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Amazonian Dark Earths
KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERSNEW YORK, BOSTON, DORDRECHT, LONDON, MOSCOW
eBook ISBN: 1-4020-2597-1Print ISBN: 1-4020-1839-8
©2004 Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.
Print ©2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers
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Dordrecht
TO WIM SOMBROEK
A valued colleague and friend, the father of contemporary Terra Pretaresearch, and the inspiration for this book.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Authors
Preface
Foreword
DISCOVERING AMAZONIAN DARK EARTHS
Chapter 1: Development of Anthrosol Research 3 W.I. Woods
Chapter 2: Historical Perspectives on Amazonian Dark Earths 15 T.P. Myers, W.M. Denevan, A. Winklerprins, A. Porro
Chapter 3: Historical and Socio-cultural Origins of Amazonian 29 Dark Earths
Chapter 4: Distribution of Amazonian Dark Earths in the Brazilian 51 Amazon
D.C. Kern, G. D’Aquino, T.E. Rodrigues, F.J.L. Frazão W. Sombroek, T.P. Myers, E.G. Neves
Chapter 5: Classification of Amazonian Dark Earths and other 77 Ancient Anthropic Soils N. Kämpf, W.I. Woods, W. Sombroek, D.C. Kern, T.J.F. Cunha
PROPERTIES OF AMAZONIAN DARK EARTHS
Chapter 6: 105J. Lehmann, D.C. Kern, L.A. German, J. McCann,
G.C. Martins, A. Moreira
Chapter 7: Amazonian Dark Earths as Carbon Stores and Sinks 125 W. Sombroek, M.L. Ruivo, P.M. Fearnside, B. Glaser,
J. Lehmann
Chapter 8: Soil Organic Matter Stability in Amazonian Dark Earths 141 B. Glaser, G. Guggenberger, W. Zech, M.L. Ruivo
Chapter 9: Agrobiodiversity in Amazônia and its Relationship with 159 Dark Earths
C.R. Clement, J.M. McCann, N.J.H. Smith
Chapter 10: Ethnoscientific Understandings of Amazonian 179 Dark Earths
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xv
xix
E.G. Neves, J.B. Petersen, R.N. Bartone, C.A. da Silva
Soil Fertility and Production Potential
L. German
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METHODS FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF AMAZONIAN DARK EARTHS
Chapter 11: Archaeobotanical Methods for the Study of Amazonian 205 Dark Earths
S. Mora
Chapter 12: Organic Chemistry Studies on Amazonian Dark Earths 227 B. Glaser, G. Guggenberger, W. Zech
Chapter 13: The Use of Micromorphology for the Study of the 243 Formation and Properties of Amazonian Dark Earths
M.L.P. Ruivo, M.A. Arroyo-Kalin, C.E.R. Schaefer, H.T. Costi, S.H.S. Arcanjo, H.N. Lima, M.M. Pulleman, D. Creutzberg
Chapter 14: Determining Nutrient Bioavailability of Amazonian 255 Dark Earth Soils – Methodological Challenges
N.P.S. Falcão, N. Comerford, J. Lehmann
Chapter 15: Soil Physical Characterization 271 W.G. Teixeira, G.C. Martins
Chapter 16: Amazonian Dark Earths: Biological Measurements 287 J. Thies, K. Suzuki
Chapter 17: Pedogeochemical and Mineralogical Analyses of 333 Amazonian Dark Earths M.L. da Costa, D.C. Kern, N. Kämpf
AMAZONIAN DARK EARTH MANAGEMENT
355 Amazonian Dark Earths: Implications of Kayapó Practices S.B. Hecht
Chapter 19: Cultural Behaviors of Indigenous Populations and the 373 Formation of the Archaeological Record in Amazonian Dark Earth: the Asurini Do Xingú Case Study F.A. Silva
Chapter 20: Contemporary Use and Management of Amazonian 387 Dark Earths M. Hiraoka, S. Yamamoto, E. Matsumoto, S. Nakamura, I.C. Falesi, A.R.C. Baena
Chapter 21: The Effect of Management on the Fertility of Amazonian 407 Dark Earth Soils
Chapter 18: Indigenous Soil Management and the Creation of
B. Madari, V.de M. Benites, T.J.F. Cunha
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 22: Weed Population Dynamics and Management on 433 Amazonian Dark Earth
J. Major, A. DiTommaso, L.A. German, J.M. McCann
Chapter 23: Historical Ecology and Future Explorations 455 C. Erickson
ANNEX
Picture Annex 501
Index 503
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
LIST OF AUTHORS
Sylvia H. de Souza Arcanjo Coordination of the Earth Science and Ecology Museu Paraense Emílio Goëldi Belém, PA, Brazil
Tony J.F. Cunha National Soil Research Center Brazilian Agricultual Research Corporation (Embrapa Solos) Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Manoel A. Arroyo-Kalin McBurney Geoarchaeology Lab Department of Archaeology University of Cambridge Cambridge CB2 3DZ, UK Email: [email protected]
Gilma D'Aquino Coordenação de Ciências Humanas Museu Paraense Emílio Goëldi Belém, PA, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Antonio R.C. Baena Brazilian Agricultual Research Corporation (Embrapa Amazônia Oriental) Belém, PA, Brazil
William M. Denevan Department of Geography University of Wisconsin Madison, WI, 53706, USA Email: [email protected]
Robert N. Bartone Archaeological Research Center University of Maine at Farmington Farmington, ME 04938, USA Email: [email protected]
Antonio DiTomasso Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Cornell University Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA Email: [email protected]
Venicius de M. Benites National Soil Research Center Brazilian Agricultual Research Corporation (Embrapa Solos) Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Clark Erickson Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA 19104-6398, USA Email: [email protected]
Charles R. Clement Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) Manaus, AM, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Newton P. de Souza Falcão Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) Manaus, AM, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Nicholas Comerford Soil and Water Science Department University of Florida Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA Email: [email protected]
Italo C. Falesi Brazilian Agricultual Research Corporation (Embrapa Amazônia Oriental) Belem, PA, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Marcondes Lima da Costa Geosciences Center Universidade Federal do Pará Belem, PA, 66075-110, Brazil email: [email protected]
Philip M. Fearnside Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) Manaus, AM, Brazil Email: [email protected]
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Hilton T. Costi Coordination of Research and Post-Graduation Museum Paraense Emílio Goeldi Belém, PA, Brazil
Francisco J.L. Frazão Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi Belém, PA, Brazil
Dik Creutzberg International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC) Wageningen, The Netherlands Email:[email protected]
Laura German World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) Nairobi, Kenya Email: [email protected]
Bruno Glaser Institute of Soil Science and Soil Geography University of Bayreuth 95440 Bayreuth, Germany Email:[email protected]
Julie Major Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Cornell University Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA Email: [email protected]
Georg Guggenberger Soil Biology and Ecology Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg 06108 Halle, Germany Email: [email protected]
Gilvan C. Martins Brazilian Agricultual Research Corporation (Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental) Manaus, AM, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Susanna B. Hecht Latin American Center University of California at Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1656, USA email: [email protected]
Eiji Matsumoto Institute of Geosciences University of Tsukuba Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, Japan
Mario Hiraoka Department of Geography Millersville University Millersville, PA, 17551, USA Email: [email protected]
Joseph McCann Division of Social Sciences New School University New York, NY, 10011, USA Email: [email protected]
Nestor Kämpf Department of Soil Science Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (URFGS) Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Santiago Mora Department of Anthropology St. Thomas University, Fredericton New Brunswick, Canada, E3B 5G3 Email: [email protected]
Dirse C. Kern Deptartment of Ecology Museu Paraense Emílio Goëldi Belém, PA, 66040-170, Brazil email: [email protected]
Adonis Moreira Brazilian Agricultual Research Corporation (Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental) Manaus, AM, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Johannes Lehmann Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Cornell University Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA Email: [email protected]
Thomas P. Myers Divisionof Anthropology University of Nebraska State Museum Lincoln, NE, 68588-0514, USA Email: [email protected]
xii LIST OF AUTHORS
Hedinaldo H. Lima Department of Soil Sciences Amazonas University Manaus, AM, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Satoshi Nakamura Institute of Geosciences University of Tsukuba Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, Japan
Beáta Madari National Soil Research Center, Brazilian Agricultual Research Corporation Rio de Janero, RJ, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Eduardo G. Neves Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia Universidade de São Paulo Sao Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil Email: [email protected]
James B. Peterson Department of Anthropology University of Vermont Burlington, VT, 05405, USA Email: [email protected]
Wim Sombroek International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC) PO Box 3536700 AJ, Wageningen The Netherlands Email: [email protected]
Antonio Porro University of Sao Paulo Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
Keiko Suzuki Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Cornell University Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
Mirjan M. Pulleman Alterra Wageningen, 6708 PB, The Netherlands Email: [email protected]
Wenceslau G. Teixeira Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental Manaus, AM, 69011-970, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Tarcisio E. Rodrigues Embrapa Belém, PA, Brazil
Janice Thies Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Cornell University Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA Email: [email protected]
Maria de Lourde Ruivo Coordination of Earth Science and Ecology Museu Paraense Emílio Goëldi Belém, PA, 66040-170, Brazil email: [email protected]
Antoinette Winklerprins Department of Geography Michigan State University East Lansing, MI, 48824-1115, USA Email: [email protected]
Carlos E.R. Schaefer Department of Soil Sciences Universidade Federal de Viçosa Viçosa, MG, Brazil Email: [email protected]
William I. Woods Department of Geography Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Illinois, 62026-1458, USA Email: [email protected]
Carlos A. da Silva Museu Amazônico Universidade Federal do Amazonas Manaus, AM, Brazil
Shozo Yamamoto Department of Geography Josai International University Togane-shi, Chiba, Japan
LIST OF AUTHORS xiii
Fabíola Andréa Silva Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil Email: [email protected]
Wolfgang Zech Institute of Soil Science and Soil Geography University of Bayreuth 95440 Bayreuth, Germany Email: [email protected]
Nigel M. Smith Department of Geography University of Florida Gainesville, FL, 32611-7315, USA Email: [email protected]
LIST OF AUTHORSxiv
PREFACE
Soils in the humid tropical lowlands are often highly weathered and have unfavourable chemical properties for plant growth. Especially when the rainforest is slashed for agricultural use, high temperature and rainfall may lead to soil degradation within only a few years. Without large and sustained inputs of fertilizers, these constraints cannot be easily overcome. The discovery of soils in the Amazon Basin having the attributes of fertile soils, such as high nutrient availability and organic matter contents, is therefore surprising. The existence of these Amazonian Dark Earths was first described for the international scientific community as early as the mid 1870s by Cornell professor Charles F. Hartt and his student Herbert H. Smith. Locally referred to as “Terra Preta de Índio” (Indian Black Earth) these soils bear testimony to ancient human occupation in the Amazon region, and have therefore received much attention from archaeologists. Increasing and broad interest in these dark earths from a soils perspective comes from their ecological uniqueness in the Amazonian soilscape. Two main opportunities arise from the study of these fascinating soils: (1) Gaining knowledge about the functioning of soil organic matter and nutrients from artificial soil modifications in the distant past, and (2) Understanding how these extremely fertile soils came into existence and using this information to improve the production potential of highly weathered and acid soils under humid tropical conditions.
Recent studies show that Amazonian Dark Earths are much more widespread than previously thought. Additional archaeological work on these soils suggests that large civilizations may have existed in the Amazon Basin. High population densities and complex societies can only survive with productive agriculture, something hard to imagine given the constraints that the soil environment presents in the Amazonian lowlands. If areas of fertile Dark Earths were intentionally created by Amerindian populations for agricultural production in order to sustain large populations then intriguing historical and ecological implications arise. Such evidence would confirm that the knowledge gained through a careful study of the properties of Amazonian Dark Earths could help design sustainable land use systems on highly weathered tropical soils.
In the last decade major advances have been made towards a better understanding of Amazonian Dark Earths. However much of these data has not been previously integrated or presented in an interdisciplinary publication including history, archaeology, anthropology, geography, and soil science. This publication presents the first comprehensive overview of Amazonian Dark Earths and provides important perspectives for future land management emergent from recent research. In addition to presenting the current understanding of Amazonian Dark Earths, this publication also addresses the questions most relevant for future studies including research methods. These methods are based on established methodology available for the study of soils in general but must be modified for specific questions asked or specific constraints found when applying them to Amazonian Dark Earths. The final objective of our endeavour is to discuss existing land management techniques that
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may provide insights into the creation of Amazonian Dark Earths and soil management of Amazonian Dark Earths themselves.
This book is divided into four sections. In the first set of chapters, we provide a historical perspective of the research on anthropogenic soils in general and the place that Amazonian Dark Earths have in it. Our current knowledge about their origin and distribution is discussed and a comprehensive classification scheme for these soils is suggested here for the first time. In the second section of the book, the properties of Amazonian Dark Earths are presented with respect to soil fertility, soil organic matter quantity and quality, carbon sequestration, agro-biodiversity from a researcher’s point of view as well as the farmer’s perspective of its properties. The third section provides an overview of methods relevant to research on Amazonian Dark Earths. While not intended to serve as a complete guide to methodological procedures, this overview highlights the specific opportunities created by the discussed methods, the challenges encountered when applying the methods to Amazonian Dark Earths, and how these challenges are met. Specific areas include documentary research; archaeobotanical research; methods assessing soil organic matter, soil biology, soil physics, soil chemistry; microscopic and geochemical methods. The fourth section deals with the current management of soils around homesteads and agricultural fields. These chapters discuss the creation of Amazonian Dark Earths, as well as the contemporary management of Amazonian Dark Earths. The latter includes non-agricultural soil uses, soil fertility, and weed management strategies for increasing agricultural productivity.
It is important to note that the existing sites covered by Amazonian Dark Earth are archaeological sites of the utmost historical importance. This publication and its authors do not support or suggest alteration or exploitation of these sites. Rather, this publication should aid in the preservation of this cultural heritage by increasing public awareness and providing alternatives to the agricultural use of Amazonian Dark Earths.
Early versions of most of these chapters were presented at the First International Workshop on Terra Preta de Índio held in Manaus, July 10-19, 2002. The editors thank the organizers and all the participants for their invaluable contributions. In particular, we want to thank the local organization committee headed by Newton Falcão and Wenceslau Teixeira and the organizing committee at the Museu Paraénse Emílio Goëldi, Silvia Helena Arcanjo, Maria Emília Sales and Maria de Lourdes Pinheiro Ruivo, for their tireless efforts to make the meeting a thorough success, and the Ministério de Ciência e Tecnologia (MCT), the Fundação Djalma Batista and the Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis (IBAMA) for financial support. Further financial support for this publication was provided by the Graduate School and the College of Arts and Sciences of Southern Illinois University Edwardsville and the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences of Cornell University.
We want to thank the reviewers of the articles for their valuable time and scientific expertise. Their thoughtful comments and suggestions ensured a high scientific quality of the contributions. In particular, we wish to thank William Balée, David Bouldin, Stanley Buol, David Clements, William Denevan, Helmut Elsenbeer, Hari Eswaran, Andy Gillison, Elisabeth Graham, Cesar Izaurralde, James
xvi PREFACE
Petersen, Hugh Raffels, Michael Schmidt, Ian Simpson, Johan Six, Mike Swift, John Walker, David Zuberer, and several anonymous reviewers. We are much indebted to Jessica Wang who proofread, corrected and formatted all chapters.
Sincere thanks also go to Frans van Dunné, the publishing editor at Kluwer Academic Publishers, and Claire van Heukelom, the publishing assistant, who both answered all our questions patiently and helped us steer through the publication process with their expert advice.
Finally, we want to thank our families for their patience with late-night corrections of manuscripts and their support for our work, without which we would not be able to present this publication.
Johannes Lehmann, Dirse Kern, Bruno Glaser, William Woods Ithaca, Belém, Bayreuth, Edwardsville June 2003
PREFACE xvii
FOREWORD
Tropical rainforests are increasingly at risk due to the progressing encroachment by humans. Ironically, the exploitation of these natural resources does not bring wealth to many of the small farmers that slash the forests. The fertility of the soil is easily exhausted during cultivation in such humid and warm environments, if no additional nutrients or organic matter are applied. All the more surprising appears to be the discovery of very dark and fertile soils amidst the commonly found yellow-whitish and infertile soils at many locations throughout the Amazon Basin. Already during my first exploration of the soils in the Amazon in the early 1960’s, these soils, then called terra preta do índio, piqued my curiosity. Although it was clear that these soils were remnants of ancient populations and did not form naturally, I included them in my dissertation on “Amazon Soils” published in 1966. These first detailed chemical studies showed what potential soil manipulation can have for increasing soil fertility even of highly weathered soils in the tropics. My vision was to use such knowledge and develop techniques to create “terra preta nova”,- a new black and fertile soil that would help to sustain landuse on soils that would not support continuous cultivation without massive fertilizer additions.
Only at the end of the 1990s would an increasing number of scientists from diverse scientific backgrounds engage in the study of these fascinating soils. It is satisfying and inspiring to see the next generation of researchers share this fascination and explore the opportunities that terra preta presents in many different ways. These soils are not magic and they are not the sole solution to degradation of highly weathered soils in the humid tropics. But they will certainly provide important perspectives to soil management and will trigger new and provoking thoughts that may change landuse in the Amazon and beyond.
I am happy to see this first book publication on terra preta which sets the groundwork for future research by summarizing past as well as more recent achievements and introduces these soils to a wider audience. The authors faced the challenge that our knowledge about these soils is still very limited and few publications are readily accessible. This book provides a comprehensive overview of what we know at the moment and includes many hitherto unpublished reports or publications in Portuguese which were not available to an international audience. In this sense, the present publication is a milestone and will become a reference for future research.
Wim Sombroek Wageningen, May 2003
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