AIR, NOISE, WATER, AND SOLID WASTE

POLLUTION

Donora, PA 1946

Assumptions About Air Pollutants which are

NOT TRUE!

There are threshold levels of tolerable air pollutants- Wrong!

Dilution is the solution to air pollution- Wrong!Air pollutants can be assimilated by nature-

Wrong!Air pollutants do not travel- Wrong!Air pollution accidents will not happen-

Wrong!

Atmospheric Pollution

Air-pollution essentialsMajor air pollutants and their sourcesImpacts of air pollutants: health and

environmentBring air pollution under controlRegulatory issues

Pollutants and Atmospheric Cleansing

Air pollutants: gases and aerosols in the atmosphere that have harmful effects.

Level of air pollution determined by: The amount of pollutants entering the air The amount of space into which the pollutants

dispersed Mechanisms that remove pollutants from the air

Air pollution: Primary Sources

Primary Pollutants: Emitted directly into air from: Natural sources like volcanoes Mobile sources like cars Stationary sources like smoke stacks

Examples: PM10 –Particulate matter, solid matter suspended in a

gas used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less (soot)

Nitric Oxide (NO) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Carbon dioxide (CO2) and monoxide (CO)

Air pollution: Secondary Sources

Secondary Pollutants result from the reaction of primary pollutants in the atmosphere to form a new pollutant

Example: Sulfur trioxide (SO3) Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) Ozone (O3) Chemicals in photochemical smog:

PANS are powerful respiratory and eye irritants Peroxyacyl nitrates; Free radical reactions catalyzed by UV

light from the sun oxidize hydrocarbons to aldehydes, ketones, and dicarbonyl compounds, whose secondary reactions create peroxyacyl radicals, which combine with nitrogen dioxide to form peroxyacyl nitrates.

In bright sunlight nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and oxygen

interact chemically to produce powerful oxidants like ozone (O3) and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).

Major Air Pollutants

1. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)Production

Forms when fuels are burned at high temperatureResults from forest fires, volcanoes, lightening and

bacterial decomposition in soilMakes (HNO3) nitric Acid which causes:

Acid rain“Cultural” eutrophication; man caused

Human and environmental impactLung irritation and damageMay be cancer causingSuppresses plant growth

Major Air Pollutants

2. Ozone (O3) Production

Major component of photochemical smog Formed by sunlight reacting with Volatile Organic

Compounds (VOC) and NOx Human and environmental impact

Lung irritation and damage, bronchial constriction, coughing, wheezing and eye irritation

Damages plants, rubber and plastics

Major Air Pollutants

3. Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PAN) Production

Hydrocarbons + O2 + NO2 + sunlight CH3COOONO2 (PAN)

PANs transport NOx away from urban areas where it easily produces O3

Human and environmental impact In very small concentrations causes eye irritation (few

ppbs)gh Higher concentrations cause extensive damage to

vegitation

Major Air Pollutants

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)Production

Coal burning, metal smelting, paper manufacturing ad burning high sulfur oils

Combines with water vapor to produce acid precipitation

Human and environmental impact Reduces productivity of plants Causes breathing difficulty

There have been major decreases inSO2 concentrations in the US, this is due to success of the Acid Rain Program and the Clean Air Act.

The Hydroxyl Radical: Nature’s Cleanser

Major Air Pollutants

Suspended Particulate Matter (PM10) ; particles with diameter of 1/7th the width of a human hair or less.

Production Includes; smoke, dust, diesel soot, lead, and asbestos

Human and environmental impact Lung irritation and damage Carcinogens and mutagens Highest measurable health benefits with reduction of

these particles

Major Air Pollutants

VOC’s : organic compounds with a high vapor pressure. (600+ different cmpds) Ex. Toluene, xylene, formaldehyde, benzene, and acetone

Production Found in paints, aerosol sprays, dry-cleaning fluids, and

individual solvents.

Human and environmental impactRespiratory irritation and damageCarcinogenic and cause liver, kidney and CNS

damageConcentrations may be as much as 1000X higher

indoors!

Other Major Air Pollutants

Industrial and Photochemical Smog

Los Angeles, Early Morning

Los Angeles, Noon

Impacts of Smog: Heat Islands

Occur in metropolitan areas which are much warmer than their surroundings Can be 10 degrees warmer Warmer air holds more water vapor, increased rainfall

downwind

Buildings reduce radiation of heat to the night sky Materials store heat

Lack of vegitation and still water increases tempCars, air conditioners, and industry causes localized

greenhouse effectImpact human health; 1000ppl/yr die in US –heatCan alter wind patterns, cloud dev. ,lightning,

precipitation

Impacts of Smog: Temperature Inversion

Occurs when air temp. rises with height rather than decreasing with height

Can trap smog close to the ground Cause asthma, emphysema and more lung cancer

Usually occurs at night when the solar heating stops and surface cools, cooling the atmosphere right above it

The warm mass moving over the cold traps the cooler air below and wind calms

Dust, pollutants are trapped and concentrations increase

Impacts of Smog: Temperature Inversion

Major Air Pollutant Sources

Industry Pollution

Formation of Industrial Smog

Industrial Smog: tends to be sulfur based (AKA grey-air smog)•Results from Oil and coal burning

Formation of Photochemical Smog

Acid Rain

A broad term used to describe several ways that acid falls out of the atmosphere (aka acid deposition)

2 parts; wet and dry (approx. 50%) Wet: rain, fog, snow

As the acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects plants and animals Severity of effects depends on acid concentration, soil type,

types of organisms in the area (approx. 50%) Dry: acidic gasses and particles

Blown into buildings, cars, homes and on trees Can be washed off by rain, increasing the acidity of the rain

further.

Acid Deposition

pH Scale

Acid precipitation = pH < 5.5

pH = measurement of H ions in solution

Acid Deposition in Eastern North America

Standard Smokestack Height

Major Sources of SO2 Emitters

Impacts of Air Pollutant on Human Health

Chronic: gradual deterioration of a variety of physiological functions over a period of years

Acute: life-threatening reactions within a period of hours or days

Carcinogenic: cancer-causingChronic example: lead poisoningAcute example: death - Bhopal, IndiaCarcinogenic example: lung cancer

The Human Respiratory System

Normal and Emphysemic Lungs

Impacts of Air Pollutants on the Environment

Plants Necrotic: kills plant cells Chlorotic: destroys chlorophyll reducing

photosynthesis Increases susceptibility to disease and pests

Ozone most serious pollutant

Countryside Around Copper Smelting Plant

Ozone Impact on Crop Yields

Impact of Acid Deposition on Environment

Acidification of lakes and streams Acid shock from snow melt, with dry acid deposits,

concentrates acids 5-10x more than acid rain

Contributes to tree damage, particularly at high elevations

Contributes to sensitive forest soil damage through nitrogen saturation and by creating conditions which decomposers can not tolerate

Accelerates decay of building materials, paints, statues and sculptures Loss of color, increased Oxidation and Corrosion Decreases real estate values

Effect of Pollutants on Monuments

Impact of Air Pollutants on Forests

Impacts of Air Pollutants on the Environment

ForestsLeaching of nutrients from soil

(Ca2+, K+ and Mg2+)Release of aluminum into solutionRapid changes in soil chemistryReduced growth and diebacks of

plants and animals

Impacts of Air Pollutants on the Environment

ForestsIncreased plant vulnerability to

natural enemiesIncreased soil erosionIncreased floodingIncreased sedimentation of

waterways

Effects of Acid Deposition

Alteration of plant and animal reproductionLeaching of other toxic elements, e.g.,

aluminumEutrophic to seemingly oligotrophic ( having

very little nutrients) conditionsTotal loss of biota from aquatic ecosystemsAlterations of food chains

Impact of Buffers on Acid Deposition

Indoor Air Pollution (Sick Building Syndrome)

Restricted air circulation with pollutants 25%-60% greater than outdoor levels

Most common pollutants found indoors Molds Bacteria Carbon monoxide Radon Allergens Asbestos Tobacco smoke Formaldehyde and other VOCs

Symptoms of pollution effects: headaches, respiratory problems, cancer, CNS problems

Bringing Air Pollution Under Control

Remediation and Reduction strategies designed to improve air quality Tax incentives for pollution control vs. fines and penalties Set legislative standards for energy efficiency Increase funding for research into renewables Incentivize air pollution reduction in trade policies Solar cookstove distribution to developing countries to

replace coal and firewood Phase out 2-cycle gasoline engines Change building codes, construction solvents, improve air

movement Provide incentives to use mass transit

Limiting pollutants from motor vehiclesCoping with acid deposition

Strategies to Reduce Acid Rain

Design more efficient engines; reduce NOX emissionsIncrease the efficiency of coal burning plants; reduce

SO2 , NOX and particulates via coal washing, using scrubbers, advanced filtration on

smokestacks, electrostatic precipitators and catalytic burners with afterburners

Increase penalties on stationary sources who do not reduce emissions and Tax incentives to those who do

Incentives to consumers to purchase appliances that are rated efficient (energy star)

Increase CAFE (corporate average fuel economy) standards: improve ave. gas milage on cars, trucks

EPA’s Acid Rain Program

To achieve Reductions in SO2 , NOX Uses traditional and innovative market-based

approaches and Encourages efficiency and pollution prevention Allowance trading system (optional program) Set new emissions standards for NOX for existing coal

plants Permit process to allow flexibility in finding most cost-

effective way to reduce emissions CEM (continuous emissions monitoring) accurate

recording of achievement of goals, incentivizes self policing. (trading)

Trends in Automobile Emissions

Catalytic Converter

Bringing Air Pollution Under Control

Clean Air Act identifies most widespread pollutants: e.g., Particulates, SO, CO, NO, lead = criteria pollutants Originally signed in 1963; just air pollution 1990 addressed acid rain, urban smog, ozone, VOCs, air

pollutants and marketing pollution rights Credited with much success and with saving 15,000

lives/year

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) set levels that protect environmental and human healthset national emission standards for

hazardous air pollutants

Title IV Clean Air Act 1990

Reduce SO emission 50% below 1980 levelsImprove methods of reducing SO emissionsAllow emissions allowances and tradingEmissions purchasesReduce NO emissions

Industries’ Response to Title IV

Fuel switchingScrubbersEmissions allowance tradingUsing low-sulfur coals

Regulatory Issues

Costs versus benefits of air pollution controlStatus of “new source” review and

enforcementImproving fuel efficiency – hybrid carsImproving mass transit systemsReducing commuting distances

Control Strategies: Kyoto Protocol

1997Would have required US to reduce GHG emissions

by 7% from 1990 levels, over 5 years.Penalties would have occurred if goals were not

met150 nations signedUS did not sign!

Saw goals as unattainable and that the protocol held developed countries responsible

for cutting, but not developing nations Cost would be too high Time frame too short Not enough evidence connecting CO2 to global warming

Noise Pollution

Unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment

Dominant form is from transportation Motor vehicles Aircraft noise Rail transport noise

Other sources Office equipment, factory machinery, appliances, power

tools, sound systems

Regulation began in US, 1972; Federal Noise Control Act

Noise Pollution: Federal Noise Control Act

National policy to promote “harmful noise” free environment Coordinates federal research and activities in noise

control Establishes noise emission standards for products and

informs public of noise levels

Control measures Noise barriers, reduced speed limits, new road

surface technologies, computer-controlled traffic flow devices, change tire design, quieter jet engines, reschedule takeoff and landing times

Local laws to govern times of machine use

Noise Pollution: Effects

Three Kinds of Hearing Loss Conductive loss Sensory loss; caused by the inner ear, most commonly

associated with noise Neural loss

Cardiovascular problems: accelerated heart beat, high blood pressure

GI problemsDecreased alertness and difficulty memorizing,

nervousness, pupil dilation, decrease of visionLong-term effects: insomnia, nervousness, bulimia,

high-blood pressure, anxiety, depression, sexual dysfunction

Water Pollution

Categorized by Origin Point source: harmful substances put directly into a body

of water Ex. Industrial pipe discharging effluent directly into river/bay Usually regulated and carefully monitored in developed

countries Non-point source: deliver harmful substances indirectly

through transport of environmental change Ex. Fertilizer from a farm is carried into a stream by rain

(runoff) Much harder to monitor and regulate! They account for the majority of contaminants in streams,

lakes and bays

Sources of Water Pollution

Air pollutionChemicalsMicrobiological soourcesMiningNoiseNutrientsOil SpillsOxygen-depleting substancesSuspended matterThermal Sources

Water pollution from Air pollution

Mercury, SO2, NO, NH3 fall from the sky

Effects Mercury contamination in fish Acidification : can effect coral reefs, algae and

plankton Eutrophication in lakes and bays

Water pollution from Chemicals

A variety of chemicals from industrial and agricultural sources Ex: metals, solvents, oils detergents, and pesticides, Lawn

products Road runoff brings oil (rate 5 times the amt spilled in Exxon

Valdez 21 million barrels, per year) Oily ballast discharge and wash water contaminate oceans Oil and gas drilling; hurt coastal waters and ground water

Aprox. 100,000 gas storage containers leak (EPA estimate) Prescription and over the counter meds; up to 90%

undigested, effecting aquatic reproduction and development

Effects: Accumulate in fish (biomagnification); poisoning the food

chain Interrupt marine/ aquatic life cycles

Water pollution from Microbes

Bacteria, viruses and protozoa (disease causing) infect drinking supplies, lakes, rivers or oceans

Effects: Swimmers sick, contaminated fish or shellfish, sick people

Water borne Diseases Cholera, typhoid, shigella, polio, meningitis, and hepatitis

Source; sewage overflow, septic tank leaks, storm overflow, untreated sewage dumped (in developing countries)

Water pollution from Mining

Heavy metals and sulfur are exposed, Rainwater leaches causing acid drainage and heavy metal pollution

Rainwater on mining waste piles (tailings) also leaches pollution into water Gold mine tailings are chemically treated to release more

gold: cyanide is used

Pools of mining waste, called slurry, stored behind containment dams sometimes leak into ground water

Mining companies in developing countries dump waste directly

Water pollution from Noise

Marine organisms, including mammals, sea turtles and fish communicate, navigate and hunt via sound

Commercial shipping, military sonar, recreational boating etc. interferes with these activities

Water pollution from Nutrients

Water pollution from Oil Spills

Water pollution from Oxygen- Depleting Substances

Water pollution from Suspended Matter and Thermal sources

Cultural Eutrophication

Groundwater Pollution

Maintaining Water Quality and Purification

Drinking water treatment methods

Water treatment Remediation Technologies

Sewage Treatment/Septic Systems

Primary treatmentSecondary treatmentTertiary treatment

Sewage Treatment: Relevant Laws

Solid WasteTypes

Organic: kitchen, vegetables, leaves, flowers (US yard waste 18%, food 7%) Decomposes within about 2 weeks (wood 10-15 years)

Radioactive: spent fuel rods and smoke detectors Decomposes in 100s of 1000s of years

Recyclable: paper (US 38%), glass (US 7%), metal (US 8%) and some plastics (US 8%) Pare decomp. in 10-30 days; glass no decomp.; metal

decomp. 100-500yrs; plastics up to 1 mil years to decompose

Soiled: hospital waste Cotton and cloth decomp. 2-5 months

Toxic: paints, chemicals, pesticides 100s of years to decompose

Solid Waste Disposal and ReductionBurning, incineration or energy recovery

Pros Heat supplements energy requirements Less landfill use Cheap Volume reduction US burns 15% of waste; France, Sweden, Japan and

Switzerland burns> 40%of their waste to heat and generate electricity

Cons Air pollution; metals, SO2, HCl and dioxins Unknown toxic consequences Ash concentrates toxins Batteries, plastics etc need sorting- expensive Expensive to build Adds to acid deposition and GHG emissions

Composting Pros cons

Remanufacturing Pros cons

Detoxifying Pros cons

Exporting Pros Cons

Land Disposal; Sanitary landfills Pros cons

Land Disposal; Open Dumping Pros cons

Ocean Dumping Pros cons

Recycling Pros cons

Reuse Pros cons

Solid Waste; Relevant laws