AKA: LA BELLE EPOCH, AGE OF “MASS SOCIETY” AND AGE OF OPTIMISM AND

DESPAIRCHAPTERS 25 AND 26

Age of NationalismEvents of the Late Nineteenth

Century

What happened by 1850 (or so)?

“Continental” industrialization came of ageBritain still led in the production of iron and

manufacturingMarkets expanded with the opening of waterways

Trade treaties in the 1860’s eliminated tolls on major river systems (Danube, Rhine)

Suez Canal linked the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean

Germany had established the “zolvereign”The ideas of Marx and Engels had been absorbed

by many French and British trade unionists who created the “First International”, a working-class movement organized along socialist lines

(slide 3 continued)

Advances in science include thermodynamics, the periodic table and advances in electromagnetic induction (precursor to electricity)

Increasing secularism, as evident in the movement known as “materialism”

Charles Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection and The Decent of Man

Louis Pasteur experimented with germs, Joseph Lister developed antiseptics and chloroform helped in surgical operations

Medical schools developed, many eventually accepting women

A shift from Romanticism to Realism“Mass Society” emerged

I Almost Forgot…

The rise of Imperialism

The Growth of Prosperity – Age of Optimism

New industries, new goods, new sources of energy and new prosperity led Europeans to believe that technology and science could solve all human problems

The new urban and industrial world created changes that led to a new mass society, which meant improvements in the standard of living for the lower classes.

New work patterns established the “weekend” and more time for leisure activities, including sports and amusement parks where social classes intermingled

(slide 5 continued)

Mass society saw the role of government change as it became more involved in public health and housing issues, especially in the cities

Democracy expanded the right to vote to all adult males, though women will still continue to fight for political rights

Improved Standard of Living

Wages on average will almost double in the late 19th century

However, poverty will exist and there was a growing gap between rich and poor

Wealthy elite made up 5% of the population and controlled 40-50% of its wealth

Lower Classes

Made up 80% of the populationMany are landowning peasants, laborers and

sharecroppers, more so in Eastern than Western Europe

Peasants came into contact with other classes as a result of military conscription. New public elementary schools forced children to learn national loyalties and the national language

Urban working class included skilled, semiskilled and unskilled laborers. Unskilled laborers make up the bottom of the lower class

Improvements in wages, a decrease in product costs and improved cities helped improve the conditions of the working classes. They could now afford other items besides just food, and they had more leisure time as a result of collective bargaining for better wages and hours

“The Woman Question”

Used to describe the debate on the role of women, society tried to answer the question on whether women should work outside of the home

Women remained legally inferior, economically dependent, and defined by domestic roles; a traditional characterization of women which was due to industrialization, and still persists today

The practice of having the man go out of the home to work with pay and women playing a domestic role with no pay (“separate spheres”) was rare among working lower classes

Marriage and Family

Marriage was seen as the only honorable profession available to women

Middle class values glorified domesticity For most women, marriage was an economic necessity.

Lack of meaningful, well-paid work for women gave them little choice in the matter

Birthrates, which had grown up to 1870, dropped significantly. Causes include: Development of new birth control methods Too a large degree – attitudes changed. More information

about birth control became available, despite persecution Despite persecution, family planning was encouraged to

help reduce poverty in the lower classes, however it was also practiced by middle class families

Migration

Encouraged by: Population pressure (fewer deaths again due to urban

improvements and science) Opening economic and social opportunities abroad Cheaper land abroad Minority persecution (Jews and others that did not

meet the new “national ideal”)

Who Moved and Where Did They Go?

Who: Most often a small peasant landowner or village

craftsman losing business to large industry Skilled, technical workers those in the minority

Where: U.S., Russia, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Australia,

New Zealand

White Man’s Burden

European ethnocentric attitudes encouraged by Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest)

Created the “need” to “civilize” the barbarians and convert them to Christianity

Imperialism in Africa (go to slide 46)

The vast interior of Africa held little European interest prior to this period (why?)

Between 1807 and 1820, most Europeans abolished the slave trade (does that mean no slavery at all? Also – why now?)

As slave trade ends, Europeans turn their greedy eyes to the second most valuable resource from Africa – the land itself (ironic, isn’t it?)

South Africa: Gold, Diamonds and… a British Crown?

Prior to the 1860’s, Africa used mainly for shipping and military reasons (coastal presence)

1795 – British seized Cape Town from the South African Dutch (aka, Boers or Afrikaners) who trek northeast into the interior

Boer War (1899-1902) was fought after they (the Dutch) discover diamonds and gold. The British won and establish a colony in which only white males could vote

Educated South Africans organize the “African National Congress” (sound familiar?)

Another Part of Africa: Egypt

Muhammed Ali (not the same guy) defeated the French and the Ottomans in 1805, though technically still part of the Ottoman Empire

Ali industrialized Egypt and expanded agriculture toward cotton (why cotton?)

Subsequent rulers worked with the French and completed the Suez Canal in 1869 (what two bodies of water were linked?)

WAIT – WEREN’T WE JUST TALKING ABOUT EGYPT AND THE FRENCH?

Egypt: The New British Colony

TO OTHER PARTS OF NORTH AFRICA, PARTICULARLY NIGERIA, ALONG WITH A

NEWLY-UNIFIED ITALY

Where Did the French Go?

Africa: Divide and Conquer

1884 – Otto von Bismarck hosted a conference in Berlin and Europeans set up colonization rights and boundaries in Africa

Within 3 decades, almost all of Africa was colonized by European countries (Which ones? Take a guess, you’re probably right)

Wait, There's More…

Boundary lines not drawn according to African history – disputes further encourage disunity among Africans

Traditional African culture fell into decline as European schools, missionaries and western business practices supplanted it

Consequences

Europeans built roads, canals, railroads, dams

Africa stripped of natural resourcesNatives treated harshlyDirect rule over colonies exercised by all

Europeans except Britain, who allowed local self-rule (similar to Roman Empire)

Compare: European Colonialism in

Africa America

Imperialism in India

Mughal Empire – Are they still in power?1750’s - British East India Company, under

Robert Clive, will defeat the French in India and gain control of India over the next 100 years (what’s wrong with this picture?)

Sepoy Mutiny: Too little, too late1858 – British Parliament steps in, exiles

the last Mughal rulerQueen Victoria – Empress of India

India: Model of British Imperialism

Late 1800’s – raw materials flowed to Britain, manufactured goods flowed back to India (sound familiar?)

Railroads and canals builtUpper castes taught English and English

customs, Christianity spreads

Indian National Congress

1885 – Well-educated Indians who dreamed of freeing India from British rule.

It would take 2 World Wars before the dream is realized (more on that in “Period 5”)

*Note – educated folks less likely to accept “subjugation”

Imperialism in China

Up until now, what was China’s relationship with the West?

In the 1830’s the relationship will change as the British “force their right to deal” (deal what? Drugs, of course!)

1839-1842 first “Opium War” (guess who wins?)

Treaty of Nanjing: More Opium, More Addicts

1842 - First of “unequal treaties” – Britain allowed expanded trading rights

1843 - Hong Kong declared a “crown possession” of Britain

1844 – Christian missionaries allowed back in China

More War

Second Opium War, 1856-1860 – Occurred after China refused British rights to expand opium trade – China humiliated

White Lotus Rebellion and Taiping Rebellion caused decay internally

China – now considered an easy target, so that means…

Even More War

1876 – Korea declares independence1883 – Sino-French War – China loses

Vietnam to the French (subsequently named “French Indochina”)

1895 – Sino-Japanese War ended with Japanese control of Taiwan and trading rights (note: Japan also takes over Korea)

France, Germany, Russia, Britain create “spheres of influence”

(BY THE WAY, WHERE IS THE U.S. IN ALL OF THIS? I ’M GLAD YOU ASKED….)

What’s the Difference Between Establishing a Colony and a

“Sphere of Influence?”

Boxer Rebellion – Knocked Out in the First Round

“Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists”Anti- Manchu, anti-Europeans and anti-

Christians (guerilla warfare used to slaughter many of them)

Rebellion failed - China forced to sign the “Boxer Protocol” which forced China to pay for the costs of the rebellion and apologize

Contrast: European Imperialism in

China India

Chinese Culture Crumbles

1901 – footbinding abolished1905 – Civil Service Exam was eliminated1911 - Sun Yat-sen toppled the government

and established a republic (more on that in the next period beginning in the year 1914)

Japanese Imperialism (far cry from isolationism)

1853 – Commodore Matthew Perry arrived on a steamboat to Japan (big deal?)

1854 Treaty of Kanawaga signed (big deal?)Meiji Restoration ushers in Japanese

westernization

Consequences

By 1870 – Japan builds railways and steamships

By 1876 – Samurai class out, conscription inBy 1890’s – Maintained trade on equal

footing with western powers1895 – defeated China for control of Korea

and Taiwan1904 - Russo-Japanese War, kicked Russia

out of Manchuria(Can anyone say “Imperial Power”? How

about “World Power”?)

Compare

IR in Europe IR in Japan

AGE OF OPTIMISM AND DESPAIR

Politically Speaking…

Early and Late 19th Century: A Comparison

1800-1850 Reform was limited Revolutions of 1848 had

failed Liberalism and

nationalism defeated as conservative, authoritarian governments prevailed

Conservative agenda upheld by the “Concert of Europe”

After 1850 Some conservative

leaders found a way to manipulate liberal and national ideologies to increase their power, practicing a new ideology known as “Realpolitik”

The Concert of Europe will disintegrate

Germany and Italy will unify, with major consequences to come

NOTE: ITALY, GERMAN CONFEDERATION (INCLUDES

PARTS OF AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA), OTTOMAN EMPIRE,

GREECE, RUSSIA,

Before: Map – p. 679

After: p. 839

France

Napoleon III – came to power after the failure of the “Bourgeoisie government” of Louise Philippe

Won support of the people, created the “Second republic”, and when denied the right to be re-elected he seized the government, gave universal male suffrage, and won a series of plebiscites to gain the title of emperor

As such, he controlled the military, police and civil service. He alone could introduce legislation, control the budget and declare war

Domestic Policies of Napoleon III

Domestic Agenda Government subsidies for

growth in industry and transportation

Free hospitals and medicine Better housing for working

class “Modern” Paris with

sewage, public water, gas lights and wide roads (aesthetic and military purpose) APE p. 794

Liberalized industry by allowing for labor unions and the right to strike

Liberalized government by giving free speech to opponents and a voice to the Legislative Corps

Results Major French railway lines

completed Tripling of iron production

signaled industrial growth Reduction of social tensions By 1870 had the total

support of the people

Successful domestic policies will be eventually outweighed by foreign failures, and lead to Napoleon's decline

Republican France

The defeat of the French in the Franco-Prussian War brought the downfall of Napoleon’s second empire, and a republican provisional government was formed

However when Bismarck got involved and forced the French to chose a government by universal male suffrage, they chose monarch rule. In response, radical republicans created an independent government, the Paris Commune.

When the government decided to crush the commune, working class people, including women, fought fiercely to defend it. When the commune was defeated, supporters were sent to penal colonies, establishing a legacy of hatred between the Middle and Working classes

The monarchists, in an ironic turn, set up a government with a two-house legislature (one house elected by universal male suffrage) and a president

Unification of Italy – The Beginning

Austria was dominant in Italy, especially after the revolts of 1848 failed. However, nationalists were not deterred

When Victor Emmanuel replaced Charles Albert as King of Piedmont-Sardinia, he appointed Count Camillo di Cavour to be his Prime Minister

Cavour was a wealthy, liberal-minded aristocrat who favored constitutional government

Like Napoleon III, he pursued a successful policy of expansion of industry and transportation by expanding credit for investment. The money raised built a strong army

Learning from the Revolution of 1848, he realized he would need the help of France to achieve Italian Unification

North and Central Italy

Cavour promised the French the provinces of Nice and Savoy, and the hand of the King’s daughter to Napoleons cousin, who would be named King of Central Italy

France took charge in defeating the Austrians, and Napoleon made a hasty peace without the consent of Italy (or control of Venetia) which angered Cavour

Soon after, “Central Italy” had been taken over by nationalists who held a plebiscite in which they agreed to unify with Peidmont

Napoleon agreed to the unification, in return for Savoy and Nice

Southern Italy

While events were happening in northern Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi and the “Red Shirts” revolted against the Bourbon king of the “Two Sicilies”, marching up the Italian peninsula toward Rome

Fearing a French retaliation (and loss of power), Cavour sent in his troops to protect Rome

Choosing against civil war, Garibaldi chose not to invade. Eventual plebiscites in both the Papal States and Two Sicilies led to the union with Piedmont.

Final Unification

1861 – The Kingdom of Italy was established with Victor Emmanuel as King

Rome (French control) and Venetia (Austrian control) will still out of reach.

In the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, Italy was on the side of the victor and won control of Rome and Venetia. Rome eventually became the capital of Italy

See Map and Cartoon – p. 694 and 695

Italy

Unification brought little “unification”: Italian loyalty usually rested with the family and local

regions, not the new state There were differences between the poverty-stricken south

and the industrialist north (who made up the leadership majority)

The Catholic Church resented loss of the Papal States to the state and did not recognize the unification of Italy

Turmoil between workers and industrialists persistedReform in suffrage allowed for a whopping 10% of

the population to vote (up from 2.5%)Lack of dominant parties and corruption allowed

for little stability in government

Unification of Germany

After unification failed in 1848-49, nationalists looked to Austria and Prussia

While Austria controlled the “German Confederation”, Prussia controlled the Zollverein (customs union) of which Austria was not a part

Middle-class liberals looked to Prussia to lead unification

Prussia

Prussia had a bicameral legislature and universal male suffrage, although weighted votes allowed those who paid higher taxes to have more influence

King Frederick William I was succeeded by William I, his brother

William I felt the military needed to be revamped – he wanted to increase the budget to double the size of the army and have 3 year compulsory military service. The middle class parliament was weary of his intentions and voted against the measures

Count Otto von Bismarck

Appointed Prime Minister by King William I in 1862 and dominated European politics until 1890

Had experience as a delegate to the German Confederation and ambassador to Russia

A believer in realpolitik, he was an opportunist who waged war only when necessary, and after he had a clear advantage by isolating the enemy and they would be fighting only one enemy

He resubmitted the earlier budget by William I and when the parliament voted it down, he ignored them

“GERMANY DOES NOT LOOK TO PRUSSIA’S LIBERALISM BUT TO HER POWER…. NOT

BY SPEECHES AND MAJORITIES WILL THE GREAT

QUESTIONS OF THE DAY BE DECIDED – THAT WAS THE MISTAKE IN 1848-49 – BUT

BY IRON AND BLOOD”

Bismarck to his liberal opponents in Parliament

Danish War - 1864

Causes – When the Danish government violated a treaty and attempted to incorporate Holstein and Schleswig into Denmark. Prussia, joined by Austria declared war

Course – After a quick, decisive victory, Prussia was given Schleswig and Austria was given Holstein

Consequences – Prussia wanted control of the northern, largely protestant region of Germany and while openly pursued negotiations with Austria, they planned secretly to isolate them

Austro-Prussian War - 1866

Bismarck gained an agreement to remain neutral from Russia (recall the Crimean War), and France (who was promised the Rhineland). He also promised Venetia to Italy for their support (earlier slide)

After goading Austria into war, Prussian weapons and railroads gave Prussia a decisive victory.

The peace was not punitive, and Austria lost Venetia and was excluded from German affairs. The Northern German states were organized into a confederation under the control of Prussia

Ever the politician, Bismarck used his success to have his illegal taxes legalized. He was able to separate the concept of liberalism and nationalism

Franco-Prussian War

Cause - Isabella II was deposed and the throne was offered to a relative of the King William I. France objected and demanded Prussia withdraw his nomination, as well as an apology. Bismarck edited a telegram (Ems dispatch) sent to Napoleon III from William I to make it insulting. France declared war on Prussia

Course – the Prussian forces quickly surrounded Napoleon and his army

Consequence – France had to pay a large indemnity (1 billion) and give up Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. France wanted revenge.

Final Unification

Before the war had ended, the southern German states agreed to unify with the north

In 1871, William I was proclaimed Emperor of the “Second German Empire”

Prussian leadership of the unification signaled the triumph of authoritarian, militaristic government over liberal, constitutional sentiments.

With its industrial and military success, Prussia (now Germany) became the strongest power on the continent

See Map – p. 697

Unified Germany

The German constitution called for a bicameral legislature: The Bundserat (upper house) represented the 25

German states (some independent states kept their own kings and armies)

The Reichstag (lower house) elected by universal male suffrage

The most important leadership positions (like “chancellor” Bismarck) and the army (made up of “junker” officers) were not held responsible to the parliament, but to the emperor, therefore real political democracy was thwarted

Bismarck (again)

At the onset, Bismarck worked with liberals to achieve centralization of Germany with common codes of criminal and commercial law, and “Kulturkapf” to reduce the power of the Catholic church

Around 1878, Bismarck abandoned liberal ideas turning to more conservative ones. Alarmed at the growing number of socialists, he had the Social Democratic Party outlawed, though socialists could still run for office in the Reichstag

To woe workers from socialist ideas, he set up social welfare legislation for workers

The socialist movement, however, continued to grow. Just as he was ready to pass more repressive measures, William II said “your fired” (or something like that, in German)

Austria: Toward A Duel Monarchy

Habsburgs had crushed revolutionaries in Vienna, Buda and Prague, as well as the Hungarians and Czechs who wanted independence. However, the revolutions did bring serf emancipation

The growth of industry after 1850 led to changes – an urban proletariat, labor unrest and a new middle class

Economic troubles and the defeat in the war with Italy brought change

The Ausgleich (Compromise of 1867)

An imperial parliament (Reichsrat) was set up by Francis Joseph in 1859

Meant to provide representation of the differing nationalities in the empire, the election formula ensured a German-speaking majority that alienated the ethnic minorities, especially the Hungarians

After defeat in the Austro-Prussian war, the Austrians were forced into a compromise with Hungarian nationalists, creating the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each had its own capital and legislature, held together by one king – Francis Joseph who controlled the army and foreign affairs

Austria-Hungary

In Austria, Franz Joseph ignored the constitution which set up a parliamentary form of government

Minority problems continued to plague the empire. Ethnic Germans, who made up 1/3 of the population, governed the rest of the mostly Slavic Austria.

Problems persisted as the “nationalities problem” persisted into the 20th century. Dissatisfied non-German groups continued to demand concessions from an unwilling Austrian German-ruling class

In Hungary, the Magyar landowners controlled the peasantry and other ethnic groups of Hungary and attempted to solve nationalistic problems through “Magyarization”

What unified Austria-Hungary was the loyalty to the Catholic Church, and to Emperor Franz Joseph, who put the interests of the nation above his hatred of Hungary

Overall Results of the Ausgleich of 1867

Other nationalities, especially Slavic peoples (Poles, Croats, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes and Little Russians), felt oppressed by the German-speaking dual monarchy

Nationality problems will last until the end of the empire in WWI

The “Eastern Question”

Who would be the beneficiaries of the weakening Ottoman Empire? 17th century – Ottomans controlled much of

southeastern Europe By the 18th century -

lost Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia to Austria

Lost Crimea and Bessarabia to Russia, who also later became a “protectorate” of Moldavia and Wallachia

Revolts in Serbia and Greece led to their independence from the Ottomans by 1830

Causes of the Crimean War1854-1856

War begins when Russia, under the leadership of Nicholas I, was denied the right to be the “protectorate” of the Christian shrines in Palestine by the Ottomans, and invaded Moldavia and Wallachia

Failure to reach a diplomatic solution led Great Britain and France to declare war on Russia

Great Britain feared an upset in the balance of power in Europe, and France was insulted that Russia was attempting to take away their right to be protectorate of Palestine

Russia had expected help from Austria (they helped save the monarchy earlier from revolution in 1848) but Austria remained neutral

Course and Consequence

Britain and France began a two year siege on Sevastopol, the main fortress of Russia on the Black Sea

After great losses on both sides, the new csar, Alexander II, sued for peace.

1856 - Treaty of Paris – Russia had to give up Crimea, Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia

Austria and Russia were now enemiesRussia recognized how “backwards” they

wereThe biggest consequence – the “Concert of

Europe” was destroyed

Death and Disease

250,000 soldiers died in the war – 60% from disease

Florence Nightingale helped prevent even more deaths from disease by insisting on sanitary conditions

Nightingale established the nursing profession of trained, middle-class women

Russia

Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War signaled a need for change

The reliance of an agricultural society and military based on a poor, uneducated serf class put Russia behind

In 1861, Alexander II emancipated the serfs, which meant they could marry who they chose, own property and bring suits in a court of law

Limits to Serf Emancipation

The government purchased land from landowners, who kept the good land for themselves, leaving the peasants with poor land and the bill

To make sure peasants paid for their land, they were subject to their “mir”, or village commune, who made sure they did not leave or fail to make payments

Freedom led to and unhappy, land-starved peasantry that lacked agricultural technology

Other Russian Reforms

Alexander II instituted the system of zemstvos which provided for local governments with some degree of self-rule

The voting system gave nobles an advantageReformers felt let down, conservatives didn’t

like the changes in the political structure

Repression in Russia

Reformers such as Alexander Herzen suggested that peasants must be the vehicle of social reform through revolution.

This idea was embraced by “populists” such as Vera Zasulich who joined the “Land and Freedom” underground populist organization and then attempted to assassinate a top Russian official.

Inspired by Zasulich, the populist group known as the “People’s Will” assassinated Alexander II. His son and successor, Alexander III, was a reactionary who turned against reform and re-established traditional forms of repression

Mother Russia

After the assassination of Alexander the II, there were no concessions made to liberal or democratic reforms by Alexander III.

His reactionary approach allowed for the expansion of the secret police to stamp out any attempt at reform. The powers of the zemstvos were curtailed and whole cities accused of revolutionary acts were put under martial law

Alexander III also instituted a policy of “Russification” (aka – Pan-Slavic Movement) insisting on Russian as the native language used in schools. 60% of the population was not Russian, and the measures only served to ignite new opposition to his policies

Great Britain

Great Britain had faced little revolution by 1848 because it had experienced some reform

Economic growth, middle class prosperity and some working class improvements (wages increase 25%) created a stable society

Victorian Age

Queen Victoria ruled from 1837-1901Her sense of duty and moral respectability

reflected the attitudes of her ageShe embodied British feelings of national

pride during the “Victorian Age”

Great Britain

By 1871, Britain had a two-party parliamentary system

The Reform Act of 1867 gave the right to all men who paid taxes

Payment of members of parliament also increased democratic participation

Unfortunately, reform failed to solve the problems of the “Irish Question”

Reform Act of 1867

Whigs (now called “Liberals”) had expanded the right to vote in 1832 and sought to expand the franchise even further

Led by Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, Tories (now called conservatives) carried through with the legislation in order to win over the newly enfranchised groups

The new reform act lowered the monetary tax requirement necessary to vote, enfranchising many urban male workers (# of voters doubled), however the Liberals will benefit from the vote in 1868, and William Gladstone will become Prime Minister

Gladstone

The liberal administration of Gladstone was responsible for many reforms: Competitive exams were given for civil service jobs (v.

patronage) Secret ballots for voting Abolished purchasing of military commssions Education Act of 1870 – public elementary education

for all children

Ireland

In the British parliament (which had been united with the English Parliament with the Act of Union in 1801) tried to enact land reform to deal with absentee British landlords who exploited their Irish tenants

By 1879, reforms had little effect, and the Irish Land League formed. Irish members of Parliament began to articulate the demands of the league which promulgated self government, though not overall independence from Britain (“home rule”)

William Gladstone issued a home rule bill in 1886, however it was defeated and the Irish question remained unresolved

What About Canada?

Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Canada to the British

By 1800, most Canadians favored independence

1837 - Rebellion and the cost of maintaining the colonies encouraged the British to give in to Canadian demands

1867 – Dominion of Canada was created, giving Canadians autonomy in domestic affairs, however foreign affairs still remained under the control of the British

Spain

1875 – a parliamentary constitution was drafted under King Alfonso XII. Unfortunately, the Liberal and Conservative parties in it only represented the interests of the old aristocrats and the new industrialists (suffrage was limited to those with property)

Following their loss of the Philippines and Cuba, and their defeat in the Spanish-American War, there was call for reform by the “Generation of 1898”. To increase their electorate, the Liberals and conservatives did allow some voting reform, but the masses were still unhappy

With growing industrialization (and discontent) more people joined anarchist and socialist organizations. After a failed rebellion in 1909, it was clear the church, landowners and military forces loyal to the status quo would not be defeated easily

Age of Despair

THE DARKER SIDE OF THE LATE 19 T H CENTURY

The Jewish Problem – Continued Anti-Semitism

While the early 19th century saw some political doors and opportunities open to Jews, by the end of the century increasing problems and roadblocks

Jews became scapegoats for economic problems of the era, such as the closing of small shops due to department stores

The term “anti-Semitism” is developed based on Social Darwinism which suggested Jews were of a unique race (?)

Some politicians of the era will be elected on anti-Semitic platforms, including Karl Leuger of Vienna

In France, the Dreyfus Affair reflected resentment of Jews in all levels of society

In Russia, pogroms were systematic attacks against Jews as a tool of “Russification”, and many Jews emigrated

Rise of Zionism

Disappointment following the by reversal of progress at the end of the 19th century, many Jews felt the only solution to stop their persecution would be the development of a Jewish state

Theodore Herzl, who was horrified at the backlash Jews experienced as a result of the Dreyfus Affair, advocated Zionism

Herzl, and others, will form an worldwide organization that will hold their first Congress in Switzerland in 1897

Impedes in Women's Progress While many women began to gain access to more jobs

and higher education, they found they were still excluded from professional societies within their respective fields

Because they will dominate certain professions (nurse, teacher, etc) it will ensure those professions will be poorly paid

Some women will organize to address social and political inequalities: Josephine Butler and the Latish National Association

argued successfully against the Contagious Disease Act “Feminists” begin to organize and demand property and

divorce rights While feminist organizations cooperate world-wide, conflicts

over whether to fight for social changes v. the right to vote will persist

Conflicts will also erupt over using peaceful means, promoted by “suffragettes”, or more radical approaches like those of Emmeline Pankhurst of the Women’s Social and Political Union

Still others will advocate that the only way to gain rights was by adopting Socialism

Social Darwinism in Europe

Herbert Spencer argued in Social Statistics that survival of the fittest was a natural process and that governments should not intervene, justifying the takeover of the weak by the strong

Rabid nationalists often argued for a doctrine of war for advancing the race, such as the National Association of Italy

The German concept of the “Volk” was propagandized by Houston Stewart Chamberlain to suggest that modern-day Germans were the successors to the Aryan race (who originally created western culture)

Social Darwinism Elsewhere

In the 1880’s expansion into Asia and Africa was being done by most European countries

The “Mad Scramble for Africa” led Bismarck to call the “Berlin Conference”

Social Darwinism justified European sovereignty over inferior peoples

Rudyard Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden” further exemplified the mood of the era