additional information on cyanide · additional information on cyanide ... cyanide solutions,...
TRANSCRIPT
IINNTTEERRNNAATTIIOONNAALL CCYYAANNIIDDEE MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT IINNSSTTIITTUUTTEE
wwwwww..ccyyaanniiddeeccooddee..oorrgg
AAddddiittiioonnaall IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn OOnn CCyyaanniiddee
MMaayy 22000022
References May 2002 page 2 of 28
AADDDDIITTIIOONNAALL IINNFFOORRMMAATTIIOONN TTAABB LLEE OOFF CCOONNTTEENNTTSS
Cyanide Chemistry Page 3 Technical References Informational References Cyanide Toxicology Page 4 Technical References Informational References Effects on Wildlife Page 16 Technical References Informational References Cyanide in the Environment Page 20 Technical References Informational References Cyanide Analysis Page 26 Technical References Informational References
The references provided have been separated into categories for the convenience of those seeking more detailed information regarding cyanide, however there is a significant overlap of subjects in many of the information sources. Two types of references are listed in each category. Technical references include standard texts and articles that have been published in peer reviewed technical and professional journals or in government documents. Informational references consist of papers published in the proceedings of conferences and workshops and other papers that have not undergone a technical peer review process.
References May 2002 page 3 of 28
CCYYAANNIIDDEE CCHHEEMMIISSTTRRYY Technical References Adamson, R.J., The Chemistry of the Extraction of Gold from its Ores, Gold Metallurgy in South
Africa, Cape and Transvaal Printers, Ltd., Cape Town, South Africa 1972. American Cyanimid Co., Chemistry of Cyanidation, Stamford, Connecticut 1963. Brickell, R.H., Chemistry of Cyanide Solutions, C-I-L Inc., January 1981. Dorr, J. and Bosqui, F., Cyanidation and Concentration of Gold and Silver Ores, McGraw Hill,
2nd Edition, 1950. Caruso, S.C., The Chemistry of Cyanide Compounds and Their Behavior in the Aquatic
Environment, Carnegie Mellon Institute of Research, June 1975. Flynn, C.M. and McGill, S.L., Cyanide Chemistry-Precious Metals Processing and Waste
Treatment, U.S. Bureau of Mines, NTIS Publication PB96-117841, 1995. Heinen, H.J., Peterson, D.G., and Lindstrom, R.E., Processing Gold Ores Using Heap Leach-
Carbon Adsorption Methods, U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8770, 1978. Hendrickson T.N. and Daignault, L.G., Treatment of Complex Cyanides for Reuse and Disposal,
Report No. EPA-R2-73-269, USEPA, 1973. Marsden, J. and House, I., The Chemistry of Gold Extraction, Ellis Horwood Limited,
Hertfordshire, United Kingdom 1993. Moggi, L., Bolleta, F., Balzani, V., and Scandola, F., Photochemistry of Coordination
Compounds - XIV, Cyanide Complexes, Journal of Inorganic Nuclear Chemistry, vol. 28, 1966, pg.2597.
Scott, J. and Ingles, J., State-of-the-Art Processes for the Treatment of Gold Mill Effluents,
Mining, Mineral, and Metallurgical Processes Division, Industrial Programs Branch, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, March 1987.
Sharpe, A.G., The Chemistry of Cyano Complexes of the Transition Metals, Academic Press,
1976. Tchobanoglous, G. and Burton, F.L., Water Engineering, Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse,
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York 1991.
References May 2002 page 4 of 28
Informational References Brickell, R.H., Chemistry of Cyanide Solutions, Proceedings from Cyanide and the Gold Mining
Industry Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Jan. 22-23, 1981. Finklestein, N.P., in Gold Metallurgy in South Africa, Chapter 10: The Chemistry of the
Extraction of Gold from its Ores, Adamson R.J. (ed.), Chamber of Mines of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa, 1972.
Huiatt, J., Kerrigan, J., Olson, F., and Potter, G., Proceedings of a Cyanide Workshop, Cyanide
from Mineral Processing, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 2-3, 1982.
International Environmental Consultants Ltd., Factors Affecting Natural Degradation of Free
and Metal-Complexed Cyanides from Gold Milling Effluents, International Environmental Consultants Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, 1979.
Young, C.A., Cyanide: Just The Facts, in Proceedings of Cyanide: Social, Industrial and
Economic Aspects, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society Annual Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 12-15, 2001.
CCYYAANNIIDDEE TTOOXXIICCOOLLOOGGYY Technical References Adams, J.B. Inhibition of Green Bean Lipoxygenase by Cyanide, Food Chemistry,
vol. 31, 1989, pp.243-250. Alabaster, J.S., Shurben, D.G. and Mallett, M.J., The Acute Lethal Toxicity of Mixtures of
Cyanide and Ammonia to Smelts of Salmon, Salmo salar at Low Concentrations of Dissolved Oxygen, Journal of Fish Biology, vol. 22, 1983, pp.215-222.
Aletor, V.A., and Fetuga, B.L., The Interactive Effects Of Lima Bean (Phaseolus Lunatus)
Trypsin Inhibitor, Hemagglutinin And Cyanide On Some Hepatic Dehydrogenases, Ornithine Carbamoyltransferase And Intestinal Disaccharidases In Weanling Rats. Vet. Hum. Toxicology, vol. 30, 1988, pp.540-544.
Anderson, P.D. and Weber, L.J., Toxic Response as a Quantitative Function of Body Size,
Applied Pharmacology, vol. 33, 1975, pp. 471-483. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ASTDR), Toxicological Profile for Cyanide,
Prepared by Research Triangle Institute for the US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia, August 1995.
References May 2002 page 5 of 28
American Water Works Association (AWWA), Water Quality and Treatment, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990.
Azcon-Bieto, Murillo, J.J. and Penuelas, J., Cyanide-Resistant Respiration in Photosynthetic
Organs of Freshwater Aquatic Plant, Plant Physiology, vol. 84, 1987, pp. 701-706. Ballantyne, B., Blood, Brain And Cerebrospinal Fluid Cyanide Concentrations In Experimental
Acute Cyanide Poisoning. Journal of the Forensic Science Society, vol. 15, 1975, pp. 51-56.
_______, Artifacts In The Definition Of Toxicity By Cyanides And Cyanogens, Fundamentals of
Applied Toxicology, vol. 3, 1983, pp. 400-408. _______, Clinical and Experimental Toxicology of Cyanides, Chapter 3: Toxicology of Cyanides,
edited by B. Ballantyne and T.C. Marrs, Wright Publishers, Bristol, England, 1987. _______, Toxicology and Hazard Evaluation of Cyanide Fumigation Powders, Clinical
Toxicology, vol. 26, 1988, pp.325-335. _______ and Boardman, S.P., Bright, J., Coffee, D. J., Weber, T. D., and Williams, P., Tissue
Cyanide Concentrations And Cytochrome Oxidase Activities In Experimental Cyanide Poisoning, British Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 44(2), 1972, pp.382-383.
_______ and Bright, J.E., and Williams, P., The Postmortem Rate Of Transformation Of
Cyanide, Forensic Science, vol. 3, 1974, pp. 71-76. _______ and Marrs, T.C., editors. Clinical and Experimental Toxicology of Cyanides, John
Wright, Bristol, England, 1987. Bapat, J.A. and Abhyankar, Y.N., Cyanide Poisoning in Cattle Due to Feeding of Sorghum,
Indian Journal of Animal Science, vol. 54, 1984, pp.577-578. Beilstein, M.A., and Whanger, P.D., Effects Of Cyanide On Selenium Metabolism In Rats,
Journal of Nutrition, vol. 114, 1984, pp. 929-937. Bello-Reuss, E., Grady, T.P., and Reuss, L., Mechanism of the Effect of Cyanide on Cell
Membrane Potentials in Necturus Gall-Bladder Epithelium, Journal of Physiology, vol. 314, 1981, pp.343-357.
Berninger, T.A., Meyer, L.V., Siess, Schon, E.O., and Goebel, F.D., Leber’s Hereditary Optic
Atrophy: Further Evidence For A Defect Of Cyanide Metabolism? British Journal of Opthamology, vol. 73, 1989, pp.314-316.
Beyer, W.N., Evaluating Soil Contamination, U.S. Fish Wildlife Service Biological Report
90(2), 1990.
References May 2002 page 6 of 28
Biehl, M., Cyanide Toxicosis, Veterinary Professional Topics, University of Illinois at Urbana Cooperative Extension Service, vol. 10(3), 1984, pp. 5-6.
Bourdoux, P., Delange, F., Gerard, M., Mafuta, M., Hanson, A., and Ermans A.M., Evidence
that Cassava Ingestion Increases Thiocyanate Formation: A Possible Etiologic Factor in Endemic Goiter, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Meta., vo l. 46, 1978, pp. 613-621.
Broderius, S.J., Determination of Molecular Hydrocyanic Acid in Water and Studies on the
Chemistry and Toxicity to Fish of Metal-Cyanide Complexes, Ph.D. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 1973.
_______ and Smith, L.L. Jr., Direct Photolysis of Hexacyanoferrate Complexes. Proposed
Applications to the Aquatic Environment , USEPA, EPA-600/3-800-003, 1980. _______, Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Binary Mixtures of Cyanide and Hexavalent
Chromium, Zinc or Ammonia to the Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) and Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri), Journal of the Fish Res. Board of Canada, vol. 36, 1979.
_______ and Lind, D.T., Relative Toxicity of Free Cyanide and Dissolved Sulphide Forms to
the Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas), Journal of the Fish Res. Board of Canada, vol. 34, pg.2323.
Burdick, G.E. and Lipschuetz, M., Toxicity of Ferro- and Ferricyanide Solutions to Fish, and
Determination of the Cause of Mortality, Trans. American Fish Society, vol.78, 1948, pp. 192-202.
Buzaleh, A.M., Vazquez, E.S. and Batlle, A.M.C., Cyanide Intoxication-I. An Oral Chronic
Animal Model, General Pharmacology, vol. 20, 1989, pp.323-327. Cailleux, A., Subra, J.F., Riberi, P., Tuchais, E., Premel-Cabic, A. and Allain, P., Cyanide And
Thiocyanate Blood Levels In Patients With Renal Failure Or Respiratory Disease. J. Med., vol. 19, 1988, pp.345-351.
Casadei, E., Jansen, P., Rodrigues A., Motin, A. and Rosling, H., Mantakassa: An Epidemic Of
Spastic Paraparesis Associated With Chronic Cyanide Intoxication In A Cassava Staple Area Of Mozambique. 2. Nutritional Factors And Hydrocyanic Acid Content Of Casssava Products. Bulletin of the World Health Org., vol. 62, 1984, pp.485-492.
Cheng, S.K and Ruby, S.M., Effect of Pulse Exposure to Sublethal Levels of Hydrogen Cyanide
on Reproduction of American Flagfish, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicology, vol. 10, 1981, pp. 105-116.
References May 2002 page 7 of 28
Christel, D., Eyer, P., Hegemann, M., Kiese, M., Lorcher, W. and Weger, N., Pharmacokineties Of Cyanide in Poisoning of Dogs and the Effect of 4-Dimethylaminophenol on Thiosulfate, Arch. Toxicol., vol. 38, 1977, pp. 177-189.
Clarke, R.H., The Effects of Effluents from Metal Mines on Aquatic Ecosystems in Canada, A
Literature Review, Technical Report 488, Environment Canada, Winnipeg, 1974. Cliff, J., Martelli, A., Molin, A., and Rosling, H., Mantakassa: An Epidemic Of Spastic
Paraparesis Associated With Chronic Cyanide Intoxication In A Cassava Staple Area Of Mozambique, 1: Epidemiology and Clinical and Laboratory Findings in Patients. Bulletin of the World Health Org., vol. 62, 1984, pp. 477-484.
Curry, A.S. Cyanide Poisoning. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol., vol. 20, 1963, pp. 291-294. _______ and Price, D.E. and Rutter, E.R., The Production Of Cyanide In Post Mortem Material.
Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol., vol. 25, 1967, pp.339-344. Drews, G., and Graszynski, K., The Transepithelial Potential Difference In The Gills Of The
Fiddler Crab, Uca Tangeri: Influence Of Some Inhibitor, Journal of Comp. Physiology, vol. 157B, 1987, pp.345-353.
Dixon, D.G., Studies of Tolerance Induction in Rainbow Trout by Preexposure to Copper,
Arsenic, or Cyanide, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, 1980. _______ and Leduc, G., Chronic Cyanide Poisoning of Rainbow Trout and Its Effect on
Growth, Respiration and Liver Histopathology, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 10, 1981, pp. 117-131.
Doudoroff, P., A Review of the Toxicity to Fish of Cyanides and Related Compounds, USEPA,
EPA-600/3-76-038, April 1976. _______ and Broderius, S.J., Leduc, G., Lee G.F. and Swanson, D.L., In Review of the EPA Red
Book: Quality Criteria for Water - Cyanide, R.V. Thurston, R.C. Russo, C.M. Fetteroff, T.A. Edsall, and Y.M. Barber Jr. (Eds.), Water Quality Section, American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, 1979, pp. 14-1 – 14-7.
_______ and Leduc, G. and Schneider, C.R., Acute Toxicity to Fish of Solutions Containing
Complex Metal Cyanides, in Relation to Concentrations of Molecular Hydrocyanic Acid, Trans. Am. Fish Soc., vol. 95, 1966, pp. 6-22.
Downing, KM., The Influence of Dissolved Oxygen on the Toxicity of Potassium Cyanide to
Rainbow Trout, Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 31, 1954, pp. 161-164. Duffey, S.S., Cyanide and Arthropods, in B. Vennesland, E.E. Conn, C.J. Knowles, J. Westley,
and F. Wissing, Eds., Cyanide in Biology, Academic Press, New York, l981.
References May 2002 page 8 of 28
Egekeze, J.O. and Oehme, R.W., Blood And Liver Cyanide Concentrations In Rats Poisoned With Oral Doses Of Potassium Cyanide, Toxicol. Lett., vol. 3, 1979, pp. 243-247.
_______, Cyanides And Their Toxicity: A Literature Review, Vet. Quarterly, vol. 2, 1980,
pp.104-114. Eisner, D.A., Elliott, A.C. and Smith, G.L., The Contribution Of Intracellular Acidosis To The
Decline Of Developed Pressure In Ferret Hearts Exposed To Cyanide, Journal of Physiology, vol. 391, 1987, pp.99-108.
Elliott, A.C., Smith, G.L. and Allen, D.G., Simultaneous Measurements Of Action Potential
Duration And Intracellular ATP In Isolated Ferret Hearts Exposed To Cyanide, Cire. Res., vol. 64, 1989, pp. 583-591.
Elzubeir, E.A. and Davis, R.H., Effect Of Dietary Sodium Nitroprusside As A Source Of
Cyanide On The Selenium Status Of Chicks Given Diets Of Varying Selenium Concentration, Br. Poult. Sci., vol. 29, 1988, pp. 769-777.
_______, Sodium Nitroprusside: A Convenient Source Of Dietary Cyanide For The Study Of
Chronic Cyanide Toxicity, Br. Poult. Sci., vol. 29, 1988, pp. 779-783. Environmental Protection Agency, Cyanide, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. Vol. 107, 1989,
pp. 53-64. Fassett, D.W., Cyanides and Nitrites, Ch. XLIV: Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, (ed. F.A
Patty) Vol. II, Interscience Publishers, 1962. Fiksel, J. and Cooper, C., Exposure and Risk Assessment for Cyanide, USEPA/440/4-85-008,
NTIS Publication PB85-220572, 1981. Fry, C.H., Harding, D.P. and Mounsey, J.P., The Effects Of Cyanide On Intracellular Ionic
Exchange In Ferret And Rat Ventricular Myocardium. Proc. R. Soc. London, vol. 23OB, 1987, pp.53-75.
Gannon, D.J., Toxicity of Cyanide Solution, in Cyanide and Gold Mining Industry, A Technical
Seminar, Environment Canada and Canadian Mineral Processors, Environment Canada, Ottawa, 1981.
Gosselin, R.E., Hodge, H.G., Smith. R.P. and Gleason, M.H., Clinical Toxicology of
Commercial Products - Acute Poisoning, 4th Edition, The Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Maryland, 1976, pp. 105-112.
Grandas, F., Artieda, J. and Obeso, J. A., Clinical And CT Scan Findings In A Case Of Cyanide
Intoxication. Movement Disord., vol. 4, 1989, pp.188-193.
References May 2002 page 9 of 28
Guatelli, M.A., The Toxicology of Cyanides in Methods of Forensic Science, Vol. 3, New York, Interscience., 1964, pp. 233-265.
Itskovitz, J., and Rudolph, A.M., Cardiorespiratory Response To Cyanide Of Arterial
Chemoreceptors In Fetal Lambs, American, Journal of Physiology, vol. 252(5, Part 2), 1987, pp.H916-H922.
Hagelstein, K.A. and Mudder, T.I., Strategies and Standards for Control of Bird Mortality at
Mining Operations in The Cyanide Monograph, edited by T. Mudder, Mining Journal Books Limited, London, 1998.
_______, The Ecotoxicological Properties of Cyanide in The Cyanide Monograph, edited by T.
Mudder, Mining Journal Books Limited, London, 1998. Heming, T.A., Meyn, E.L. and Thurston, R.V., Effects of Stress on the Mechanism of
Thiocyanate Toxicity in Trout in Proceedings of the 9th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, November 1-5, 1982, Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, No. 1163, Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa, Ontario, 1983, pg. 211.
Henny, C.J., Hallock, R. and Hill, E., Cyanide and Migratory Birds at Gold Mines in Nevada,
USA, Ecotoxicology, Volume 3, 1994. Holden, A.V. and Marsden, K., Cyanide in Salmon and Brown Trout, Department of Agriculture
and Fisheries of Scotland, Freshwater Salmon Fish. Res., Ser. 33, 1964. Keniston, R.C., Cabellon, Jr., S. and Yarbrough, K.S., Pyridoxal 5'-Phosphate As An Antidote
For Cyanide, Spermine, Gentamicin, And Dopamine Toxicity: An In Vivo Rat Study. Toxicol. Appi. Pharmacology, vol. 88, 1987, pp. 433-441.
Knowles, C.J., Cyanide Utilization and Degradation by Microorganisms in Cyanide Compounds
In Biology, D. Evered and S. Harnett, Eds., Ciba Foundation Symposium, 140, John Wiley, Chichester, England, 1988.
_______, Microorganisms and Cyanide, Bacterial. Review, vol. 40, 1976, pp. 652-680. Koenst, W.M., Smith, Jr, L.L. and Broderius, S.J., Effect of Chronic Exposure of Brook Trout to
Sublethal Concentration of Hydrogen Cyanide, Environ. Sci. Technology, vol. 11, 1977, pp. 883-887.
Kovacs, T.G. and Leduc, G., The Effects of Temperature on the Chronic Toxicity of Cyanide to
Rainbow Trout, Canadian Journal of Fish Aquatic Science, 1982. Lanno, R.P., The Chronic Toxicity of Thiocyanate to Rainbow Trout and Fathead Minnow, Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 1990.
References May 2002 page 10 of 28
Leduc, G., Some Physiological and Biochemical Responses of Fish to Chronic Poisoning by Cyanide, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Fish and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 1966.
_______, Cyanides in Water: Toxicological Significance in Aquatic Toxicology, Edited by L.J.
Weber, Raven Press, New York, 1984. _______ and Pierce, R.C., The Effects of Cyanides on Aquatic Organisms with Emphasis Upon
Freshwater Fishes, Natural Resources Council Canada, Publication NRCC 19246, 1982. Lee, John, The Acute Toxicity of Cyanate to Trout, Memo Report, Aquatic Toxicity Unit, Waters
Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, July 2, 1985. Lee, P.A., Sylvia, A.L. and Piantdosi, C.A., Cyanide-Related Changes In Cerebral 02 Delivery
And Metabolism In Fluorocarbon-Circulated Rats, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacology, vol. 94, 1988, pp. 34-44.
Lesniak, J.A. and Ruby, S.M., Histological and Quantitative Effects of Sublethal Cyanide
Exposure on Oocyte Development in Rainbow Trout, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicology, vol. 11, 1982, pp. 343-352.
Lind, D.T., Smith Jr., L.L., and Broderius, S.J., Chronic Effects of Hydrogen Cyanide on the
Fathead Minnow, Journal of Water Pollution, Control Fed. 49, 1977, pp. 262-268. Lotito, S., Blondet, P., Francois, A., Kienlin, M.V., Remy, C., Albrand, J.P., Decorps, M. and
Benabid A.L., Correlation Between Intracellular Ph And Lactate Levels In The Rat Brain During Cyanide Induced Metabolism Blockade: A Combined 31P1H In Vivo Nuclear Magnetic Spectroscopy Study, Neurosei. Lett., vol. 97, 1989, pp. 91-96.
Low, K.S. and Lee, C.K., Cyanide Uptake By Water Hyacinths, Eichhornia crassipes, Solms.
Pertanika, vol. 42, 1981, pp. 122-128. MacMillan, V.H., Cerebral Energy Metabolism In Cyanide Encephalopathy. Journal of Cereb.
Blood Flow Metab., vol. 9, 1989, pp. 156-162. McCracken, I.R. and Leduc, G., Allometric Growth Response of Exercised Rainbow Trout to
Cyanide Poisoning in Aquatic Toxicology - ASTM STP 707, edited by J.G. Eaton, P.R. Parrish, and A.C. Hendricks, American Society Testing Material, Philadelphia, 1980, pp. 303-320.
McKin, J.M., Evaluation of Tests with Early Life Stages of Fish for Predicting Long-Term
Toxicity, Journal of Fish. Res. Board Canada, vol. 34, 1977, pp. 1148-1154. Mengel, K., Kramer, W., Isert, B. and Friedberg K.D., Thiosulphate And Hydroxocobalamin
Prophylaxis In Progressive Cyanide Poisoning In Guinea Pigs, Toxicology, vol. 54, 1989, pp. 335-342.
References May 2002 page 11 of 28
Meyn, E., Zajdel, R. and Thurston, V., Acute Toxicity of Ferrocyanide and Ferricyanide to
Rainbow Trout, Technical Report No. 84-1, Fisheries Bioassay Laboratory, Montana State University, work conducted for Homestake Mining Company, June, 1984.
Mintorovitch, J., Pelt, D. V. and Satterlee, J. D., Kinetic study of the slow cyanide binding to
Glycera dibranchiata monomer hemoglobin components III and IV. Biochemistry, vol. 28, 1989, pp. 6099-6104.
Monekosso, G.L. and Wilson, J., Plasma Thiocyanate and Vitamin B12 in Nigerian Patients with
Degenerative Neurological Disease, Lancet 1(7446), 1996, pp. 1062-1064. Mudder, T., Derivation of Aquatic Life Criteria for Total and Iron Cyanide in The Cyanide
Monograph, Edited by T. Mudder, Mining Journal Books Limited, London, 1998. _______, The Sources and Environmental Significance of Low Levels of Cyanide in The Cyanide
Monograph, Edited by T. Mudder, Mining Journal Books Limited, London, 1998. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), NIOSH Pocket Guide to
Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, NIOSH Publications, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-116, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1994.
_______, Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, Vols.1 and 5, U.S. Dept. of Health
and Human Services, Washington, D.C., 1986. Obeso, A., Umaraz, L. and Gonzalez, C., Effects Of Cyanide And Uncouplers On Chemoreceptor
Activity And ATP Content Of The Cat Carotoid Body, Brain Res., vol. 41, 1989, pp. 250-257.
Oh, S.Y., Jalaludin, S., Davis, R.H. and Sykes, A.H., Detoxication Of Cyanide In The Chicken
By Conversion To Thiocyanate, As Influenced By The Availability Of Transferable Sulphur, Comp. Biochem. Physioi., vol. 86B, 1987, pp.129-133.
Padmaja, G. and Panikkar, Y.R., Intermediary Metabolic Changes In Rabbits Administered
Linamarin Or Potassium Cyanide, Indian Journal of Exp. Biology, vol. 27, 1989, pp. 635-639.
Palmer, I.S. and Olson, O.E., Effect Of Cyanide On Selenium Status In Rats Fed Low Selenium
Diets Nutr. Rep. Int., vol. 24, 1981, pp. 635-641. Philbrick, D.J., Hopkins, J.B., Hill, D.C., Alexander, J.C. and Thomson, R.G., Effects Of
Prolonged Cyanide And Thiocyanate Feeding In Rats, Journal of Toxicology, Environ. Health, vol. 5, 1979, pp. 579-592.
References May 2002 page 12 of 28
Pritsos, C.A. and Ma, J., Tissue Specific Bioenergetic Effects and Increased Enzymatic Activities Following Acute Sublethal Peroral Exposure to Cyanide in the Mallard Duck, Toxic. Appl. Pharmacology, 1996.
Robinson, C.P., Baskin, S.I., Visnich, Jr., N., and Franz, D.R., The Effects Of Cyanide And Its
Interactions With Norepinephrine On Isolated Aorta Strips From The Rabbit, Dog, And Ferret, Toxicology, vol. 35, 1985, pp. 59-72.
Ruby, S.M., Idler, D.R. and So, Y.P., The Effect Of Sublethal Cyanide Exposure On Plasma
Vitellogenin Levels In Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri) During Early Vitellogenesis. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicology, vol. 15, 1986, pp. 603-607.
_______, Changes In Plasma, Liver, And Ovary Vitellogenin In Landlocked Atlantic Salmon
Following Exposure To Sublethal Cyanide, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicology, vol. 16, 1987, pp. 507-510.
Sawyer, P.L., and Heath, A.G., Cardiac, Ventilatory And Metabolic Responses Of Two
Ecologically Dissimilar Species Of Fish To Waterbome Cyanide, Fish Physiol. Biochemistry, vol. 4, 1988, pp.203-219.
Scott, J. and Ingles, J., State-of-the-Art of Processes for the Treatment of Gold Mill Effluents,
Mining, Mineral, and Metallurgical Processes Division, Industrial Programs Branch, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, March, 1987.
Smatresk, N.J., Ventilatory And Cardiac Reflex Responses To Hypoxia And NaCN In Lepisosteus
Osseus, An Air-Breathing Fish. Physiol. Zoology, vol. 59, 1986, pp. 385-397. _______ and Burleson, M.L. and Azizi, S.Q., Chemoreflexive Responses To Hypoxia And NaCN
In Longnose Gar: Evidence For Two Chemoreceptor Loci. American Journal of Physiology, vol. 251(l, Part 2), 1986, pp. RI16-RI25.
Smith, L.L. and Broderius, S.J., Acute and Chronic Toxicity of HCN to Fish and Invertebrates,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report 600/3-79-009, 1979. _______, Acute Toxicity of Hydrogen Cyanide to Freshwater Fishes, Arch. Environ. Contam.
Toxicology, vol. 7, 1978, pp. 325-337. Smith, A. and Mudder, T., An Environmental Perspective on Cyanide in The Cyanide
Monograph, Edited by T. Mudder, Mining Journal Books Limited, London, 1998. Solomonson, L.P., Cyanide as a Metabolic Inhibitor in Cyanide in Biology, Edited by B.
Vennesland, E.E. Conn, C.J. Knowles, J. Westley and F. Wissing, Academic Press, New York, 1981.
Speyer, M.R. and Raymond, P., The Acute Toxicity of Thiocyanate and Cyanate to Rainbow
Trout, Technical Memorandum No. 181, Centre de Recherche Noranda, Department of Environmental Technology, Pointe Claire, Quebec, 1984.
References May 2002 page 13 of 28
Sprince, H., Smith, G.G., Parker C.N. and Rinehimer, D.A., Protection Against Cyanide
Lethality In Rats By L-Ascorbic Acid And Dehydroascorbic Acid. Nutr. Rep. Int., vol. 25, 1982, pp. 463-470.
Sterner, R.T., Effects of Sodium Cyanide and Diphacinone in Coyotes (Canis latrans):
Applications as Predicates in Livestock Toxic Collars, Bulletin of Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 23, 1979, pp. 211-217.
Tewe, O.O., Effect Of Dietary Cyanide On The Performance, Metabolism And Pathology Of The
African Rat (Cricetornys gambianus Waterhouse), Nutr. Rep. Int., vol. 26, 1982, pp. 529-536.
_______, Protein Supplementation Of Cassava Diets For Growing Pigs: Effects On
Performance, Nutrient Utilization And Cyanide Metabolism, Nutr. Rep Int., vol. 25, 1982, pp. 451-462.
_______, Effect Of Cassava-Based Diets Varying In Cyanide Content On The Performance And
Physiopathology Of The Affican Giant Rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse). Anim. Feed Sci. Technology, vol. 11, 1984, pp.1-9.
_______, Performance, Nutrient Utilization And Cyanide Metabolism In African Giant Rats
(Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse) Fed Varying Dietary Levels Of Cassava Peels. Anim. Technology, vol. 39, 1988, pp. 77-82.
_______ and Maner, J. H., Cyanide, Protein And Iodine Interaction In The Performance And
Metabolism Of Rats, J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. Oncol., vol. 6, 1985, pp. 69-77. _______ and Pessu, E., Performance And Nutrient Utilization In Growing Pigs Fed Cassava
Peel Rations Containing Different Cyanide Levels, Nutr. Rep. Int., vol. 26, 1982, pp. 51-58.
Towill, L.E., Drury, J.S. and Whitfield, B.L., Reviews of the Environmental Effects of Pollutants,
V. Cyanide, USEPA Health Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, NTIS Publication PB28-9920, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1978.
USEPA, Basis for Listing Hazardous Waste, 40 CFR 261, App. VII, EPA, 1985. _______, Cyanide, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicology, vol. 107, 1989, pp. 53-64. Vennesiand, B., Conn, E.E., Knowles, C.J., Westley, J. and Wissing, F., eds. Cyanide in Biology,
Academic Press, New York, 1981. Watson, S.J. and Maly, E.J., Thiocyanate Toxicity to Daphnia magna: Modified by pH and
Temperature, Aqua. Toxicology, vol. 10, 1987, pp. 1-8.
References May 2002 page 14 of 28
Way, J.L., Cyanide Intoxication And Its Mechanism Of Antagonism, Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicology, vol. 24, 1984, pp. 451-481.
_______, Cyanide Intoxication and Its Mechanism of Antagonism in Cyanide in Biology, Edited
by B. Vennesland, E.E. Conn, C.J. Knowles, J. Westley and F. Wissing, Academic Press, New York, 1981.
World Health Organization (WHO), Anticaking Agents, Calcium Potassium, Sodium
Ferrocyanide, Geneva, World Health Organization W14H(5): pp. 15-18, 1974. Willhite, C.C. and Smith, R.P., The Role Of Cyanide Liberation In The Acute Toxicity Of
Aliphatic Nitrites. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., vol. 59, 1981, pp. 589-602. Yamamoto, H.A., Hyperammonemia, Increased Brain Neutral And Aromatic Amino Acid Levels,
And Encephalopathy Induced By Cyanide In Mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., vol. 99, 1989, pp. 415-420.
Yamamoto, K., Yamamoto, Y., Hattori, H. and Samori, T., Effects Of Routes Of Administration
On The Cyanide Concentration Distribution In The Various Organs Of Cyanide-Intoxicated Rats. Tohuku J. Exp. Medicine, vol. 137, 1982, pp. 73-78.
Yamamoto, K., Yamamoto, Y. and Kuwahara, C., A Blood Cyanide Distribution Study In The
Rabbits Intoxicated By Oral Route And By Inhalation, Z. Rechtsmed., vol. 83, 1979, pp. 313-317.
Younes, M. and Strubelt, O., Cyanide-Induced Injury To The Isolated Perfused Rat Liver,
Pharmacol. Toxicol., vol. 63, 1988, pp. 382-385. Informational References Doudoroff, P., A Critical Review of Recent Literature on the Toxicity of Cyanides to Fish,
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 1979. Huiatt, J., Kerrigan, J., Olson, F. and Potter, G., Workshop of Cyanide from Mineral Processing,
Utah Mining and Mineral Resources Research Institute, College of Mines and Mineral Industries, Salt Lake City, Utah, February, 1982.
Kay, F., Nevada Department of Wildlife’s Role: Past, Present, and Future, Proceedings of the
Nevada Wildlife Mining Workshop, Reno, Nevada, March 1990. _______ and McQuivey, R., Migratory Birds and Toxic Mine Ponds: The Nevada Experience,
Gold and Silver Recovery Innovations Phase IV, Randol International, Ltd., Sacramento, California, November 1989.
References May 2002 page 15 of 28
Leduc, G., The Role of Cyanide as an Ecological Stressing Factor to Fish, Recent Advances in Fish Toxicology: A Symposium, Tobb, R. (Editor), USEPA-600/3-085, Corvallis, Oregon, 1977, pp. 152-182.
_______ and Chan, K.S., The Effects of Chronic Cyanide Poisoning on the Tolerance of
Rainbow Trout to Varying Salinity, Proc. 10th Canadian Symposium on Water Pollution Res. Canada, vol. 19L, 1975, pp. 110-125.
Nevada Mining Association, Nevada Department of Minerals and the Nevada Department of
Wildlife, Proceedings of the Nevada Wildlife Mining Workshop, Reno, Nevada, March, 1990.
Parker, W.R. and Doe, K.G., The Acute Lethality of Potassium Cyanate to Fingerling Rainbow
Trout, Presented at the 13th Gold Mining Working Group Meeting, Ottawa, 1983. Environment Canada, Air and Water Branch, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1983.
Russell, L., Botz, M., Miller, S. and Mudder, T., Life-Cycle Management of Waste at Golden
Cross, Mining Environmental Management, May 2000, pp. 7-10. Schmidt, J., Simovic, L. and Shannon, E., Natural Degradation of Cyanides in Gold Milling
Effluents, Presented at the Cyanide and the Gold Mining Industry Seminar, January 22-23, 1981.
Thompson, R.S., Measurement Of The Inhibition Of Amino Acid Uptake. A Toxicity Test
Procedure Using Mussels (Mytilus edulis) in Ecotoxicological Testing For The Marine Environment. Proc. Int. Symp. Ecotoxicol. Test. Mlar. Environ,. September 12-14, 1983, G. Persoone, E. Jaspers, and C. Claus, eds., Ghent, Belgium, Laboratory for Biological Research in Aquatic Pollution, State University of Ghent, Belgium, 1984, pp. 535-545.
Van Zyl, D.J.A., Editor, Proceedings of the Cyanide and the Environment Conference, Tucson,
Arizona, December 11-14, 1984, volumes 1 and 2. Young, C.A., Cyanide: Just The Facts in Proceedings of Cyanide: Social, Industrial and
Economic Aspects from the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society Annual Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 12-15, 2001.
References May 2002 page 16 of 28
EEFFFFEECCTTSS OONN WWIILLDDLLIIFFEE Technical References Abel, P.D. and Garner, S.M., Comparison Of Median Survival Times And Median Lethal
Exposure Times For Gammarus Pulex Exposed To Cadmium, Permethrin And Cyanide. Water Res., vol. 20, 1986, pp. 579-582.
Alabaster, J.S., Shurben, D.G. and Mallett, M.J., The Acute Lethal Toxicity Of Mixtures Of
Cyanide And Ammonia To Smolts Of Salmon, Salmo salar L. At Low Concentrations Of Dissolved Oxygen, Journal of Fish Biology, vol. 22, 1983, pp. 215-222.
Bapat, J.A. and Abhyankar, Y.N., Cyanide Poisoning In Cattle Due To Feeding Of Sorghum,
Indian Journal of Animal Science, vol. 54, 1984, pp. 577-578. Barron, M.G. and Adelman, I.R., Nucleic Acid, Protein Content, And Growth Of Larval Fish
Sublethally Exposed To Various Toxicants. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Science, vol. 41, 1984, pp. 141-150.
Barron, M.G. and Adelman, I.R., Temporal Characterization Of Growth Of Fathead Minnow
(Pimephales promelas) Larvae During Sublethal Hydrogen Cyanide Exposure, Comp. Biochem. Physiology, vol. 8IC, 1985, pp. 341-344.
Biehl, M., Cyanide Toxicosis, Veterinary Professional Topics, University of Illinois at Urbana,
Co-operative Extension Service, vol. 10(3), 1984, pp. 5-6. Billard, R. and Roubaud, P., The Effect Of Metals And Cyanide On Fertilization In Rainbow
Trout (Salmo gairdneri), Water Res., vol. 19, 1985, pp. 209-214. Brattsten, L.B., Samuelian, J.H., Long, K.Y., Kincaid, S.A. and Evans, C.K., Cyanide As A
Feeding Stimulant For The Southern Armyworm, Spodoptera eridania, Ecol. Entomol., vol. 8, 1983, pp. 125-132.
Bridges, W.R., Sodium Cyanide as a Fish Poison, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Sci.
Rep. Fish. No. 253, 1958. Burdick, G.E., Dean, H.J. and Harris, E.J., Toxicity of Cyanide to Brown Trout and Smallmouth
Bass, New York Fish and Game Journal, vol. 5, 1958, pp. 133-163. Cairns, J. and Scheier, A., Environmental Effects Upon Cyanide Toxicity to Fish, Not. Nat. Acad.
Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, vol. 361, 1963, pp.1-11. Cardwell, R.D., Foreman, D.G., Payne, T.R. and Wilbur, D.J., Acute Toxicity of Selected
Toxicants to Six Species of Fish, EPA-600/3-76-008, USEPA, Duluth, Minnesota, 1976.
References May 2002 page 17 of 28
Clark, Jr., D.R. and Hothem, R.L., Mammal Mortality at Arizona, California, and Nevada Gold Mines Using Cyanide Extraction, Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 77, 1991, pp. 61-69.
Cook, R.H., Hoos, R.A., and Cote, R.P., The Toxicity of Copper and Zinc to Atlantic Salmon,
Manuscript Report No. 71-16, Environment Canada, Resource Development Branch, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1981.
Da Costa, H. and Ruby, S.M., The Effect Of Sub-Lethal Cyanide On Vitellogenic Parameters In
Rainbow Trout Salmo Gairdneri, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 13, 1984, pp. 101-104.
Dixon. G.D. and Leduc, G., Chronic Cyanide Poisoning Of Rainbow Trout And Its Effects On
Growth, Respiration, And Liver Histopathology, Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol., vol. 10, 1981, pp. 117-131.
Doudoroff, P., Some Experiments On The Toxicity Of Complex Cyanides To Fish, Sewage Ind.
Wastes, vol. 28, 1956, pp. 1020-1040. _______, Toxicity To Fish Of Cyanides And Related Compounds-A Review, USEPA Report,
600/3-76-038, 1976. Heming, T.A., Thurston, R.V., Meyn, E.L. and Zajdel, R.K., Acute Toxicity of Thiocyanate to
Trout, Trans. Am. Fisheries Soc., vol. 114, 1985, pp. 895-905. Holden, A.V. and Marsden, K., Cyanide In Salmon And Brown Trout, Department of
Agriculture and Fisheries of Scotland, Freshwater Salmon Fish. Res. Ser. 33, 1964. Kimball, G.L., Smith Jr., L.L. and Broderius, S.J., Chronic Toxicity of Hydrogen Cyanide to the
Bluegill, Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., vol. 197, 1978, pp. 341-345. Kovacs, T. G. and Leduc, G., Sub-lethal Toxicity Of Cyanide To Rainbow Trout (Salmo
gairdneri) At Different Temperatures, Can. Journal Fish. Aquat. Sci., vol. 39, 1982, pp. 1389-1395.
_______, Acute Toxicity Of Cyanide To Rainbow Trout Acclimated At Different Temperatures.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., vol. 39, 1982, pp. 1426-1429. Krynitsky, A. J., Wiemeyer, S. N., Hill, E. F. and Carpenter, J. W., Analysis of cyanide in who le
blood of dosed cathartids. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 5:787-789, 1986. Leduc, G., Deleterious effects of cyanide on early life stages of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).
J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35:166-174, 1978. Leduc, G., Ecotoxicology of Cyanides In Freshwater in Cyanide In Biology, B. Vennesland, E.
E. Conn, C. J. Knowles, J. Westley, and F. Wissing, eds. Academic Press, New York, 1981, pp. 487-494.
References May 2002 page 18 of 28
_______, Cyanides In Water: Toxicological Significance in Aquatic Toxicology, Vol. 2, L.J.
Weber, ed. Raven Press, New York, 1984, pp. 153-224. _______ and Gravel, G., Seguin, L.R., Vincent, B. and Guibert, F., The Use of Sodium Cyanide
as a Fish Eradicant in Some Quebec Lakes, Nat Canada, vol. 100, 1973, pp. 1-10. Lesniak, J.A., and Ruby, S.M., Histological And Quantitative Effects Of Sublethal Cyanide
Exposure On Oocyte Development In Rainbow Trout, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 11, 1982, pp. 343-352.
Lussier, S.M., Gentile, J.H. and Walker J., Acute And Chronic Effects Of Heavy Metals And
Cyanide on Wysidopsis bahia (Crustacea: Mysidacea), Aquat. Toxicol., vol. 7, 1985, pp.25-35.
Marking, L.L., Bills, T.D. and Crowther, J.R., Effects Of Five Diets On Sensitivity Of Rainbow
Trout To Eleven Chemicals, Prog. Fish-Cult., vol. 46, 1984, pp. 1-5. McGeachy, S.M. and Leduc G., The Influence Of Season And Exercise On The Lethal Toxicity
Of Cyanide On Rainbow Trout (Sairno gairdneri). Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 17, 1988, pp. 313-318.
Patrick, R., Cairns, J. and Scheier, A., The Relative Sensitivity of Diatoms, Snails, and Fish to
Twenty Common Constituents of Industrial Wastes, Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 30, pp. 137-140, 1968.
Smith, Jr., L.L., Broderius, S.J., Oseid, D.N., Kimball, G.L. and Koenst, W.M., Acute toxicity of
hydrogen cyanide to freshwater fishes. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 7:325-337, 1978. _______ and Lind, D.T., Acute And Chronic Toxicity Of HCN To Fish And Invertebrates. U.S.
Environ. Prot. Agency Rep. 600/3-79-009, 1979. Sterner, R.T., Effects Of Sodium Cyanide And Diphacinone In Coyotes (Canis latrans):
Applications As Predacides In Livestock Toxic Collars, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 23, 1979, pp. 211-217.
USEPA, The Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Cyanide, NTIS Publication PB85-227460,
January 1985. _______, Water Quality Criteria, (The Red Book), July 1976, pp. 65-70. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Cyanide Hazards to Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic
Review, US Department of Interior, Biological Report 85(1.23), Containment Hazards Reviews Report 23, December 1991.
References May 2002 page 19 of 28
Vaughan, J., Parker, W., and Doe, K, The Effect of pH and Hardness on the Acute Lethality of Cyanate to Fingerling Rainbow Trout, Air and Water Branch, Environment Canada, July, 1985.
Wiemeyer, S., Hill, E., Carpenter, J., and Krynitsky, A., Acute Oral Toxicity of Sodium Cyanide
in Birds, Journal of Wildlife Diseases, Volume 22, Number 4, pp. 538-546, 1986. Wiemeyer, S.N., Scott, J.M., Anderson, M.P., Bloom, P.H. and Stafford C.J., Environmental
Contaminants in California Condors, J. Wildl. Management, vol. 52, 1988, pp. 238-247. Wiley, R.W., A Review Of Sodium Cyanide For Use In Sampling Stream Fishes, N. Am. J. Fish.
Management, vol. 4, 1984, pp. 249-256. Wuhrmann, K and Woker, H., Contributions to Fish Toxicology. II. Experimental Investigations
of Ammonia and Hydrocyanic Acid Poisoning, Schweiz Zeits Hydrologie, vol. II, 1988, pp. 210-244.
Informational References Allen, C. H., Mitigating Impacts To Wildlife At FMC Gold Company's Paradise Peak Mine, in
Proceedings Of The Nevada Wildlife Mining Workshop, Reno, NV, 27-29 March 1990, pp. 69-71. (Available from Nevada Mining Assoc., 3940 Spring Drive, Reno, Nev. 89502)
Connolly, G. and Simmons, G. D., Performance Of Sodium Cyanide Ejectors, in D.O. Clark, ed.
Proceedings of the Eleventh Vertebrate Pest Conference, University of California Press, Davis, 1984, pp. 114-121.
Eisler, R., Cyanide Hazards to Fish, Wildlife, Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review, US Fish
&Wildlife Service Biol. Report, number 85(1.23), 1991. Hallock, R.J., Elimination Of Migratory Bird Mortality At Gold & Silver Mines Using Cyanide
Extraction in Proceedings of the Nevada Wildlife/Mining Workshop, Reno, NV, March 27-29, 1990, pp, 9-17. (Available from Nevada Mining Association, 3940 Spring Drive, Reno, NV 89502)
Leduc, G., Pierce, R.C. and McCracken, I.R., The Effects Of Cyanides On Aquatic Organisms
With Emphasis Upon Freshwater Fishes, Natl. Res. Council Canada Publ. NRCC 19246, 1982. (Available from Publications, NRCC/CNRC, Ottawa, Canada KIA OR6)
World Resources Institute, Cyanide Fishing: A Poison Tide on the Reef, Washington D.C., 1998.
References May 2002 page 20 of 28
CCYYAANNIIDDEE IINN TTHHEE EENNVVIIRROONNMMEENNTT Technical References Alesii, B.A., and Fuller, W.H., The Mobility of Three Cyanide Forms in Soil, EPA-600/9-76-
015, USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1976. Alstrom, S., and Burns, R.G., Cyanide Production By Rhizobacteria As A Possible Mechanism
Of Plant Growth Inhibition, Biol. Fert. Soils, vol. 7, 1989, pp. 232-238. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Toxicological Profile for Cyanide (Update),
September 1997. Azcon-Bieto, J., Murillo, J. and Penuelas, J., Cyanide-Resistant Respiration In Photosynthetic
Organs Of Freshwater Aquatic Plants, Plant Physiology, vol. 84, 1987, pp.701-706. Beyer, W. N., Evaluating Soil Contamination, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Biological Report
90(2), 1990. Botz, M.M. and Mudder, T.I., Modeling Of Natural Cyanide Attenuation In Tailings
Impoundments, Minerals and Metallurgical Processing, vol. 17:4, November 2000, pp. 228-233.
Cade, J.W. and Rubira, R.J., Cyanide Poisoning Of Livestock By Forage Sorghums,
Government of Victoria Department of Agriculture, Agnote 1960/82, 1982. Caruso, S.C., The Chemistry of Cyanide Compounds and Their Behaviour in the Aquatic
Environment, Carnegie-Mellon Institute of Research, 1975. Cicerone, R.J. and Zellner, R., The Atmospheric Chemistry of Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN), Journal
of Geophysical Research, vol. 88:C15, Dec. 20, 1983, pp. 10,689-10,696. Dufour, D. L., Cyanide Content Of Cassava (Manihot esculenta, Euphorbiaceae) Cultivars
Used By Tukanoan Indians In Northwest Amazonia. Econ. Bot., vol. 42, 1988, pp. 255-266. Dragun, J., The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Material, Hazardous Materials Control Research
Institute, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1988. Effenberger, E., Verunreinigungen Eives Grund-Wassers Durch Cyanide, Arch. Hyg. Bakteriol,
vol.148:4-5, Munich 1964, pp.271-287. Evered, D. and Harnett, S., editors. Cyanide Compounds In Biolog, Ciba Found. Symp. 140,
John Wiley, Chichester, England, 1988.
References May 2002 page 21 of 28
Frank, S.N. and Bard, A.J., Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Oxidation of Cyanide Ion in Aqueous Solutions with TiO2 Powder, Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 99, January 5, 1977, pp. 303-304.
Fuller, W., Movement of Selected Metals, Asbestos and Cyanide in Soils: Applications to Waste
Disposal Problems, EPA-600/1-77-020, USEPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, p. 257, 1977. _______, Investigation of Landfill Leachate Pollutant Attenuation by Soils, USEPA-600/2-78-
158, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1978, p. 239. Gomez, G., Aparicio, M.A. and Willhite, C.C., Relationship Between Dietary Cassava Cyanide
Levels And Broiler Performance, Nutr. Rep. Int., vol. 37, 1988, pp. 63-75. Gomez, G., Vaddivieso, M., Santos, J. and Hoyos, C., Evaluation Of Cassava Root Meal
Prepared From Low- Or High-Cyanide Containing Cultivars In Pig And Broiler Diets, Nutr. Rep. Int., vol. 28, 1983, pp. 693-704.
Holzinger, R., Warneke, C., Armin, H., Jordon, A. and Lindinger, W., Biomass Burning as a
Source of Formaldehyde, Acetaldehyde, Methanol, Acetone, Acetonitrile and Hydrogen Cyanide, Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 26:8, April 15, 1999, pp. 1161-1164.
Hyatt, D.E., The Chemical Basis of Techniques for the Decomposition and Removal of Cyanides,
AIME, Soc. Min. Eng., Trans., 1976, pp. 204-220. IEC, Ltd., Factors Affecting Natural Attenuation of Free and Metal-Complexed Cyanides from
Gold Mining Effluents, Fisheries and Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, 1979 Kaderbhai, M.A., Beechey, R.B. and Kaderbhai, N., Protein Synthesis In Isolated Castor Bean
Mitochondria Is Stimulated By Cyanide, Plant Physiology, vol. 89, 1989, 669-673. Lagas, P., Loch, J.P. and Harmsen K., The Behaviour Of Cyanide In A Landfill And The Soil
Beneath It, in R. Perry, ed. Effects Of Waste Disposal On Groundwater And Surface Water, Int. Assoc. Hydrol. Sci., Publ. 139, 1982, pp. 169-178.
Lennon, R.E., Hunn, J.B., Schnick, R.A. and Buress, R.N., Reclamation Of Ponds, Lakes, And
Streams With Fish Toxicants: A Review, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Fish. Tech. Paper, vol. 100, 1970, pp. 57-61.
Low, Y.S. and Lee, C.K., Cyanide Uptake By Water Hyacinths, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart),
Solms. Pertanika, vol. 42, 1981, pp.122-128. Moore, J.W., Influence Of Water Movements And Other Factors On Distribution And Transport
Of Heavy Metals In A Shallow Bay (Canada), Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 10, 1981, pp. 715-724.
References May 2002 page 22 of 28
Mudder, T.I. and Smith, A., An Environmental Perspective on Cyanide in The Cyanide Monograph, Edited by T. Mudder, Mining Journal Books Limited, London, 1998.
Murrmann, R.P. and Koutz, F.R., Role of Soil Chemical Processes in Reclamation of Wastewater
Applied to Land, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Wastewater Management by Disposal on the Land, Special Report 171, Hanover, New Hampshire, 1971, pp. 48-76.
Okeke, G.C., Obioha, F.C. and Edeogu, A.E., Comparison Of Detoxification Methods For
Cassava-Borne Cyanide, Nutr. Rep. Int., vol. 32, 1985, pp. 139-147. Okolie, N. P. and Ugochukwu, E. N., Cyanide Contents Of Some Nigerian Legumes And The
Effect Of Simple Processing, Food Chem., vol. 32, 1989, pp. 209-216. Palaty, J. and Horokova-Jakubu, M., The Course and Rate of Removal of Cyanides from Water
Under Natural Conditions, Faculty of Technology of Fuel and Water, vo l. 3, part 1, Prague, Czech., 1959.
Shaw, J.M., Suspected Cyanide Poisoning In Two Goats Caused By Ingestion Of Crab Apple
Leaves And Fruits, Vet. Rec., vol. 119, 1986, pp. 242-243. Simovic, L. and Snodgrass, W.J., Natural Removal Of Cyanides In Gold Milling Effluents-
Evaluation Of Removal Kinetics, Water Pollut. Res. J. Canada, vol. 20, 1985, pp. 120-135. Smith, A., Cyanide Attenuation and Detoxification in Introduction to Evaluation, Design and
Operation of Precious Metal Leaching Projects, Van Zyl, Hutchison and Kiel (eds.), Soc. Mining Engs/Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1988, chapter 14.
_______ and Mudder, T., The Environmental Geochemistry and Fate of Cyanide in The Cyanide
Monograph, Edited by T. Mudder, Mining Journal Books Limited, London, 1998. _______ and Struhsacker, D.W., Cyanide Geochemistry in an Abandoned Heap Leach System
and Regulations for Cyanide Detoxification in Introduction to Evaluation, Design and Operation of Precious Metal Heap Leaching Projects, Van Zyl, Hutchinson, and Kiel (Eds), Soc. of Mining Eng./Am. Inst. of Mining and Metallurgical Eng., 1988, chapter 12.
Strobel, G.A., Cyanide Utilization in Soil, Soil Science, vol. 103(4), 1967, pp. 299-302. Thomas, R.G., Volatilization From Soil in Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods,
Ed. by Lyman, W.J. et al., McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, New York, 1982. Towill, L.E., Drury, J.S., Whitfield, B.L., Lewis, E.B., Galyan, E.L. and Hammons, A.S.,
Reviews Of The Environmental Effects Of Pollutants: V. Cyanide, USEPA Report. 600/1-78-027, 1978.
References May 2002 page 23 of 28
Ukhun, M.E. and Dibie, E.N., Cyanide Content Of Cassava Mash And Gari Flour And Influence Of Water Activity (Aw) During Storage, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicology, vol. 42, 1989, pp. 548-552.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, M-44 Sodium Cyanide Capsules: Approval Of
Registration For Use In Device To Control Predators And Waiver Of Data In Support Of Registration And Classification, Federal Register, vol. 41(39), 1976, pp. 8415-8416.
_______, M-44 Sodium Cyanide Capsules To Control Predators- Modification Of Order,
Federal Register, vol. 41(56), 1976, pp. 11871- 11874. _______, Ambient Water Quality Criteria For Cyanides, USEPA Report 440/5-80-037, 1980. Voisard, C., Keel, C., Haas, D. and Defago, G., Cyanide Production By Pseudomonas
Fluorescens Helps Suppress Black Root Rot By Tobacco Under Gnotobiotic Conditions. Eur. Mol. Biol. Organ. J., vol. 8, 1989, pp. 351-358.
Webber, J.L., Roycroft, C.R. and Callinan, J.D., Cyanide poisoning of goats from sugar gums
(Eucalyptus cladocalyx), Aust. Vet. J. vol. 62, 1984, p. 28. Yasuno, M., Fukushima, S., Shioyama, F., Hasegawa, J. and Kasuga S., Recovery Processes Of
Benthic Flora And Fauna In A Stream After Discharge Of Slag Containing Cyanide, Verh. Int. Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol., vol. 21, 1981, pp. 1154-1164.
Informational References Burden, R.J. and Kidd, C.H., The Environmental Fate of Cyanide in Gold Mine Process Tailings,
Proc. Ann. Conf. AIMM, Nelson, New Zealand, 1987. Chatwin, T.D., Cyanide Attenuation in Soil, Final Report; Resource Recovery and Conservation
Company, Salt Lake City, Utah, October, 1990. _______ and Hendrix, J., The Fate of Cyanide in Soils, Randol Gold Forum 88, Scottsdale,
Arizona, February 23-24, 1988, pg. 343. Chatwin, T.D. and Trepanowski, J.J., Utilization of Soils to Mitigate Cyanide Releases, Proc.
Third Western Reg. Conf. on Precious Metals, Coal and Environment, Rapid City, South Dakota, Sept. 23-26, 1987, p. 151.
Englehardt, P., Long-term Attenuation of Cyanide in an Inactive Leach Heap in Cyanide and the
Environment, Van Zyl (Ed), Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, Vol. 2, 1985, pp. 539-547.
Fuller, W., Cyanides in the Environment with Particular Attention to the Soil in Cyanide and the
Environment, Vol. I, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1985, pp. 19-46.
References May 2002 page 24 of 28
Gannon, D.G., Toxicity of Cyanide Solutions in Proceedings from Cyanide and the Gold Mining
Industry Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Jan. 22-23, 1981. Goyal, M.R., Abrol, O.P. and Vihra, V.K., Pollution of Upper Aquifer in Punjab, India in
Quality of Groundwater Proceedings of an International Symposium, Noordvijkerhout, Netherlands, Studies in Environmental Science, vol. 17, 1981.
Hendrix, J., Nelson, J. and Ahmadiantehrani, M., Cyanide in Precious Metals Mill Tailings
Impoundments, AIME Annual Meeting, 1987. Huiatt, J.L, Kerrigan, J.E., Olson, F.A. and Potter, G.L, Cyanide from Mineral Processing, Salt
Lake City, Utah, U.S. Bureau of Mines and Utah Mining and Mineral Resources Research Institute, February 2-3, 1982.
Kidd, C.H., Prediction of Solute Transport from Gold Mine Tailings, Coromandel, New Zealand,
Proc. 3rd Intl. Mine Water Conf., Melbourne, Australia, 1988. Longe, G.K. and DeVries, F.W., Some Recent Considerations on the Natural Disappearance of
Cyanide in Economics and Practice of Heap Leaching in Gold Mining, Cairns Queensland, Australia, August, 1988.
McGill, S.L., Hendrix, J. and Nelson, J., Cyanide/Thiocyanate Reactions in Tailings, Cyanide
and the Environment, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, vol. 1, 1985, pp. 143-159.
Miller, G.C. and Pritsos, C.A., Unresolved Problems With The Use Of Cyanide In Open Pit
Precious Metal Mining in Proceedings of Cyanide: Social, Industrial and Economic Aspects, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society Annual Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 12-15, 2001.
Mudder, T.I., Conference Summary, Proceedings Cyanide and the Environment, Tucson,
Arizona, December 11-14, 1984. _______ and Botz, M.M., A Global Perspective of Cyanide, Presented at 2001 Annual SME
Conference, Denver, Colorado, February, 2001. Schafer, W.M. and Hudson, T., Land Application of Cyanide-Containing Mining Process
Solutions in Proc. Planning, Rehabilitation, and Treatment of Disturbed Lands, Billings, Montana, 1990.
Schmidt, J.W., Simovic, L. and Shannon, E., Natural Attenuation of Cyanides in Gold Milling
Effluents in Proc. Sem. Cyanide and Gold Mining Industry Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Jan. 22-23, 1981.
References May 2002 page 25 of 28
Simovic, L., Snodgrass, W., Murphy, K., and Schmidt, J., Development of a Model to Describe the Natural Attenuation of Cyanide in Gold Mill Effluents in Cyanide and the Environment Vol. II, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1985, pp. 413-432.
Smith, A., Applied Hydrogeochemistry in Mining Wastes Disposal in Proc. of Dunham-Durham
Symposium, Durham, United Kingdom, Pub. Special Vol., IMM, London, 1985. _______, The Management of Cyanide in the Gold Mining Industry, Seminar Proceedings, AGC,
Australia, November 1988. _______ and Dehrmann, A., and Pullen, R., The Effects of Cyanide-Bearing, Gold Tailings
Disposal on Water Quality in Witwatersrand, South Africa in Cyanide and the Environment, Van Zyl (Ed.), Tucson, Arizona, Pub. CSU, Fort Collins, Colorado, 1985, pp. 221-229.
Smith, A., Moore, D., and Caldwell, J., Prediction of Groundwater Impact of Tailings Disposal
in Proc. 2nd Annual Can/Am Conf. on Hydrogeology, Baniff, Alberta, Canada, 1985. Smith, S.C., Hudson, T.J. and Schafer, W.M., Field Evaluation of Land Application
Performance: Metals Removal from Barren Leach Solution in Proc. Planning, Rehabilitation, and Treatment of Disturbed Lands, Billings, Montana, 1993.
Stotts, W.G., Handling Cyanide at Superior Mining Company's Stibnite Heap Leaching Operation in Cyanide and the Environment, Tucson, Arizona, 1985, pp. 231-247. Struhsacker, D.W. and Smith, A., Cyanide Neutralization and Reclamation of Heap Leach
Projects in Proc. Planning, Rehabilitation and Treatment of Disturbed Lands Symposium, Billings, Montana, 1990.
Zaidi, A., Schmidt, J.W., Simovic, L., and Scott, J., The Art and Science of Treating Wastewaters
from Gold Mines, Annual Operator's Conference, Ottawa, Ontario, January 20-22, 1987.
CCYYAANNIIDDEE AANNAALLYYSSIISS Technical References American Public Health Association (APHA), Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater, 20th Edition, Edited by Lenore S. Cleseri, Arnold E. Greenberg and Andrew D. Eaton, 1998.
ASTM, Section II, Water and Environmental Technology, volume 11.02, 1985. Barton, P., Hammer, C.A., and Kennedy, D.C., Analysis of Cyanides in Coke Plant Wastewater
Effluents, Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 1978, pp. 234-239.
References May 2002 page 26 of 28
Blago, R.B. Indirect Determination Of Fee Cyanide By Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Atomic Spectrose., vol. 10, 1989, pp. 74-76.
Csikai, N.J. and Barnard, Jr., A.A., Determination of Total Cyanide in Thiocyanate-Containing
Wastewaters, Analytical Chemistry, vol. 55, 1983, p. 1677. Gottfried, G.J., Application and Evaluation of Analytical Procedures for Trace Metals, Total
Cyanide and Phenolics, USEPA Project Summary, EPA-600/S4-82-001, August, 1982. Ingersoll, D., Harris, W., Bomberger, D., and Coulson, D., Development and Evaluation of
Procedures for the Analysis of Simple Cyanides, Total Cyanide, and Thiocyanate in Water and Wastewater, USEPA, EPA-600/u-83-054, October, 1981.
Kelada, N. P., Automated Direct Measurements Of Total Cyanide Species And Thiocyanate And
Their Distribution In Wastewater And Sludge, J. Water Pollut. Control Fed., vol. 61, 1989, pp. 350-356.
Koch, W.M.F., The Determination of Trace Levels of Cyanide by Ion Chromatography with
Electrochemical Detection, National Bureau of Standards Journal of Research, 1983. Lundquist, P. and Sorbo B., Rapid Determination Of Toxic Cyanide Concentrations In Blood.
Clin. Chem., vol. 35, 1989, pp. 617-619. Luthy, R.G., Bruce, S.G., Walters, R.W. and Nakles, D.V., Identification and Reactions of
Cyanide and Thiocyanate in Coal Gasification Wastewaters, Sixth Quarterly Report, U.S. Department of Energy, FE-2496-23, 1978.
Nonomura, M., and Hobo, T., Ion Chromatographic Determination Of Cyanide Compounds By
Chloramine-T And Conductivity Measurement. J. Chromatogr., vol. 465, 1989, pp. 395-401. Ohno, T., Spectrophotometric Determination Of Total Cyanide In Surface Waters Following
Ultraviolet Induced Photodecomposition, Analyst, vol.114, 1989, pp. 857-858. Pohlandt, C., Jones, E., and Lee, A., A Critical Evaluation of Methods Applicable to the
Determination of Cyanides, Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, January, 1983, pp. 11-19.
Pohlandt, C., The Determination of Cyanide in Hydrometallurgical Process Solutions and
Effluents by Ion Chromatography, Report No. M128, Council for Mineral Technology, Randburg, South Africa, 1984.
_______ Chromatographic Separation and Determination of Stable Metal Cyanide Complexes in
Gold Processing Solution, South African Journal of Chemistry, vol. 38 (3), 1985, pp. 110- 114.
References May 2002 page 27 of 28
Rocklin, R. and Johnson, E., Determination of Cyanide, Sulfide, Iodide and Bromide by Ion Chromatography with Electrochemical Detection, Anal. Chem., vol. 55, 1983, pp. 4-7.
Schulz, R.S., Investigation of Chemical and Cyanide Properties in Saline Tailings of Gold
Mines, Australian Journal of Mineralogy, October 1996. Umana, M., Beach, J. and Sheldon, L., Restrictions Rule Support Revision to Method 9010, Total
and Amenable Cyanide, Office of Solid Waste, USEPA, Washington, D.C., 1987. USEPA Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Methods For Chemical Analysis of
Water and Wastes, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1986. _______, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, SW-846, Third Edition, Volume IC, Chapter
7, Section 7.3, 1986. _______, Method OIA-1677 Available Cyanide by Flow Injection, Ligand Exchange and
Amperometry, EPA-821-R-99-013, August, 1999. Wu, X.Z., Yamada, M., Hobo, T. and Suzuki, S., Uranine Sensitized Chemiluminescence For
Alternative Determinations Of Copper (II) And Free Cyanide By The Flow Injection Method, Anal. Chem., vol. 61, 1989, pp. 1505-1510.
Yoshida, T., Tamamura, Y. and Katsura, T., Practical Method For Determination of Total
Cyanide in Metal-Containing Wastewaters, Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 43:9, 1983, pp.441. Informational References Black, S., Schulz, R.S. and McGuire, J.C., Photo Diode Array Detection Used as a
Fingerprinting Tool for Metal Cyanide Complexes in Gold Processing Liquors, Proceedings of the 27th International Symposium of Environmental and Analytical Chemistry, 1997.
Brickell, R.H., Chemistry of Cyanide Solutions, Presented at Cyanide and the Gold Mining
Industry: A Technical Seminar, sponsored by Environment Canada and Canadian Mineral Processors, 1981.
DeVries, F. and Mathre, O., Modified Free Cyanide Field Test Without Distillation in
Proceedings of the Cyanide and the Environment Conference, Tucson, Arizona, 1984, volume I, p. 189.
Fagan, P., Haddad, P., Dunne, R. and Mitchell, I., Advances in Ion Chromatography for
Monitoring the Gold Cyanidation Process, Proceedings from Randol Gold Forum, 1996, pp. 321-327.
Grigorova, B. and Lenahan, W., The Determination of Cyanide in Waters, Mintek Symposium
on the Analysis of Waters, Randburg, South Africa, 1983.
References May 2002 page 28 of 28
Hendrix, J.L, Nelson, J.H. and Ahmadiantehrani, M., Fate of Cyanide in Tailings - An Update, Cyanide and the Environment Conference, Tucson, Arizona, December, 1984.
Kelada, N.P., Lue-Hing, C. and Chavich, J.A., Cyanide Thiocyanate Speciation and Removal of
Thiocyanate and Other Interferences, Cyanide and the Environment Conference, Tucson, Arizona, 1984.
Milosavljevic, E.B. and Solujic, L., How To Analyze For Cyanide, in Proceedings of Cyanide:
Social, Industrial and Economic Aspects, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society Annual Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 12-15, 2001.
Noller, N.B. and Schulz, R.S., The Effect of Cyanide Preservation on Analytical Results, The 4th
RACI Environmental Chemistry Conference, Darwin, NT, Australia, 1995. Pohlandt, C., The Determination of Cyanides In the Hydrometallurgical Processing of Gold in
Proceedings of Cyanide and the Environment Conference, Tucson, Arizona, December 11-14, 1984.
Ray, W.M.R., A Simple Leach Procedure For Determining the Total Cyanide Content of Heap
Leach Tailings, Cyanide and the Environment Conference, Tucson, Arizona, December, 1984.
Sharp, C. and Baker, D., Accuracy and Precision of the EPA Reflux Method for Cyanide in
Gold-Processing Waste Streams, 1981 Society of Mining Engineers Annual Conference, Chicago, Illinois, 1981.
Schulz, R.S., Cyanide Analysis In Waters - An Interlaboratory Comparative Study, Chemistry
Centre (WA), 1992. Solujic, L., Milosavljevic, E.B. and Hendrix, J.L., Cyanide Determination Methods: Distillation
vs. Flow Injection Analysis in Proceedings of the Randol Gold Forum 1996, pp. 167-173.