VOLUME 1 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Air Pollution Control Engineering

Edited by

Lawrence K. Wang, PhD, PE, DEE

Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA

Norman C. Pereira, PhD

Monsanto Company (Retired), St. Louis, MO

Yung-Tse H ung, PhD, PE, DEE

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH

Consulting Editor

Kathleen Hung Li, MS

~ HUMANA PRESS ~ TOTOWA, NEW JERSEY

Contents

r....,,._.

Preface v

Contributors xi

1 Air Quality and Pollution Control Lawrence K. Wang, lerry R. Taricska, Yung-Tse Hung,

and Kathleen Hung Li 1

1. Introduction 1 2. Characteristics of Air Pollutants 3 3. Standards 6

3.1. Ambient Air Quality Standards 6 3.2. Emission Standards 8

4. Sources 10 5. Effects 10 6. Measurements 13

6.1. Ambient Sampling 14 6.2. Source Sampling 17 6.3. SampIe Locations 18 6.4. Gas Flow Rates 19 6.5. Relative Humidity 22 6.6. SampIe Train 24 6.7. Determination of Size Distribution 27

7. Gas Stream Calculations 28 7.1. General 28 7.2. Emission Stream Flow Rate and Temperature Calculations 29 7.3. Moisture Content, Dew Point Content,

and Sulfur Trioxide Calculations 30 7.4. Particulate Matter Loading 32 7.5. Heat Content Calculations 33 7.6. Dilution Air Calculations 33

8. Gas Stream Conditioning 35 8.1. General 35 8.2. Mechanical Collectors 35 8.3. Gas Coolers 36 8.4. Gas Preheaters 36

9. Air Quality Management 37 9.1. Recent Focus 37 9.2. Ozone 38 9.3. Air Toxics 42 9.4. Greenhouse Gases Reduction and Industrial Ecology Approach 43 9.5. Environmental Laws 45

10. Control 50 11. Conclusions 52

IX

x Contents COlltellts

12. Examples 52 3.3. 12.1.Example 1 52 .4. 12.2.Example 2 53 3.5. Nomendature 53 3.6. References 55 3.7.

2 Fabric Filtration 4. Cycl

4.1. Lawrence K. Wang, Clint Williford, and Wei-Yin Chen 59 4.2.

1. Introduction 2. Principle and Theory 3. Application

3.1. General 3.2. Gas Cleaning 3.3. Efficiency

59 60 64 64 64 66

4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. Nom RefeJ

4. Engineering Design 4.1. Pretreatment of an Emission Stream

68 68 4 Electrol

4.2. Air-to-Cloth Ratio 68 Chung-5 4.3. 4.4. 4.5.

Fabric Cleaning Design Baghouse Configuration Construction Materials

71 73 73

1. 2.

Intro Prille

4.6. Design Range of Effectiveness 5. Operation

5.1. General Considerations

74 74 74

2.1. 2.2. 2.3.

( 1 j

5.2. Collection Efficiency 5.3. System Pressure Drop 5.4. Power Reguirements 5.5. Filter Bag Replacement

6. Management 6.1. Evaluation of Permit Application 6.2. Economics

74 75 75 76 76 76 77

3. 2.4. J Desi~

3.1. 1 3.2. 1 3.3. 1 3.4. I 3.5. I

6.3. New Technology Awareness 7. Design Examples and Questions

Nomendature

79 80 92

3.6. ( 3.7. I 3.8. f

References 93 3.9. .F

Appendix 1: RAP Emission Stream Data Form Appendix 2: Metric Conversions

95 95

3.10.1 4. Appli

4.1. E 3 Cyc10nes 4.2. f

Jose Renato Coury, Reinaldo Pisani 'r., and Yung-Tse Hung 97 4.3. 4.4. (

1. Introduction 97 4.5. ( 2. Cydones for Industrial Applications 98 4.6. !\

2.1. General Description 98 4.7. P 2.2. Correlations for Cydone Efficiency 101 4.8. C 2.3. Correlations for Cydone Pressure Drop 105 5. PrablE 2.4. Other Relations of Interest 106 5.1. F 2.5. Application Examples 107 5.2. rv

3. Costs of Cydone and Auxiliary Eguipment 118 5.3. C 3.1. Cydone Purehase Cost 118 5.4. C 3.2. Fan 'Purchase Cost 119 6. Expec

...... 59

........ 59 ......... 60

........... 64 _ 64 ............ 64 ............ 66

............... 68 .............. 68 ............... 68 .............. 71 ............... 73 .............. 73 ............... 74 ............... 74 ............... 74

................. 74 ............... 75

................. 75

................. 76

................. 76 _ 76 ................. 77 ................. 79 ................. 80 .................. 92

.................... 93 ................... 95 .................. 95

................ 97

..................... 97

..................... 98 .................... 98 ................. 101 ................. 105

................... 106

................... 107

................... 118 .................... 118 ................... 119

Contents Xl

3.3. Ductwork Purchase Cost 120 3.4. Stack Purchase Cost 120 3.5. Damper Purchase Cost 121 3.6. Calculation of Present and Future Costs 121 3.7. Cost Estimation Examples 122

4. Cyclones for Airborne Particulate Sampling 125 4.1. Particulate Matter in the Ahnosphere 125 4.2. General Correlation für Four Commercial Cyclones 127 4.3. A Semiempirical Approach 128 4.4. The "Cyclone Family" Approach :35 4.5. PM2.5 Sampiers 136 4.6. Examples 140 Nomenclature 147 References 150

4 Electrostatic Precipitation Chung-Shin J. Yuan and Thomas T. Shen 153

1. Introduction 153 2. Principles of Operation 154

2.1. Corona Discharge 157 2.2. Electrical Field Characteristics 158 2.3. Particle Charging 162 2.4. Particle Collection 165

3. Design Methodology and Considerations 171 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. 3.9.

Precipitator Size 173 Particulate Resistivity 176 Internal Configuration 179 Electrode Systems 181 Power Requirements 181 Gas Flow Systems 184 Precipitator Housing 184 Flue Gas Conditioning 185 Removal of Collected Particles 185

3.10.Instrumentation 187 4. Applications 187

4.1. Electric Power Industry 187 4.2. Pulp and Paper Industry 188 4.3. Metallurgicallndustry 188 4.4. Cement Industry 188 4.5. Chemical Industry 188 4.6. Municipal Solid-Waste Incinerators 189 4.7. Petroleum Industry 189 4.8. Others 189

5. Problems and Corrections 189 5.1. Fundamental Problems 189 5.2. Mechanical Problems 192 5.3. Operational Problems 192 5.4. Chemical Problems 192

6. Expected Future Developments 193

~

-LD~ ='-<OJ-'on ~-

COlltents XII Contents

5. Envir Nomenclature 193 6. DesigReferences 195 NornE

Refen 5 Wet and Dry Scrubbing Appe:

Lawrence K. Wang, 'erry R. Taricska, Yung-Tse Hung, 'ames E. Eldridge, and Kathleen Hung Li 197 7 Flare Prl

LaWrtmcl1. Introduction 197 1.1. General Process Descriptions 197 1. Introd 1.2. Wet Scrubbing or Wet Absorption 198 2. Pretre 1.3. Dry Scrubbing or Dry Absorption 199 2.1. S

2. Wet Scrubbers 199 2.2. F 2.1. Wet Absorbents or Solvents 199 2.3. F 2.2. Wet Scrubbing Systems 200 2.4. S 2.3. Wet Scrubber Applications 203 3. Engin2.4. Packed Tower (Wet Scrubber) Design 204 3.1. D 2.5. Venturi Wet Scrubber Design 215 3.2. D

3. Dry Scrubbers 222 3.3. P. 3.1. Dry Absorbents 222 4. Manal 3.2. Dry Scrubbing Systems 222 4.1. D 3.3. Dry Scrubbing Applications 225 4.2. E 3.4. Dry Scrubber Design 226 4.3. C

4. Practical Examples 227 5. DesigtNomenclature 296 Norne. References 298 Refere Appendix: Listing of Compounds Currently Considered Hazardous 302

8 Thermal 6 Condensation

Lawrence Lawrence K. Wang, Clint Williford, and Wei-Yin Chen 307

1. Introd 1. Introduction 307 1.1. PJ

1.1. Process Description 307 .2. R; 1.2. Types of Condensing Systems 308 1.3. A 1.3. Range of Effectiveness 309 ,.,

L. Pretre; 2. Pretreatment, Posttreatment, and Engineering Considerations 309 2.1. A

2.1. Pretreatment of Emission Stream 309 2.2. D 2.2. Prevention of VOC Emission from Condensers 311 3. SUpplE2.3. Proper Maintenance 311 4. Engim2.4. Condenser System Design Variables 311 4.1. FI

3. Engineering Design 311 4.2. C4 3.1. General Design Information 311 4.3. S)3.2. Estimating Condensation Temperature 312 5. Manag3.3. Condenser Heat Load 313 5.1. E, 3.4. Condenser Size 314 5.2.0J 3.5. Coolant Selection and Coolant Flow Rate 315 5.3. DI 3.6. Refrigeration Capacity 316 5.4. Er 3.7. Recovered Product 316 6. DesigI1

4. Management 316 NomeI 4.1. Permit Review and Application 316 Refere.J 4.2. Capital and Annual Costs of Condensers 316

Contents

........................................ 193

........................................ 195

Hung, , 197

......................................... 197

......................................... 197

......................................... 198

......................................... 199

......................................... 199

......................................... 199

......................................... 200 .......................................... 203 .......................................... 204 .......................................... 215 .......................................... 222 .......................................... 222 .......................................... 222 .......................................... 225 .......................................... 226 .......................................... 227 .......................................... 296 .......................................... 298 iIlsidered Hazardous .... 302

'in Cllen 307

........................................... 307

........................................... 307

........................................... 308

........................................... 309 =onsiderations 309 ........................................... 309 Isers 311 ........................................... 311 ........................................... 311 ........................................... 311 ............................................ 311 ............................................ 312 ............................................ 313 ............................................ 314 ............................................ 315 ............................................ 316 ............................................ 316 ............................................ 316 ............................................ 316 ............................................ 316

Contents xiii

5. Environmental Applications 320 6. Design Examples 321

Nomenclature 326 References 327 Appendix: Average Specific Heats of Vapors 328

7 Flare Process

Lawrence K. Wang, Clint Williford, and Wei-Yin Chen 329

1. Introduction 329 2. Pretreatment and Engineering Considerations 331

2.1. Supplementary Fuel Requirements 331 2.2. Flare Gas Flow Rate and Heat Content 331 2.3. Flare Gas Exit Velocity and Destruction Efficiency 333 2.4. Steam Requirements 334

3. Engineering Design 334 3.1. Design of the Flame Angle 334 3.2. Design of Flare Height 334 3.3. Power Requirements of a Fan 334

4. Management 335 4.1. Data Required for Permit Application 335 4.2. Evaluation of Permit Application 335 4.3. Cost Estimation 336

5. Design Examples 340 Nomenclature 343 References 344

8 Thermal Oxidation

Lawrence K. Wang, Wei Lin, and Yung-Tse Hung 347

1. Introduction 347 1.1. Process Description 347 1.2. Range of Effectiveness 349 1.3. Applicability to Remediation Technologies 349

2. Pretreatment and Engineering Considerations 351 2.1. Air Dilution 351 2.2. Design Variables 352

3. Supplementary Fuel Requirements 355 4. Engineering Design and Operation 356

4.1. Flue Gas Flow Rate 356 4.2. Combustion Chamber Volume 356 4.3. System Pressure Drop 356

5. Management 357 5.1. Evaluation of Permit Application 357 5.2. Operations and Manpower Requirements 358 5.3. Decision for Rebuilding, Purchasing New or Used Incinerators 360 5.4. Environmental Liabilities 360

6. Design Examples 360 Nomenclature 365 References 366

XlV Contents Contents

9 Catalytic Oxidation 11 Gas-Ph

Lawrence K. Wang, Wei Lin, and Yung-Tse Hung 369 Gregory

1. Introduction 369 1. Intro 1.1. Process Description 369 2. Type 1.2. Range of Effectiveness 372 2.1. I

1.3. Applicability to Remediation Technologies 375 2.2. 2. Pretreatment and Engineering Considerations 375 3. Oper

2.1. Air Dilution Requirements 375 3.1. I 2.2. Design Variables 376 3.2. I

3. Supplementary Fuel Requirements 379 3.3. ] 4. Engineering Design and Operation 382 3.4. (

4.1. Flue Gas Flow Rates 382 3.5. ( 4.2. Catalyst Bed Requirement 382 4. Desi~ 4.3. System Pressure Drop 383 4.1. ]

5. Management 384 4.2. ] 5.1. Evaluation of Permit Application 384 5. Case 5.2. Operation and Manpower Requirements 384 5.1. ] 5.3. Decision for Rebuilding, Purchasing New or Used Incinerators 385 5.2. (5.4. Environmental Liabilities abd Risk-Based Corrective Action 385 ,

6. Design Examples 386 6. Proc€ Nomenclarure 392 7. Limit References 393 8. Conc

NOffil10 Gas-Phase Activated Carbon Adsorption Refer

Lawrence K. Wang, Jerry R. Taricska, Yung-Tse Hung, and Kathleen Hung Li 395 12 EmergiJ

]. Introduction and Definitions 395 Lawrenc 1.1. Adsorption 395 andK. 1.2. Adsorbents 396

1. Intro(1.3. Carbon Adsorption and Desorption 396 2. Adsorption Theory 397 2. Proce

3. Carbon Adsorption Pretreament 399 3. Vehic

3.1. Cooling 399 3.1. I 3.2. ~3.2. Dehumidification 400

3.3. High VOC Reduction .400 3.3. ~

4. Design and Operation 400 3.4. C 4.1. Design Data Gathering 400 4. Mech

4.2. Type of Carbon Adsorption Systems 402 4.1. ( 4.2. (4.3. Design of Fixed Regenerative Bed Carbon Adsorption Systems .402

4.4. Design of Canister Carbon Adsorption Systems 405 4.3. ( 4.5. Calculation of Pressure Drops 406 4.4. l 4.6. Summary of Application 406 4.5. S 4.7. Regeneration and Air Pollution Control 5. Entra

of Carbon Adsorption System 409 6. Interr 4.8. Granular Activated Carbon Versus Activated Carbon Fiber 410 6.1. F

4.9. Carbon Suppliers, Equipment Suppliers, and Service Providers .411 6.2. ) 5. Design Examples 411 7. Meml

Nomenclarure 418 7.1. P References 419 7.2. P

Contents

~ 369

........................................ 369

........................................ 369

........................................ 372

........................................ 375

........................................ 375

........................................ 375

........................................ 376 ......................................... 379 ......................................... 382 ......................................... 382 ......................................... 382 ......................................... 383 ......................................... 384 ......................................... 384 ......................................... 384 ,r Used Incinerators 385 :orrective Action 385 .......................................... 386 .......................................... 392 .......................................... 393

~ Hung, ...................................... 395

.......................................... 395 " 395 ........................................... 396 ........................................... 396 ........................................... 397 ........................................... 399 ........................................... 399 ........................................... 400 ........................................... 400 ........................................... 400 ........................................... 400 ........................................... 402 Adsorption Systems .402 :;tems 405 ............................................ 406 ............................................ 406

............................................ 409 lted Carbon Fiber 410 md Service Providers 411 ............................................ 411 ............................................. 418 ............................................ 419

Contents xv

11 Gas-Phase Biofiltration Gregory T. Kleinheinz and Phillip C. Wright 421

1. Introduction 421 2. Types of Biological Air Treatment System 422

2.1. General Descriptions 422 2.2. Novel or Emerging Designs 424

3. Operational Considerations 426 3.1. General Operational Considerations 426 3.2. Biofilter Media 428 3.3. Microbiological Considerations 430 3.4. Chemical Considerations 431 3.5. Comparison to Competing Technologies 433

4. Design Considerations/Parameters 433 4.1. Predesign 433 4.2. Packing 435

5. Case Studies 435 5.1. High-Concentration 2-Propanol and Acetone 435 5.2. General Odor Control at a Municipal

Wastewater-Treatment Facility 436 6. Process Control and Monitoring 440 7. Limitations of the Technology 440 8. Conclusions 441

Nomenclature 443 References 444

12 Emerging Air Pollution Control Technologies Lawrence K. Wang, Jerry R. Taricska, Yung-Tse Hung,

and Kathleen Hung Li 445

1. Introduction 445 2. Process Modification 446 3. Vehicle Air Pollution and Its Control 446

3.1. Background 446 3.2. Standards 447 3.3. Sources of Loss 447 3.4. Control Technologies and Alternate Power Plants 448

4. Mechanical Particulate Collectors 453 4.1. General 453 4.2. Gravitational Collectors 454 4.3. Other Methods 455 4.4. Use of Chemicals 465 4.5. Simultaneous Particle-Gas Removal Interactions 465

5. Entrainment Separation 466 6. Internal Combustion Engines 467

6.1. Process Description 467 6.2. Applications to Air Emission Control 469

7. Membrane Process 471 7.1. Process Description 471 7.2. Application to Air Emission Control 474

~

~\il~:=.... (0

XVI Contents

8. Ultraviolet Photolysis 475 8.1. Process Description 475 8.2. Application to Air Emission Control 476

9. High-Efficiency Particulate Air Filters 477 9.1. Process Description 477 9.2. Application to Air Emission Control .479

10. Technical and Economical Feasibility of Selected Emerging Technologies for Air Pollution Control .480 10.1.General Discussion 480 10.2.Evaluation of ICEs, Membrane Process, UV Process,

and High-Efficiency Particulate Air Filters .480 10.3.Evaluation of Fuel-Cell-Powered Vehicles

for Air Emission Reduction .481 Nomenclature 489 References 491

Index 495

WEl-YIN CHEN,

Uniz;ersity,l JOSE RENATO Ce

Fedeml de SI JAMES E. ELDRlI

YUNG-TsEHuN

ClevclmId St GREGORY T. KL

of Wisconsin KATHLEEN HUN

fnc.,Irving, NORMAN C. PE! REINALOO PISAt-.

Prcto, Ribeirl THOMAS T. SHEJ

JERRY R. T ARICS

Inc., Naples, LAWRENCE K. V

Institute of V CUNT WILUFOR

sippi, Univer PHILLIP C. WRlC

sity of Sheffü CIiUNG-SHIN J.

Yat-Sen Unh