndian identity based on outward appearanceGenotype v. PhenotypeBuffalo nickel imageStereotype of feathers and war bonnetsAmerican Indian identityFederally recognized tribesTribal rollsBlood quantumCDIB CardsDiaspora American Indian identityBeing and becoming Indian Genealogical research (OHS)Hobbyist (pow wows)WantobeesNew AgersAdoptionAmerican Indian identityAmerican Indian culturesCultural diversity in North America10 aboriginal culture areas578 federally recognized tribes35+ tribes in OklahomaAmerican Indian identityDemographics1900-1990 American Indian increase of 700%People claiming Indian race v people claiming Indian ancestry1980 census1970-1980- people claiming to be Indian increased 72%Why the biggest increase in recorded history?Three questions asked during the 1980 census 1980 census Item 4, pertaining to raceItem 7, which asks about Hispanic ancestry Item 14, which pertains to general ancestrySeparation of groups suggests politics played a role in constructing race & ancestry

1980 censusU.S. Census Bureau admitted this a nonscientific, socially constructed approach to ethnicitySelf-identification was a new category in determining raceCensus Bureau was under attack for inadequately enumerating minorities

1980 censusThe ambiguitiesRace--Indian, white, black--depends on ancestryBut the racial/ethnic categories were arbitrary, rather cryptic, and more narrow and selective than ancestryEx: Item 14 - one could report multiple ancestriesBut in Item 4, could only report one race

1980 censusHence biracial or multiracial individuals chose only one race or the other categoryHypodescent the one-drop rule applied more to African Americans classified as Black/NegroHispanics, though, could also chose a race category of black, white, or IndianMost Hispanics chose white(Table 3)

Indian race/ancestryNative Americans were given 3 choices:Indian, Eskimo, AleutAmericans of Indian ancestry had broad racial options like HispanicsOr as narrow as those of non-Hispanics of color, black, or AsianRacial options varied regionally, e.g., Northern Plains/Southwest v. Oklahoma

Indian race/ancestryoverviewFlexibility in Indian racial self-identificationCompared to Blacks, where hypodescdent rules applyMost censuses provide conservative numbers of American IndiansIf hypodescent were applied to American Indians, there would be more reported American Indians

INDIAN POPULATION EXPLOSION

An American Indian population explosionTable 2 - 3 times that of blacks & whitesSociologists/demographers have hypothesized the causes as declining infant and adult mortality ratesTrue, this has caused a slight population increase, but American Indian health is worse than that of all other Americans

Explanations from the bureauGrowth rate not responsibleImmigration, improvement in health, & natural increases also do not explain American Indian population growthU.S. Census Bureau gave 4 reasons for the 72% increase between 1970-1980:(1) improvements in enumeration process on reservations(2) Ambiguity in wording of 1980 census item measuring race(3) Increased use of self-identification(4) Greater propensity of respondents, particularly in urban areas, to report Indian race

Reality/explanations(1) Enumeration on reservations not a factor since 1/2 of 1980 Indian population was urbanIncreases occurring in non-reservation states(3) Self-identification responsible for 47% increase between 1950-19601960 & 1970 - self-identification for race1980 race omitted from census - perhaps race & ancestry were confused

Reality/explanations1990 race reintroduced to census, but Indian population continued to increaseAll U.S. Census Bureau possibilities eliminated by SociologistsOne fact: more people were identifying themselves as American IndiansPostmodernism - cultural boundaries more complicated (culture is porous)

SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS

(1) Recruitment, or changes in self-definition; from non-Indian to Indian in next census(2) Biological Migration - migration of non-Indian genes into American Indian genepool; offspring have Indian Identity(3) New Indians - people who in earlier times (pre-1960) would have passed unrecognized into white society(4) New Identification - individuals of Indian ancestry formerly reported themselves as another race(5) wannabes - non-Indians who want to be Indian (unkind)

WHO ARE AMERICAN INDIANS?

Items 4 & 14 show problems in relationship between race & ancestryIndian race = 1.36 millionIndian ancestry = 7.1 millionC. Matthew Snipp proposed 3 levels of Indian ancestry based on this

INDIAN ANCESTRY

American Indians of Indian Ancestry (Core Indians): race & ancestry reported as exclusively IndianAmerican Indians of Multiple Ancestry (Ethnic Indians): Indian race, some non- Indian ancestryAmericans of Indian Descent (Ethnic Indians): non-Indian race, some Indian ancestry