The Gods of Mahyna BuddhismAuthor(s): Ananda CoomaraswamySource: The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 27, No. 148 (Jul., 1915), pp. 138-141Published by: The Burlington Magazine Publications Ltd.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/859881 .Accessed: 21/01/2015 15:26

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THE GODS OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM BY ANANDA COOMARASWAMY

HE distinction between Hinaydtna (or Theravada) and Mahayana Buddhism is to a great extent the distinction between rationalism and mysticism. Theravada Buddhism is a doctrine

perfectly adapted to the needs of intellectual minds of the ascetic temperament. It would devote the whole energy of man directly to the attainment of Release (Nirvana) from this world of Eternal Becoming (Samsdra). Its genius is essentially monastic; its view of art is hedonistic and con- sequently puritanical. It felt no internal compul- sion to a lyrical expression: and hence, when it was first developed as a state religion under Asoka, and it was desired to decorate its great memorials, and to set forth plastic representations of its edify- ing legends, it was simply the popular Hindaf art of the day which was adapted to these ends. Such art as that of Sanchi is only essentially Buddhist in its application and in its constant omission of any icon of the Buddha himself, who is represented only by symbols.

In course of time growth of devotion (bhakti) in extra-monastic, or at any rate in unorthodox circles led to the creation of a Buddha image; mere symbols could not satisfy such ardent worshippers as we see represented in the Amaravati reliefs. We do not know yet exactly when the first such image was made; probably, as Mr. Havell has recently suggested, images were used privately for a long time before they took their place in public shrines. The whole of Buddhist art properly so-called-- "Early Buddhist" art, as we have indicated, is popular HindQ art adapted to the purposes of Buddhist edification - is Mahaymna art : and the

greatest achievement of this art is the figure of the Buddha himself. The Buddha is rightly regarded as one of the "gods" of Mahayana Buddhism; whose true being is in Nirvana, the great Void, or the Body of the Law; and of whom the man Gautama was a projection or mirage seen on our earth, as the Nirminakaya, or Body of Manifestation. The figures of the Bodhisattvas, the Buddhas-designate, almost surpass in impor- tance those of the Buddha; personal prayers are addressed to both. The Bodhisattvas abstain from entering Nirvana in order that in birth after birth they may enlighten others. To become a Bod- hisattva, and to attain ultimate Buddhahood is a goal that lies before everything living. This aspect of the saviour-ideal also inspires some of the most moving passages in the Buddhist art, as at Ajanta. With the Bodhisattvas are associated their saktis, or powers, represented as feminine goddesses, of whom the Tari of Avalokitesvara (or it may be Avalokitesvara himself) becomes the Kwanyin of Chinese and Japanese Buddhism.

Buddhism in this Mahayana phase is no longer purely monastic; it affords not merely an ascetic discipline for those who leave the world, but an interpretation of the world itself. It knows, like the karmayoga of the Hindis, a salvation attained, not by deeds, but as the indirect fulfilment of deeds of purely disinterested love and duty. The culmi- nation of this mystic development is found in the exquisite tenderness of the Zen (Dhyan) Buddhism of China and Japan, with its beautiful interpreta- tion of Nature, and in the passionate and no less tender art of mediaeval Indian Vaishnavism, the inheritor of Mahayana tradition in Bengal, with

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE OPPOSITE [A] Buddha. Nepalese; copper gilt, c. 9th cent. A.D. Height

31 in. The hands in dharma-cakra-mudra (rather than vitarka, as stated in "Visvakarma ", p. I5). (A. K. Coomaraswamy.)

[B] Avalokitesvara (Padmapani). Also identified as Maitreya (Griinwedel, Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet, fig. 99). Nepalese, copper gilt and jewelled, c. Ioth cent. A.D. Height of incomplete figure 48 in. A type identical with that of "VisvakarmA ", Plate xI. Trivanka stance, the right hand in vara mudra (charity), the left holding the stalk of an expanded rose lotus (padma). (A. K. Coomaraswamy.)

NOTE.-The two figures above described, with the original of "Visvakarm

e ", xI, and a Vishnu in the same

style also in my own collection, belong to the early phase of Nepalese art, most nearly related to that of Ajantd and Elephanta. The nose is wide and the lips full, the ex- pression of the utmost dignity, the gesture compassionate. A later type [H] has a sharp, sometimes hooked nose, and thinner lips, such as we find in Jaina and Rijput paintings from the 15th century (or earlier), and as described in Persian and Hindi poetry.

[c] Buddha. Badulla, Ceylon ; bronze, c. 6th cent. A.D. Height 21 in. Right hand in vitarka mudrd, left hand holding end of robe. (Colombo Museum.)

NOTE.-The features, as above, of Dravidian type. The three- or five-forked flame which in many Ceylonese Buddhas rises from the ushn~sha (Getty, Plate vI, b) is a much later development.

[D] Avalokitesvara (Padmapini). Ceylonese; copper, c. 9th cent. A.D. Height 31 in. Seated with right foot extended (lalitasana), the right hand in vara mudra, the left holding the rose-lotus (padma) stalk. Pedestal inscribed "Sangha dattah " in characters of the early 9th century. Getty, PP. 54, 59. (British Museum.)

[E] Manjusri. Javanese; bronze, c. 9th-Ioth cent. A.D. Height 51in. Seated in maharaja lild pose, on a cushion on a lion throne (simhasana), a blue lotus (utpala) bud in the right hand and an expanded flower of the same in the left. Getty, p. 96, and cf. also Plate xxi, d. (British Museum.)

[F] Vajrapwni. Ceylonese ; 9th cent. A.D., copper. Height 4. in. Seated with right foot extended (lalitasana), right hand holding vajra, left on thigh. Getty, p. 48. (A. K. Coomara- swamy.)

[G] Vajra Tara (not Ushnishavijaya as identified " Visvakarmd" vI). Stone sculpture of the Pala period. Sarnath ; c. 12th cent. A.D. Height of part shown, about 16 in. Getty, p. Iio. (Sarndth Museum, B(f)8.)

[H] Vajra Tdrd. Nepalese ; copper gilt and jewelled, c. 16th cent. A.D. Height 4j in. With four faces and eight arms. Getty, p. Iio. (A. K. Coomaraswamy.)

[J] Kurukulld. Nepalese ; copper, c. 15th cent. A.D. Getty, p. 112. (Calcutta School of Art.) NoTE.-Other reproductions of figures of Mahdyvna divinities

will be found in The Burlington Magazine for May 1910o and January 1913.

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THE GODS OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

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The Gods of Maayadna Buddhism its frank acceptance of human affection. Through- out this evolution we find an unceasing impulse to lyrical expression.

Where the Hinaydnists had been interested in psychology, the Mahdymna Buddhists were great theologians, and they evolved, side by side with the development of Hindfi theology, a vast cos- mology peopled with a numerous pantheon. At least five hundred deities have been recognized-- " a most ancient shoreless sea of forms incompre- hensibly changing and intermingling, but symbol- izing the protean magic of that infinite Unknown that shapes and reshapes for ever all cosmic being".' The student of this theology-from whatever stand- point, whether of religion or art-must be grateful to anyone who provides him with a clearly systema- tized and well illustrated guide to its iconography. Such a work has lately been published by Miss Alice Getty, under the title of "The Gods of Northern Buddhism

".2 This work is preceded by a summary account of Buddhism translated from the pen of Dr. J. Deniker. This affords a not inaccurate summary of the principal events in the history of Buddhism, but from a very " outside " point of view, as is evidenced by the curious statement that the proceedings of the first Buddhist Council, "as in the case of other half- civilized races, consisted of chanting and reciting by heart the words of the wisest among the wise men" (italics mine). Dr. Deniker repeats the commonly accepted statement that the Buddhist community differed from all contemporary reli- gious communities in opening its doors to members of every caste; but in point of fact, as pointed out by Oldenberg, the order of the Samands or wander- ing ascetics-sannyaisis as we should now call them-had always been open to men of all castes, as it is now. Buddhism was not essentially a demo- cratic, but rather an aristocratic movement (in this age the principal contributions to philosophy were made by Kshattriyas, such as Janaka, Buddha and Mahavira), and the majority of the Buddha's immediate followers were, like himself, of noble birth.

Some curious criticisms on Buddhist art are also introduced, as that the GandhZra sculptures are remarkable for their "correctness of propor- tion, for the absence of stiffness in their draperies, and for delicacy of features "; not untrue, but not very penetrating observations. Of Ajantd we are told only that "This style is characterized by realism in the treatment of human figures and, still more, of animals ". It is certainly not true that "In Ceylon Greco-Buddhist art had pene- trated along with the religion in the 2nd and 3rd centuries " (B.C.), for Greco-Buddhist art did

not then exist. It is, moreover, in Ceylon and southern India that Mahiyina Buddhist art de- velops with the minimum of traceable Hellenistic peculiarities. Dr. Deniker also says of Ceylon that only a few monuments survive, whereas this area is one of the richest. However, as aesthetic considerations have no place in the work, and no attempt is made either by Dr. Deniker or Miss Getty to indicate even the approximate date of any of the pieces represented, we need not push such objections too far.

It is a remarkable fact that over sixty metal images and other metal objects illustrated are described as Tibetan: a considerable proportion of these may be Nepalese, as, for example, in the case of Plates xx, XXII, xxxvIII and XLI b; the original of Plate xxI d, may be Indian, or at any rate Nepalese, and fairly early (cf. Figure E on the accompanying Plate). I must also call atten- tion to the description of Plate xI a, as "Buddha" (in the list of illustrations, a "Jain Buddha"). It is true that the term Buddha is used by the Jainas; but it is not appropriate to speak of one of the twenty-four Tirthakaras as if a member of the

Mah~ymna pantheon. The figure in this case repre-

sents Parsvanatha, and has no place in a work on

Mahtymna divinities. One other point: in speaking

of feminine divinities, Miss Getty says, "Until the female principle was glorified by Krishna, the Aryans had exclusively worshipped Agni, the male principle in the universe ". Here there is some misapprehension; for the recognition of the saktis precedes by at least a millennium the admission of Rtdh~ to be considered an incarnation of Lakshmi. Krishna has no special connexion with the cults of feminine divinities: nor is Radha a goddess, but typifies the human soul. Agni, moreover, is not the most prominent of Vedic deities, nor specially symbolic of the male principle (Purusha).

In confining the illustrations to material drawn from Mr. H. Getty's collection, it was unavoidable that many important areas and types should be left entirely unrepresented. On this account, and because, in Miss Getty's own words, the study of Maha-yana iconography is still in its infancy, there yet remains to be written an exhaustive work on the gods of Mahtyana Buddhism, illustrated from a wider range of material.

Meanwhile the author of the present work de- serves our most sincere thanks, for in spite of the foregoing observations, which apply chiefly to the contribution of Dr. Deniker, it is due to say that Miss Getty's work has been compiled with the utmost care, and is of quite remarkable accuracy. It is a work of true scholarship, not, indeed, setting forth new theories or throwing light on questions of aesthetic, but of such value as to remain for many years an indispensable handbook for every worker in the field. It is well provided with references, indices and glossary.

1 Lafcadio Hearn. 2 The Gods of Northern Buddhism, by Alice Getty, with an

introduction on Buddhism by J. Deniker, and illustrations from the collection of Henry H. Getty. Clarendon Press, 1914, ?3 3s. net.

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TAe Gods of Mahdyana Buddhism Mr. H. Getty's collection, which is alone drawn

upon for illustration, contains important examples ; as well as many of inferior value, regarded as works of art. It is, moreover, lacking in southern and Javanese types. The stone sculpture of Magadha, where Mahayana Buddhism was first largely de- veloped, is not represented and scarcely mentioned. Considering, however, the imperfect state of our knowledge, Miss Getty's volume is likely to remain

a standard authority for some time to come. In order to supply an avoidable deficiency I have reproduced here a few examples of Mahaymna divinities chosen from the areas least fully repre- sented in Mr. H. Getty's collection, and I have taken the opportunity of correcting in the Description of the Plate certain statements in my text to my selection of reproductions, " Visvakarma ".

FRAGMENTS OF THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THOMAS GOSSE INTRODUCTION BY HIS GRANDSON, EDMUND GOSSE, C.B.

HESE recollections were set down by Thomas Gosse, mezzotint engraver and miniaturist, towards the end of 1799. He was a believer in visions, and having learned by a dream that

the end of the world would arrive at the beginning of 18oo, he hastened to preserve a record of his life. This was characteristic of a mind in which reverence rather than logic was predominant. Thomas Gosse, who was born in 1765, was the eleventh of the twelve children of William Gosse (1714-84), of Ringwood in Hampshire. Mr. William Gosse, who had served, by virtue of some Welsh estates, as high sheriff of Radnorshire, was a cloth manufacturer on a considerable scale, but he was ruined by the introduction of machinery into the woollen trade. In the days of his pro- sperity he was a patron of the fine arts in the quiet mode of those days. He had an interesting col- lection of family portraits, which were unfortunately dispersed after his death, with the exception of one of himself in oils, believed to be painted by John Downman, A.R.A., which I possess [PLATE I, B]. In addition to his mezzotint engraving and his minia- ture painting, by which he made a precarious living, my grandfather pursued with much assiduity the art of poetry. In this he was even less successful, but not less persistent. My grandmother, who had great firmness of character, regarded the writing of verse as waste of time, and when her husband heard her footstep approaching his painting-room along the passage, he would hastily whip his manuscript under his little green baize desk, and be found ardently at work on the ivory. He was, as will be gathered from his recollections, a man of unusual serenity of character. With very little ambition, and a great deal of simplicity, he con- trived to pass through his long life without any sense of failure or expression of impatience. He enjoyed, in large measure, the blessing of the pure in heart. What has made the Editors of THE BURLINGTON MAGAZINE believe that their readers may like to have these modest notes preserved is that they give personal touches faintly illuminating the lives of a considerable number of artists about many of whom hardly anything but their works has hitherto been known to exist. E. G.

FRAGMENTS OF THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THOMAS GOSSE

I had always an inclination for drawing; when a child at Hestor Burden's preparatory school I used to tear the rushes of the chairs to pieces for the making of horses, dogs and other things out of the pith; but the modelling of such imitations pertains rather to statuary than to painting or drawing. It is, however, to be remarked that I would often take a piece of chalk and draw the outlines of various common and familiar objects on the wall or on the kitchen door. My parents, witnessing my propensity as described, thought it would be useless to bring me up to a common trade, and therefore were resolved at length to give it encouragement. Accordingly, early in 1777 my school education was resigned for the practice of drawing at home; and here my sister Susan, afterwards Mrs. Bell,' became my tutoress. A drawing-book was bought for me, and another borrowed, with other necessary items. Thus I went on learning by degrees the art of drawing, in order that I might subsequently become a painter by profession. This domestic instruction and practice in drawing was continued for about three- quarters of a year, until I was aged twelve years.

At length, near Christmas, 1777-just upon the death of Uncle Marten, one of the most unwieldy, corpulent men that ever I saw-it was determined on that I should go to Honiton, in Devonshire, in order farther to improve in drawing. There I was to reside at Mr. Lamport's, a Socinian preacher, who was my paternal cousin.

While I was at Honiton I copied on paper with a black-lead pencil the likeness of Mr. Willis; and his relative, Mr. Compton, the Bistern squire, being greatly pleased with this and other specimens of my drawing, he advised father to send me to the Royal Academy at London for further improve- ment, and to make painting my future profession. But before my departure thither Mr. Willis very unexpectedly committed suicide by stabbing him- self. It was in the summer of 1779, and when I was now nearly fourteen, that we arrived. How was I first struck with the appearance of London, so different from the country look of Ringwood

1 Mrs. Susan Bell, born in 1749, was the first person to pre- serve invertebrate animals alive in aquaria of sea-water. She became the mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell, F.R.S.

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Article Contentsp. 139p. [138]p. 140p. 141

Issue Table of ContentsThe Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 27, No. 148 (Jul., 1915), pp. 132-172An "Adoration of the Magi" by Battista Dossi [pp. 132-135]The Gods of Mahyna Buddhism [pp. 138-141]Fragments of the Autobiography of Thomas Gosse [pp. 141-145+148-150]Notes on Pictures in the Royal Collections-XXXII. On a Painting of a Picture Gallery by Gonzales Coques [pp. 150-151+154-155+157-158]The Exhibition of Chinese Art at the Burlington Fine Arts Club-II. Notes on Jade [pp. 158-159+162-165+167-168]Letters to the EditorsMr. Henry Harris's Piazza S. Marco, by Guardi [p. 168]Scipione Cluson [p. 168]Egyptian Printed Stuffs [pp. 168-169]Felix Ravenna [p. 169]

A Monthly ChronicleThe Whistler Exhibition [pp. 169-170]Loan Exhibition at Messrs. Agnews [pp. 170-171]Loan Exhibition of Silver Plate [p. 171]The French Gallery [pp. 171-172]The Royal Society of Portrait Painters [p. 172]The R. I. B. A. [p. 172]

Publications Received [p. 172]