adapting water management to climate change

Apolicybriefforcentralgovernmentsindevel-opedanddevelopingcountries,sub-sovereignnationalbodies,universitiesandresearchin-stitutes,communityorganisations,banksandprivateinvestors,aiddonors,multilateralfi-nancial institutions,UNagenciesandotherinternationalorganisations.

AdAptIng WAter MAnAgeMent to ClIMAte CHAnge

SwedishWaterHousePolicyBriefsNr. 7

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ThisPolicyBriefwaswrittenasajointeffortoftheClusterGroupinClimate,WaterandVulnerabilityhostedbytheSwedishWaterHouse(SWH).ClusterGroupsarenetworkinginitiativesforSwed-ishorganisationsandcompetenceinwatermanagementandrelatedfieldssuchaseconomics,environment,gender,climatescience,governance,ecosystemmanagementandsanitation.SWHClusterGroupsaresmall,manageableinterdisciplinarynetworksestablishedaroundawater-relatedthemetoincreaseandadvanceunderstanding,andtolinkwithongoinginterna-tionalprocessesandnetworks.

How to CiteWilk, J. and Wittgren, H.B. (eds). Adapting Water Man-agement to Climate Change. Swedish Water House policy Brief nr. 7. SIWI, 2009.

Copyright © 2009, Swedish Water House (SWH)

Design and production by Britt-Louise Andersson, SIWICover Photo: Alastair Morrison, SIWI

note to the reader:

Table of Contents

AdaptingWaterManagementtoClimateChange 3WaterResourcesinaChangingClimate 4AdaptationandVulnerabilitytoClimateChange 6AdaptationStrategiesinPractice 9BarrierstoAdaptation 15OvercomingtheBarriers 18References 22

Printed by Trosa Tryckeri, Trosa, Sweden. The printing process has been certified according to the Nordic Swan label for environmental quality. For electronic versions of this and other SWH publications, visit www.swedishwaterhouse.se.

TheClusterGroupinClimate,WaterandVulnerabilityincludesrepresentativesfromthefollowingorganisations:CentreforCli-mateScienceandPolicyResearch,ChurchofSweden,GeWaConsulting,LinköpingUniversity,StockholmUniversity,Swedbio,SwedishCooperativeCentre,SwedishEnvironmentalProtec-tionAgency,SwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency,SwedishMeteorologicalandHydrological Institute,SwedishSocietyforNatureConservation,SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences,ViAgroforestryProgramme,andWorldWideFundforNature.

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“The older folk told stories of how Rain, Sun and Wind went a-wooing Earth, Sister of Moon, and it was the rain that carried the day, and that was why Earth grew a swollen belly after being touched by rain”

NgugiWaThiong’oin‘Petalsofblood’

Societieshavealwayshadtocopewithvariablenaturalcondi-tions.Thiscopingwithnatureoftenimpliesadaptationofwholesocieties,oratleastalargefractionoftheirtechnologies,toactualwaterconditions.Nomadicpeoplemigrateseasonallytofindwaterandgrazingfortheirherds.Sinceancienttimes,agriculturalcivilizationshaveinventedtechniquesforwaterstor-age,transferandirrigation.Embankmentssuchasleveesanddikesareconstructed,orlakeslowered,toprotectagriculturalland,citiesorwholecountriesfromflooding.

Itisademandingtaskforanysocietytocopewithhistori-callyknownvariationsinrainfallfrequencyandintensity,riverrunoffs,andfluctuatingsealevels.Whenfactoringinpopulationgrowthandincreasedurbanisation,ofteninflood-proneareasalongcoastsorinrivervalleys,thetaskbecomesevenmoredifficult,particularlyinpoorregionsoftheworld.

Goodwatermanagementisamuchbroaderissuethansupplyof freshwater to thirstypopulations.Ecosystemsandbiodiversity,agricultureandfoodsecurity,landuseandforestry,humanhealthandsanitation,settlementsand infrastructure,

industryandenergyalldependongoodwatermanage-ment.Theprimarypurposeof thispolicybrief is tosuggestoptions thatpromotewatermanagementstrategies thatarealreadyviableintermsofcopingwithpresentproblems,andwhichwillbecomeevenmoreurgentwhenprojectedclimatechangeimpactsaretakenintoaccount.Suchstrategiesaresometimesreferredtoas‘noregret’strategies,meaningthattheyaregoodinvestmentsevenwhenrecognisingthelargeuncertaintiesregardingthefutureclimate.

Asabackground,wepresentageneraloverviewofob-servedandprojected impactsofclimatechangeonwaterresources,assummarisedbyIPCC,7andanoverviewofthekeyconceptsofadaptationandvulnerabilitytoclimatechange,includingspecificexamplesofadaptationstrategiesnowinpractice.However,itisnotenoughtopointout‘goodexam-ples’.Goodexamplesallworkinlocalcontextsthatinfluenceanddictatetheirsuccess.Thesustainabilityofsuchexamples,includingtheirpotentialtodispersetootherregions,isoftenhamperedbybarriersofdifferentkinds.Overcomingbarriersmaybethemostimportantfunctionofpolicies,whethertheyarelocalorglobal.Butmodifyingsuccessfuladaptationex-amplestolocalpre-conditions–whethercultural,institutionalorclimatic–isalsoessential.Therefore,someobservationsregardingbarrierstoimplementation,maintenanceanddiffu-sionofadaptationmeasuresarepresented.

Adapting Water Management to Climate Change


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“Water and its availability and quality will be the main pres-sures on, and issues for, societies and the environment under climate change” 7

observed climate change impactsDuringthe20thcentury,atendencytowardsmorewidespreaddroughtshasbeenobservedinmanylargeregionssuchastheSahel,southernAfrica,CentralAmericaandsouthAsia.Droughtsaggravatedrylands,areasinhabitedby34percentoftheworld’spopulationandhometoeightoftheworld’s25identifiedbiodiversityhotspots.26

Atthesametime,observationsandmodelcalculationsshowthatthefrequencyofheavyrainfalleventshasincreasedovermostlandareasinthelate20thcentury.Duringthe10-yearpe-riod1996-2005thenumberofgreatinlandfloodcatastropheswastwiceaslarge,perdecade,asbetween1950and1980,whilerelatedeconomiclosseswerefivetimeshigher.21Socio-economicfactorssuchaseconomicgrowthandincreasesinpopulationinvulnerableareas,alongwithchangesinland-use,aremajorreasonsfortheincreaseintheadverseeffectsfromfloods,butsincedamageshavegrownmorerapidlythanpopulationoreconomicgrowth,otherexplanationsmustalsobeconsidered,includingclimatechange.25

Sincethe1960s,snowcoverhasdecreasedinmostregions,particularlyinthespringandsummer,andincreasingratesof

masslosshaveoccurredonthemajorityofglaciersandicecaps.Thedecrease inwaterstorage inglaciersandsnowcover,togetherwithshiftsintheamplitudeandtimingofrunoffinglacier-andsnowmelt-fedrivers,affectmorethanone-sixthoftheworld’spopulationlivingintheimpactedriverbasins.31

Alsootherwater-relatedtrends,suchasdecreasingground-waterlevelsandincreasingwatererosionandsedimenttrans-port,havebeenobservedglobally.Thesephenomena,how-ever,areprimarilyconsequencesofincreasedgroundwaterpumpingandanthropogenicland-usechanges,respectively,andthereisnotenoughdatatoprovideevidenceforpossi-bleimpactsofclimatechange.Nevertheless,thesechangessignificantlyincreasevulnerabilitytoclimatechange.

projected climate change impactsIncreasedfrequencyofheavyrainfallsislikelytoaffectmanyareasoftheworld,leadingtoahigherriskforrain-generatedfloods. Inareaswheremuchof thewinterprecipitationcur-rently fallsassnow,climatewarmingwill result inchangesintheseasonalityofriverflows,withincreasingwinterflowsanddecreasingspringflowsinseveralmountainousareas.Inriversdrainingglaciatedregions,particularlyintheAsianhighmountainrangesandtheSouthAmericanAndes,thisshiftmaybefurtheraggravatedbyglaciermelting. In theshort term,glaciermeltingwouldleadtoincreasedriverflows,butthen

Water resources in a Changing Climate

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ThewaterresourcesfromthegreaterHimalayanregionfeedtenof the largest rivers inAsia.Approximately1.3billionpeopleliveintheseriverbasins,whichalsocontainsevenmegacities.Thecontributionofsnowandglacialmelttothesemajorriversrangesfrom2to50percent.ThedependenceontheHimalayanregionisevenlargerinthedryseason,withriverssuchasGangesandIndusgetting70percentoftheirflowfromsnowandglacialmeltintheseasonsbeforeandafterthesummermonsoon.

Climatewarminghasbeengreaterthantheglobalaver-ageintheHimalayas,andHimalayanglaciersarerecedingfasterthantheglobalaverage.15Ifthistrendcontinues,thebase-flowintheriversmayinitiallyincrease.Butwhenres-ervoirsofsnowandicecontinuetodecrease,thevariabilityofdownstreamrunoffwill increaseand thebase-flowwillbecomesubstantiallyreduced.

Thesechangeswillseriouslyaffectthelivelihoodsofthepeopleintheriverbasinswhodependonglacialmeltfromthe16,000Himalayanglaciersfortheirdomesticandag-riculturalwatersuppliesand forotherecosystemservicessuchasfisheries.Forinstance,500millionpeopledependontheYangtzeriverfortheirdomesticwater.TheYangtze,alsoacrucialsupplierofwater toChinese industryandagriculture,experienceditslowestupperreachesflowsincethe1920sin2006.

Itisnoexaggerationtostatethatthepresentrapideco-nomicdevelopment in IndiaandChinamaybeseverelyimpactedbyacontinuationofthepresentclimatetrends.Addingpoliticalconflictsoverwater resources, inanal-readyconflictriddenregion,makesthegreaterHimalayanregionacrucialtargetforinternationalclimateadaptationendeavours.

Box 1: Melting glaciers in the Himalayas16

thecontributionwouldgraduallyfall.Asaconsequence,thehundredsofmillionsofpeoplewhodependonglacialmeltwaterfromtheAndes,HinduKushandHimalayasfortheirdry-seasonwatersupply,willfaceanincreaseddroughtrisk.6

Overall,theproportionoflandinextremedroughtatanyonetimeisprojectedtoincrease,andmanysemi-aridandaridareas(e.g.,theMediterraneanBasin,westernUSA,southernAfricaandnorth-easternBrazil)areparticularlyexposedandmaysufferadecreaseofwaterresourcesduetotheimpactsofclimatechange.Prolongeddroughtalsoreducesgroundwaterrecharge,solevelswillprogressivelybelowered.

Inadditiontoquantitativeimpacts,climatechangewillhavewaterqualityimplications.Higher temperaturesarelikely toaffectwaterqualityinlakesthroughincreasedthermalstability,whichinhibitswatercirculation.Thisresultsinreducedoxygenconcentrationsandanincreasedreleaseofphosphorusfrombottomsediments.Theprojectedincreaseinrainfallintensityisexpected to lead to increasederosionand toenhancedtransportofpollutants.Morefrequentrainstormswillalsoover-

loadthecapacityofsewersystemsandwastewatertreatmentplantsmoreoften.Insemi-aridandaridareas,climatechangeislikelytoincreasesalinisationofshallowgroundwaterduetoincreasedevaporationandwateruptakefromvegetation.Incoastalareas,risingsealevelsmayhavenegativeeffectsonstormwaterdrainageandsewagedisposal,andadverselyaffectgroundwaterresourcesthroughsaltwaterintrusionintocoastalfreshwateraquifers.

Ingeneralterms,theprojectedimpactsofclimatechangeonwaterresourcesareacontinuationoftheimpactsthathavealreadybeenobserved.Atthesametime,thereareuncertain-tiesofvariousmagnitudesassociatedwith theprojections.Thefindingsofseveralglobalmodelsshouldbeexaminedtoreducethisuncertainty,especiallyinregardtoregionalorlo-caleffects.Averyrobustfindingappearstobethatwarmingwillleadtochangesintheseasonalityofriverflowsinareaswheremuchofwinterprecipitationcurrentlyfallsassnow.Ontheotherhand,theprojectionsoffutureratesofsealevelrisecurrentlycarrylargeuncertainties.

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“The significance of climate change ... lies in its interactions with other sources of change and stress, and its impacts should be considered in such a multi-cause context.” 7

Adaptation concepts and optionsAdaptationtoclimatechangecanconsistofstrategieswhichspecificallytakeclimatechangeandvariabilityintoaccount(planned adaptation)or thosewithgoals thatarenotspe-cificallyclimaterelated,butthatimproveresiliencetoclimatechangeasanadditionaleffect(autonomous adaptation).Au-tonomousadaptationismostcommonindevelopingcountrieswheredailyneedsareacuteandfutureclimatechangeisadistantconcern.Examplesofautonomousadaptationinclude:revivinginterestintraditionalwaterharvestingsystemstosupple-menthouseholdwatersupplyandirrigationpractices;restoringdefunctorpoorlymaintained irrigation facilities to improvewaterefficiencyandequityofaccess,and;maintainingandestablishingwetlandstotrapnutrientsandprovidefoodandfodderforpeopleandlivestock.

Themostsuccessfulandsustainableclimatechangeadap-tationstrategieswillbethosethatcansimultaneouslyreducevulnerability towardavarietyofstressors includingpresentclimatevariabilityand futureclimatechange,globalisation,urbanisation,environmentdegradation,diseaseoutbreaks,and

marketuncertainties.Ithasbeenrepeatedlystatedthatwaterisintrinsicallyinterlinkedwiththewell-beingandresilienceofecosystemsandhumansocieties.Severalof theMillennium Development Goalshaveadirectorindirectrelationtowa-ter.Manyoptions foradaptationofwatermanagement toclimatechangecanthereforebedesignedtoachieveurgentenvironmentalandsocialobjectivesrelatedtopresentclimateconditions,suchasprotectionofwatersourcesduringfloodingconditionsandwaterconservationpracticesindrought-proneareas.Furthermore,conditionsotherthanclimatechangeareof-tenmoreimportantinexertingstressonlivelihoods,particularlyinlow-incomecountries.Examplesinclude:lackofeducation,poverty,limitedmarketaccess,culturalnorms,lackoftrust,andcorruption.Inthiscontextadaptationstrategiesshouldaimtomeetthelargergoalsofreducingpoverty,diversifyingliveli-hoods,protectingcommonpropertyresourcesandecosystemservices,andstrengtheningofcollectiveaction.20Thefollowingareexamplesofadaptationoptionsthatincreasetheresilienceofpeopleandecosystemsbyimprovingaccesstowaterandecosystemservicesinordertoestablishandmaintainsustain-ableenvironmentsandlivelihoods.

Increasing water supply and ecosystem services:• Expansionofrainwaterharvestingtoimproverainfed

cultivationandgroundwaterrecharge

Adaptation and Vulnerability to Climate Change

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• Adoptionofwatertransferschemes• Restorationofaquatichabitatsandecosystemservices• Increasedstoragecapacitybybuildingreservoirs

decreasing water demand and increasing use efficiency:• Removalofinvasivenon-nativevegetationfromriparian

areas• Improvementofwater-useefficiencybywaterrecycling• Spreadofdrought-resistantcrops• Improvedmanagementofirrigatedagriculture,e.g.,chang-

ingthecroppingcalendar,cropmix,irrigationmethodandrepairandmaintenanceofirrigationinfrastructure

• Expandeduseofeconomicincentivestoencouragewaterconservation

• Improvementofurbanwaterandsanitationinfrastructure

Improving flood protection:• Constructionoffloodprotectioninfrastructure• Enlargementofriparianareas• Increasedupstreamstorage• Restorationandmaintenanceofwetlands• Improvedfloodforecasting

Integrated Water Resources Management(IWRM)providesausefulframeworkforplanningwellcoordinatedandtargetedadaptationmeasures toclimatechange. It isasystematicprocesstothesustainabledevelopmentandequitablealloca-tionofwaterresourcesthroughaholisticapproachtowatermanagement.IWRMasaconceptwasfirstpresentedattheInternationalConferenceonWaterandEnvironmentinDublin,andinChapter18ofAgenda21,3aconsensusdocumentfromtheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelop-ment(UNCED)inRio,bothin1992.

SuccessfulIWRMstrategiesinclude,amongothers:capturingsocietalviews, reshapingplanningprocesses,coordinatinglandandwater resourcesmanagement, recognisingwaterquantityandqualitylinkages,combineduseofsurfacewaterandgroundwater,protectingandrestoringnaturalsystems,addressingimpedimentstotheflowofinformation,andinclud-ingconsiderationofclimatechange.ButthereisalsoariskinthatIWRM,bybeingsoambitious,canencounterbarriersbothbecauseitpotentiallychallengesexistinghierarchiesandsectoralthinking,andbecauseitmaybetooresource-intensivetoapplyinitsentirety.

Vulnerability is a matter of circumstancesTheultimateobjectiveofadaptingwatermanagementtonaturalvariabilityandclimatechangeistodecreasethevulnerabilityofecosystemsandsocieties.Buttheconceptofvulnerabilitymaybeinterpretedindifferentwaysthatdictatetheappropri-atetypesofadaptationstrategies.

Climatevariabilityandchangeoccur in thecontextofpolitical, institutional,economicandsocialstructures.Thesestructuresinfluencethewayinwhichpeopleandecosystemsareexposed,aswellastowhatdegreetheyarevulnerable.Peoplecanbevulnerabletoclimatechangebecauseoflackofaccess tobasicsocialservices,exclusion fromdecision-making,or livinginenvironmentallydegradedareaswhereaccesstonaturalresourcesisrestricted.Thesumofallofthesecircumstancesthendictatestowhatdegreepeopleareandwillbe influencedbyclimateandwhatcapacity, freedomandopportunitiestheyhavetomanageandadapttoclimaterelatedproblems.34

Associetiesandcommunitiesundergochanges tobringthemoutofpoverty, it is important torecognise thatnotallmeasuresdone in thenameofdevelopment,e.g. increas-ingeconomicgrowthor introducing technologicalchange,reducevulnerability.Forexample,convertingmangroves toshrimpfarmsmayimprovetheeconomiesofcoastalfarmersbut leave themmorevulnerable tocoastalhazards.1Short-termeconomicgainscanalsobeboughtattheexpenseoflong-termsustainability.

Vulnerabilityassessmentsarenot static.Theyneed tobecomecontinuous,normalprocessesthatfollowchangesinsocieties,ecosystemsandclimate.23Tocreateopportunityforsuccessfuladaptationstrategiesandpromoteresilienceinbothecosystemsandsocieties,itisimportanttounderstandthecontextofpoorpeoples’ lives tograspwhy theyarevulnerable.Effortsneedtobemadetolimittheirexposuretothedirectrisksofclimatechange,floodsorwatershort-age.Butonly throughunderstandingwhat reallymakespeoplevulnerablecangovernmentsfacilitateandbroadenopportunitiesforengaginginresilientlivelihoodstrategies.Likewise,onlythroughunderstandingofpeople’sstrategiestoadapttocurrentvariability,andthelimitationsofandbar-rierstothesestrategies,cangovernmentssupportpeople’sadaptation.

Box 2: Principles of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)

IWRMisbasedonfourprinciples:1. Freshwaterisafiniteandvulnerableresource,essentialtosustainlife,developmentandtheenvironment.2. Waterdevelopmentandmanagementshouldbebasedonaparticipatoryapproach,involvingusers,plannersand

policy-makersatalllevels.3. Womenplayacentralpartintheprovision,managementandsafeguardingofwater.4. Waterhasaneconomicvalueinallitscompetingusesandshouldberecognisedasaneconomicgood.


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Since2007, theurbanpopulationof theworldhasbeenlargerthantheruralpopulation,andby2030demographersestimatethattwo-thirdsofhumanitywillliveinlargetownsorcities.Whiledroughtistheprimaryconcerninmanyruralareas,extremeraineventsandcyclonicstorms(moreoftenandmoreintense)areacutehazardsinurbanenvironments,especiallyforthepoorwholiveinthemosthazardousar-eas.Floodinginurbanareasisnotonlycausedbyheavyrainfallbutasaresultofthisinconjunctionwithpoorandinadequatelymanageddrainage.13Thewaterthatdoesnotquicklydrainawaycausesproblems,destroyingmakeshifthousesandspreadingdiseasesfromunhealthysanitationandwastemanagementpractices.Thewaterthatdoesquicklydrainaway,duetoimperviousareassuchasroads,roofsandpavements,failstorechargegroundwaterbutinsteadmovesquicklytodownstreamareas.Inthelong-term,thisstressesgroundwaterlevelsinareaswhereadequatehouseholdwaterisanever-pressingproblem.

Manymega-citiessuchasMexicoCity,Bangkok,JakartaandDelhiarefacingincreasingwatershortages.Drinkingwaterisbeingtransportedfromover300kmawaytomeetdemands inDelhi,andwith increasingprecipitationvari-

ability,unsustainableminingofgroundwaterandaseverelypollutedriversystem,theDelhimega-urbanregioncouldfacethesamedestinyastwohistoriccapitalsofthesameregion:Mohammed-bin-Tuglak’s(1325–1351)Tuglakabad,nearDelhi,andAkbar’s(1556–1605)FatehpurSikri,nearAgra,whichwereabandonedduetowaterscarcity.29

Populationincreaseanderraticrainfallareimportantrea-sonsforwatershortageincities,butalsoincreasedwaterharvestingandagriculturalintensificationinreservoircatch-ments.Forexample,competitionbetweenruralandurbandemandsforscarcewaterresourcessometimesexacerbatesthewatershortage.ChennaiinTamilNadu,India,isonesuchexample.10

Thestreamofpeoplemovingtolargeurbancentreswithhopeofbetterfortuneincreaseseachyearandthistrendhasledtolargenumbersofpeople,especiallythepoor,settlingandlivinginfloodplainsinandaroundurbanareas.13Manyoftheseareaslieoutsideoftheformalcitylimits(peri-urbanareas)sotheyareunplannedandunregulated.Theyareignoredinurbanplanningsystemsso theycontinually lackadequatedrainagesystems,watersupplyandsanitationfacilities.Theyaretickingtime-bombswaitingforexcessivestormstohit.

Box 3: The vulnerability of the urban poor

Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra in Uttar Pradesh, India, was constructed by the Mughal emperor Akbar and served as the empire's capital from 1571 until 1585, when it was abandoned due to water scarcity.

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Theeffectsofclimatechangewillgreatlyaffecttheeconomiesandlivelihoodsformanyoftheworld’scitizens.Riverbasins,floodplainsandcoastsare thegeographicalbasewherewaterismanagedandtheyarethe‘naturalinfrastructure’foradaptation.18Peopleneedtobeencouraged,allowedandsupported tosustainandimprove their localecosystems inwaysthatsupporttheirlivelihoodsandadaptivecapacitiessuchasprotectingnaturalwetlandsforhydrologicalservicesandprovisionof foodand fodder.24Reducingvulnerabilitythroughpromotinggoodandadequatehealth,finances,foodsecurity,waterresourcesandecosystemsisthekeyto

Adaptation Strategies in practiceenablingpeopletoadapttostressorsastheyarise,includingclimatechange.

Inthissection,anumberofcasestudiesarepresentedwheredifferentinitiativeshavebeentakentoreducethevulnerabilityofthepoorestgroupsbybuildingsustainablelivelihoodsforcurrentpopulationswhileatthesametimepromotingwaterconservationandecosystemresilience.These include‘noregret’strategiesthatare,orhavethepotentialtobe,widelyappliedatalocalscalewherevulnerabilityisthegreatest,i.e.,inlow-incomeregionspronetodroughtsandfloods,suchaslargeregionsinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmerica.

In theThukela riverbasin,SouthAfrica,several regionallydownscaledclimatescenariosusingdifferentglobalclimatemodelsandemissionscenarioshaveprojectedhotterwintersandmoreextremehydrologicalevents,includinglonger,wetteranddrierperiods, for theperiod2006-2050ascomparedto1961-2005.

Aproject involvingresearchers,governmentauthorities,NGOsandsmall-scalesubsidenceandlarge-scalecommercial

farmershasengagedinamodel-assistedprocesstoassessthelocalimpactsofclimatechangeonwaterresourcesandproducepolicyoptionstolocalgovernmentsbasedonrealisticassessmentof futureclimate-relatedproblemsandrelevantadaptationstrategies.Between theworkshops,basedonrequests fromparticipants, the researcherscompiled locallyrelevantclimatechangerelated information.Therationalebehindthemodel-assistedparticipatoryprocesswasthat:(i)

Case Study 1:

Adaptation and water management in a South African river basin

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adaptationstrategiesshouldberatifiedbythoseaffected;(ii)knowledgeandinformationshouldbetransformedinseveraldirections(stakeholders,planners,researchers);(iii)theprocesswillimproveunderstandingbetweengroups.

Theprocesshasrevealedthattheadaptationstrategiesidentifiedaspromisingmeasures foraddressing futurecli-matechallengesarethesameonesusedtocopewithcur-rentclimatevariability.Theseneedtobestrengthenedandexpandedbut thesameobstacles stillexist.Thegreatestobstacletoimplementingsuccessfuladaptationstrategiesisnotthelackofknow-howabouttheclimateorhowtocopeoradapt to itseffects.Obstacles include thesmall-scalefarmers’lackofaccesstofinancingforequipmenttopreparecontoursaserosioncontrol,bundstoprotecttheirhousesfromflooding,andmaterialsfortheconstructionofsmallreservoirsforsustainablehouseholdandagriculturalwateravailability.Commercialfarmershavedifficultiesgettingpermitstobuildnew irrigation facilities, including reservoirs,becauseofaslow,complicatedandincompetentbureaucracy.Theyalsolackthecertaintythattheywillbeabletostayontheirfarms,whichmakesthemmorereluctanttomakeinvestmentswithlong-termreturns.

Itisapparentthatamongfarmerstherearevastdifferencesinlevelsofvulnerabilitytopresentrisksandpotentialonesfromclimatechange.Poorsmall-scalefarmersarebarelycopingeveninthecurrentclimate,whilecommercialfarmershaveavarietyofbufferstofallbackon.Inapoorcropyear,poorfarmersliveonanotherfamilymember’smeagrepensionorsickbenefit,borroworbegfoodfromtheirneighboursorrelativesandstopbuying‘luxury’fooditemssuchasvegetables,sugarandoil.Commercialfarmersborrowmoneyfromthebanktotidethemoverorliveontheirsavingsandrefrainfromitemslikeholidaysandnewvehicles.

Small-scale farmers lacksufficientgovernmentextensionsupporttobringthemthelatestknowledgeaboutagriculturaltechnologiesandmethods,accesstofinancingandsustainablemarkets,alternativeactivitiesallowing livelihooddiversifica-tionandevenpositiverole-modelsoffarmersthathavemadechangesallowingthemtomovefromsubsistencetocommercialagriculture.Commercialfarmersneedtrust,beliefandamorefruitfuldialoguewithgovernmentofficialsandpoliciesthatgivethemconfidenceinthefuture,aswellasmoretransparentandfasterroutinesforgaininggovernmentpermits.

Thisexample illustrates thatdifferentpre-conditionsandrealitiesexistbetweengroupsdependingon their levelofvulnerability.Programmesandpoliciesrelatedtoadaptationtoclimatechangemustreflectthisandmeettheneedsandconditionsofeachgroup,withfocus–ofcourse–onthepoorest.Participatoryprocessesare important toengagestakeholdersandproducemorerelevantandlocallyvalidatedresultsthatcanserveasmoresolidgroundinwhichtoas-sesscurrentadaptationstrategiesandtheirpotentialtomeetfuturechallenges.

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Effectivewatermanagemententailsusingtheavailablewaterinanyareainaneffectiveandequitableway.SRIJAN(Self-ReliantInitiativesthroughJointAction)isasmall/mediumsizeNGOthathasbeenworkingsince1997at thegrassrootleveldirectlywithpoorvillagewomenandmen.Theyworktopromotestrongcommunitymanaged institutions,partner-ships,andenterprises toenhancepoorpeoples'access tonatural resourcesandbuild theircapacity tomanage theminasustainablemanner.Theirmainfocusisconservinganddistributingwaterinordertoimprovelivelihoodsofthepoor.Theirinitiativesinvolveabout18,000familiesin11districtsofthreestatesinIndia.SRIJAN’sprofessionalsworkinteamsthatlive indistrictorsub-districtheadquartersandworkdirectlywiththeruralpoor.

Oneof theirsignificant initiativeshasbeenrehabilitatingdefunct,poorlyfunctioning,highleakagewater-storagetanksandirrigationcanals.Thephysicalworkinvolvesdesiltationandliningthetankcanals,bundstrengthening,turfingontankbunds,feedercanaltreatmentincatchmentareas,sluiceandweirrepairs.TankUserGroupsandWaterUserAssociationswere formedorsupported toensure lastingcommitment tocontinuedmaintenanceofthetanksandcanals.Thesegroups,comprisedoffarmersowninglandintheirrigationcommandareas,especiallythoseatthetailend,wereencouragedto

Case Study 2:

Improving water management in rural India joinacommonplatformtoresolvetheissuesthatplaguetank/canalmanagementsystems.ThisalsoinvolvedthesupportoflocalNGOs,StateGovernment,districtadministrationanddonors.InonecasetheNGO’s,withsupportfrom11strongWaterUsersAssociationsrepresentingsome5,500farmers,pressuredtheirrigationdepartmentforatransparentandmorehonestimplementation.

Desiltationandliningofcanalshasincreasedthevolumeofwaterreachingthefieldintailendareasandminimisedwater losses from leakage.Thishasmeant reclamationofwaterlogged land insomecasesand increased irrigationwatertothecommandareainalmostallcases,resultinginincreasedagriculturalproductivity. In thecommandareaofSamratAshokSagardam,276farmersgotwaterforthefirsttime,outofwhich136weremarginal farmers.Contrary toexpectations,196wereatthetailend.

Ateveryprojectstageactiveparticipationfromallstakehold-ersisencouraged.Supportisgiventohelpfarmersplantheircroppingpatternbasedontheamountofwaterinthetankseachseason,inobtainingcreditfrombanks,andingettingtechnicalinformationandinformationaboutinputsavailablefromdifferentgovernmentdepartments.

Insomeprojectareas,abenefitsharingprogrammewastestedwherethelandlessandsmallandmarginalisedfarmers

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notderivinganydirectbenefitfromtankrehabilitationworkwereentitledtoasmallremunerationwithwhichtheycouldundertakeanincomegenerationactivityoftheirchoice.ThisamountwaslaterrepaidtotheTankManagementInstitutionfromprofits.Thefarmersfoundthattheinitialallottedamountwastoosmallforitspurpose,sotheyeachpooledallthemoneyintoarevolvingfund,whichtheycouldborrowfrominturns.

Challenges thathavebeen identifiedandaddressedarethattheWaterUserAssociationsarenotrepresentativebecausetheycoversuchlargecommandareas.Thus,theyarebeingdecentralisedtosmallergroupstofunctionmoreeffectively.Bigandinfluentialfarmersoftentakeextrawater

fortheirfieldsbyraisingobstructionsorbreakingbundssothattailendfarmersroutinelygetlesswater.WomenpresentlyhavenoroleinWaterUserAssociationsandthissituationis slowlybeing rectified.Trustandopennessare fosteredthroughincreasedtransparencyanddialogue.

Inotherareasprojectshavebeeninitiated,aimedtoen-hancepeople'sincomebygivingbetterreturnsbyintroducinglocalinitiativesthatarelinkedwithmarkets,whileatthesametimepromotingefficientwateruse.Drip-basedhorticulturehasbeenestablishedinsomeareasandhasincreasedincomesandprovidedmorestablelivelihoodsbydiversifyinghouse-holdactivities.

Smallholderandsubsistence farmers inaridandsemi-aridregions,whohaveoftennotstartedtoclimb“theladderofdevelopment”,30dependlargelyuponthemselvesformanagingtheirlocalwaterresources:rainfall,seasonalandephemeralstreams,andgroundwater.

Themostcommonapproachtoimprovelocalwatersupplyistoharvestrainwater,eitherbypracticesthataimatenhanc-ingsoilinfiltrationatthesite,improvingrainfedcultivation(insiturainwaterharvesting),orcollectinganddivertingrainwa-ter to reservoirs.Rainwaterharvestingstructureshavebeendocumented inseveralancientcivilizations.Timingof theirconstructionwithchangesinclimatesupportsthehypothesisthatpeoplerespondwithrainwaterharvestingandstayingintheirhomelands,ratherthanwithmigration.28Acost-benefitanalysisofon-farmrainwaterstoragesystemsforsupplementalirrigationinKenyashowedthattheyarefeasiblesolutionstocropfailureinsemi-aridareas.27

Modern rainwaterharvestingprojectsareusuallybasedon traditionalpractices,whichareknownfromseveral re-gions,e.g.,Africa,39SouthAmerica,7andIndia.28Sincethe1980s,constructionofnewrainwaterharvestingstructureshas

beenparticularlyrapidinRajasthan,adrought-pronestateinnorthwesternIndia,wherethetraditionalpracticeofbuildingjohadshasbeenpromotedandsupportedbytheNGOTarunBharatSangh(TBS).

Johadsarecurvedembankments thatcollect the run-offfromtinystreamsinamicro-catchment,anduntil2003about3,200hadbeenbuilt,mainly in theAlwardistrict,with thehelpof funding fromvarioussources.Theworkhasshownthatrejuvenationoftraditionalwaterharvestingstructuresonalarge-scaleisindeedpossible.TheworkdonebyTBShasgeneratedseveralpositiveoutcomes,22e.g.:• Releaseofsocialcapital:Somevillageinstitutionshave

movedtowardsprotectingforests,buildingschoolsandotherdevelopmentalworks.

• Increasedwateravailability:Inagriculture-dominatedvillages,increasedsurfaceandgroundwateravailabil-ityhasimprovedeconomicgains,forexamplewherefarmershavebeenabletodiversifyintocashcropsduetoimprovedwateravailability.Invillageswhereasignificantproportionofvillagelandshavebeentreated,mosthouseholdshaveprotectedthemselvesagainstill-

Case Study 3:

rainwater harvesting in India and elsewhere

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effectsofdroughtfor3to4years.Inanimalhusbandrydominatedvillages,increasedwateravailabilityhasledtochangeinlivestockcompositiontowardsmoremilkcattleandthereforeagreaterincome.

• Otherpositivetrade-offs:Theprocessofbuildingjohadshasresurrectedvillageinstitutionsinmanyvillages.Johadbuildinghasledtoprotectionofforestsincatch-ments.Drudgeryofwomeninfetchingwater,fuelwoodandfodderhasbeenreducedandtheirqualityoflifehasimproved.ThequalityofstructuresbuiltbyTBShasforcedgovernmentstoraisethequalityoftheirwork.Insomevillages,peoplehavestartedbuildingjohadsontheirown.Manyofthelargenumberofvisitorsfromotherstateshavebeeninspiredtotakeupwaterharvest-ingintheirareas.

Ingeneral, rainwaterharvesting isconsidered tohavemostlypositiveeffects.Biomassproductionisenhanced,orat leastcrop failuredue todryspells is reduced,andsoilerosionisreduced,sincetherainwaterharvestingstructurestrapsediments.39Alsogroundwaterrechargeisassumedtoimprove,but fewfieldmeasurementsareavailable.Nev-ertheless, relianceon rainwaterharvesting, rather thanongroundwater,mayhalt thesalinisationofgroundwater incoastalareas.IntheWestBengalandBangladesh,rainwa-terharvestingcanserveasanalternativetousingthewaterfromthealluvialGangesaquifers,whicharepollutedwithnaturallyoccurringarsenic.28

InAfrica,rainwaterharvestinghasalsobeenshowntohaveapositiveeffectonincomes,39butratesofadoptionarestilllow.9,32,40Onereasonisthatfarmersoftenhavenosecurityoflandownership,andanotheristhattheyhavelimitedac-cesstolocalmarketswheretheycouldsellsurplusesoffoodcropsorcashcrops.14

Therearealsopotentiallynegativetrade-offsthathavetobetakenintoaccountwhenconsideringrainwaterharvesting.Landusepatternsmaychange,e.g.,whenrainwaterharvestingmakesitpossibletoconvertnaturalvegetationorrangelandintocropland.Thismaycauseconflictsbetweenpastoralistsandsedentaryfarmers.Sincerainwaterharvestingresultsindecreasedrun-off todownstream locations,competition forwatermayalsoarisebetweenupstreamanddownstreamcommunities.Toavoid,andsolve,possibleconflictsitisimpor-tanttobuildwatermanagementorganisationsatsuccessivelylargercatchmentlevels.

Itisoftenassumedthatwaterlossesaresmallerwhenwateriscollectedinmanysmallreservoirsupstream,ratherthaninonebig reservoirat theendof thecatchment.2However,thereislittlescientificsupportforthisassumption.10Monitoringandmodellingofthehydrologicalconsequencesofrainwaterharvestingindifferenttypesofcatchmentsisthusneededtoprovidedecisionsupportforfurtheruseanddevelopmentofthistechnology. Ph

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Agroforestry isasustainableagricultural technique that in-creasestheresilienceofecosystemsbysupportingbiodiversity,decreasingsoilerosion, improvingwaterabsorption,andenhancingsoilfertility.38Italsoincreasesanddiversifiesagri-culturalproduction,therebyrelievingthepressuretoencroachforestsandhelpingtosavenaturalareasandpreservebio-diversity.Productionoffuelwoodandhousingmaterialsalsodecreasesnatural forestdegradationandprovides familieswithcheaperandbetterqualityfuelwhilepreservinganimalwasteforfertiliserpurposes.Inadditiontothis,itsustainsthecapacityoftheforesttostorecarboninthetreesandsoil,thusaidingclimatechangemitigation.

ViAgroforestryProgrammeisaSwedishNGOwhichhasworkedintheLakeVictoriaregionofEasternAfricaforover25yearswithavisionof“asustainableenvironmentofferinggoodlivingconditionsforfarmerfamilies”.Focushasbeenontreeplantingthroughagroforestrysystemswheresmall-scalefarmersintegrateappropriatetreesandbusheswithcropsand/oranimals,toimprovetheenvironmentinvariouswayswhilesimultaneouslystrengtheningtheirlivelihoodsthroughincreasedanddiversifiedproduction.Addressingenvironmental issueswhilemaintainingandincreasingproductivitywillbeoneofthekeyissuesinregionalagricultureoverthecomingdecades.17

ViAgroforestryworks insevenprojectareas inKenya,

Case Study 4:

Agroforestry around lake Victoria, east AfricaTanzania,UgandaandRwanda.Theprogrammereachesover1,200,000peopleandtomorethan5,000civilsocietyorganisationsthroughastrongextensionservicesystem.Sincethestart, theprogrammehascontributed to theplantingofover100milliontrees.

Resultsindicatethatmorehouseholdsintheprogrammeareasareproducingadiversityoffruitsandvegetablesascomparedtothecontrolareas.Alargerpercentageoftheprogrammehouseholdshaveestablishedagroforestrysystemslikehedge-rows,multipurposetrees,woodlotsandtreesonsoilconservationstructures.Thisincreaseintreecoverhassignificantlymitigatedlanddegradationandsustainedriverbasinmanagement.ThediversifiedandincreasedproductionhasimprovednutritionandthusreducedextremepovertyandhungerwithintheLakeVictoriabasin.Landmanagementpracticespromotedintheprogrammehaveincreasedsoilfertility,landproductivityandimprovedlivingconditionsforsmallholderhouseholds,andtherebydecreasedtheirvulnerabilitytoclimatechange.Anotherpositiveside-effecthasbeenincreasedemploymentopportunities.

Challenges that faceagroforestry implementation in theprogrammeareestablishmentofasustainablelocaltreeseedcollection,poorsoilswithlownutrientandwaterholdingcapac-ity,landpressure(duetopopulationgrowthandmigration),andlandownership.

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The threatofclimatechangehasgreatly increasedglobalawarenessaboutthevulnerabilityofecosystemsandoflargegroupsofpeople.Developmentprogrammesandstrategiesthatencourageandenablestablelivelihoods,thatadequatelyensurebasiclivingstandardsandtheecosystemsthatsupportthem,must top theprioritiesofnationalgovernmentsandinternationalorganisations.Manysuchstrategiesthataimtohelppeopleadapttotoday’sclimatearethesameonesthatmustbepromotedandmoreconcretelyimplementedtomeettheclimateoftomorrow.Thoughcapacitybuildingandmoreeducationonthecausesandeffectsofclimatechangeareneededinmanypartsoftheworldatallscales,evenwhenpeopleknowwhattodo,otherproblemsandcircumstanceshinderadaptationstrategiesfrombecomingreality.Alonglistofbarriersexist,andthepoorerthepersonthelongerthelist.Thebarriersinclude:lackofaccesstofinancialpossibilitiesandmarkets,lackofculturalacceptanceofchange,genderbias,lackofacknowledgementanduseoftraditionalknowledge,lackofcooperationbetweensectoralauthoritiesandintegra-tioninpolicyplans,top-downoroutsiderinterventionswithoutlocalanchoring,weakinstitutions,lackofgoodgovernance,lackoftrust,corruption,andlackofpoliticallinkagebetweentheclimatechangeprocessesandthewatercommunity.

Impaired water vision Theclose integrationbetweenwaterresourcesandclimatechangeissueshasbeenpoorlyreflectedattheinternationalpoliticallevel.InthenegotiationsoftheUnitedNationsFrame-workConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)thereislittlefocusonwater,andthereislittlementionofitinthereportsfromtheUNClimateChangeConferencesinBali,2007(COP13),36andPoznan,2008(COP14).35

Separated strategies and lack of agreementsThechallengeofclimatechangeistoocomplexanissuetobedealtwithbyanyoneministry.12Thismeansthatallrelevantnationalsectorsmustbeinvolvedinclimateactionsandthateffortsmustbelinked.Manycountriesalreadyhavenationalstrategiesfordevelopmentandpovertyreduction.Theleastdevelopedcountries(LDCs)arealsointheprocessofpreparingNationalAdaptationProgrammesforAction(NAPAs–aninitia-tiveagreedundertheUNFCCC).FortheNAPAstobeseriouslyadheredto,andforconcreteandsuccessfuladaptationtotakeplace, theircontentmustbe linked toexistingdevelopmentandeconomicplansineachrespectivecountry.Butalackof

Barriers to Adaptation

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clearlinksbetweenthecontentintheNAPAs,ononehand,andPovertyReductionStrategyPapers,NationalDevelopmentStrategies,IWRMplans,etc.,ontheother,hasbeenpointedoutasamainweaknessintheseplanstodate.8

About40percentoftheworld’speopleliveininternationalriverbasins.Therefore, transboundarywatermanagementarrangementsand legalagreementsmustbedeveloped toprovideaneffectiveframeworktosharethewaterresourcesequitably.Around60percentof internationalwatercoursesarenotgovernedbycooperativemanagementagreementsand80percentoftheexistingagreementsarebilateraleventhoughotherpartnersmayexist.19

Institutional barriersLackofrecognitionofinstitutionalbarriersandadiscussionofhowtoovercomethemhindersthecreationandexecutionofsuccessfuladaptationstrategies. Inmanycountriesfinancialresourcesareheldatministeriallevelswhilelocalgovernment

actorswhohavemoreinsightinneedsandstrategiesontheground lack thecapacity,skills,and time toaccess theseresources.12

Theglobalattentionthatclimatechangereceivesputsmuchfocusontheinternationalscenewherenationalgovernmentsnegotiatemitigationstrategies.Intheadaptationdiscussionstherearewell-justifiedfearsthatmanyinitiativesthatariseatinternationallevelwillbecometop-downefforts.Thereisarealriskthatlocalstakeholderswillloseanyplaceofinfluenceandactiontodeterminetheirownstrategiesandfuture.12

Knowledge biasTherecontinuestobeagreatneedtorecogniseknowledgeheldby localpeople.Although in the faceofachangingclimateitisnotcertainthatpresentadaptationstrategieswillbesufficientinthefuture,yettheymustbethestartingpointonwhichtobegin.Localtechnologiesthataidcommunitiestocopeandadapttoextremeweathereventsbutdonotadvance


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developmentofdrylandtechnologieswillkeepthesegroupsvulnerable.34Developmentthinkingrarelyincludestraditionalknowledgesystemsandifitdoes,itisveryseldomthatthetwopartsareintegrated.Tomeetthechallengesofclimatechange,adaptationstrategiesmustencompasscurrentlocalknowledgeandpracticesbecause thenewclimatewill, insomecases,beradicallydifferentfromthepresent.

lack of participationOnemeans to increase the inclusionof traditionalknowl-edgeindecision-makingandstrategicplanningis throughoneofIWRMsgroundingprinciples:participation.Withoutparticipationoflocalinhabitantstoensurecommitmentandengagement,allplannedadaptationstrategieswillfail.Trueparticipatoryprocessesacrosssectorsandscalesaremean-ingfulwhenstakeholdersatdifferent levelsofactioncanvoicetheiropinions,sharetheirknowledgeandbeinvolvedinconcretedecision-making.Top-downstrategiesrarelywork

wellonthegroundandmayevenleadtoviolationsofbasichumanrights.Time-after-timeitisdiscoveredthatthecommuni-tieswhosharetheirbestpracticetechniquesandmethodsare thosethatcanincreasetheir resiliencetochangeandchallenges.33

gender biasIn thedevelopingworld,womenplayakeyrole innaturalresourcesmanagement.Theygatherwoodandwaterandtheytoilontheland.Inaddition,theyarethemainstayoffamilytogethernessandwell-being;theypreparefoodandcareforchildren,orphans,theelderlyandthesick.Astheglobeheatsup,anddroughtsaswellasfloodswillhitmoreoften,diseaseswillincreaseandwomenwillbetheoneswhonaturallytendto thesick,amongtheirotherduties.Theywillhavefarthertowalktofindfreshwaterandcollectfuel.Iflabourbecomeslimited, their responsibilitieswillsufferfirst.Becausewomenaretypicallyassociatedwith‘homelife’,theirknowledgeoflivelihoodplanningandofagricultureandtheenvironmentoftengoesunrecognisedanduntapped.Theyaretoldandforcedtocopeandadaptthroughdecisionsmadebymen.Thoughtheyareoftenlivelihoodmanagers,theyaremanytimestrappedbyculturalandstructuralcomponentswhichinhibitthemfromacquiringeducationandentrepreneurialskillskeepingthemoutofmorewell-payingactivities.11

Uncertainty Fewdoubtthathuman-inducedclimatewarmingisreal,butuncertaintystillsurrounds‘howmuch?’,‘when?’and‘howfast?’.Itcanbedifficultfordecision-makerstounderstandwhattheriseofaverageannualormonthlytemperaturesreallymeansfortheirnationorregion.Thisbecomesevenmorepronouncedwhenitcomestoprojectionsoffuturewateravailabilityandfloodrisks,wheredifferentprojectionscanvarysignificantly,andevenbecontradictorytooneanother.Agapinknowledgeexistsbetweenknowledgeabout theclimatecycleandthehydrologicalcycle,especiallyattemporalandspatialscalesrelevanttodecision-making.8

FinancingThefinancialsystems inplacedonotalwaysreflectwheretheneedsare.Theorganisationsandagenciesthroughwhichfundsforclimatechangeadaptationarechannelledmustbecarefullychosen,andbeartheresponsibilityoftargetingthemostvulnerablegroups.Thisputsastrongpressureonlocalinstitutionalcapacity,knowledgeandcompetence.Atthesametime,decentralisationinmanyareashasputaheavyburdenonlocalgovernmentanditisoftenoverwhelmedbymassiveresponsibilities.12Thesuccessof localadaptationmeasuresalsoreliesonsupportiveinstitutionsathigherlevels.5

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promoting Integrated Water resources ManagementThoughtheWorldBankandtheWorldWaterCouncilpre-dictedtheincreaseofIWRMaroundtheworldalreadyintheearly2000s,7itsprinciplesstillneedtobestressedandad-vocatedifsustainableadaptationstrategiestoclimatechangearetoberealised.Inmanycountrieswaterissuesaredividedamongnumerousgovernmentdepartmentsandaredealtwithinasegregatedmanner.Strongsectorallinkagesareprerequisitesformeetingtheenormouschallengeofclimatechangeanditsvastarrayofeffectsinallfacetsoflife,health,environment,transport,energy,andfoodsecurity.Mechanismsmustbeputinplacetocutacrosssectorsandlinkprogrammesandstrate-giesdealingwithwaterandclimateissuesinconcreteways.IWRMcanprovidethisframework,butprioritymustbegiventoitsplanningandimplementation.This, insomecountries,wouldrequirearadicallynewwayofthinking,cuttingacrosssectors toaddresswatermanagementinaholisticmanner.Yet theclimatechangechallengerequires just that: radicalnewthinking.EvenacknowledgingtheprinciplesofIWRMbutonlyimplementingpartsofitwouldstillbeasignificantleapforwardforwatermanagement.

Improving national Adaptation programmes for Action and making them transboundary TheNAPAsoutlinehoweachcountrywillcopeandadapttoclimatechangebutthesestrategiescannotworkinisolationfromthegoalsofdevelopmentandeconomicstability.Better

integrationofgoodwaterresourcesandecosystemmanage-ment intoclimateandothernationalpolicies,especiallyna-tionalconservation,water,povertyanddevelopmentplans,isessential.NAPAshavebeencriticisedforbeinglittledifferentfromdevelopmentplansingeneral,forfailingtoinvolvemajorministriesanddecision-makersinthecountriesinquestion,andforbeingproject-oriented.ButworkshopsorganisedbytheWorldDevelopmentReportteamin2008foundthatthoseinvolvedinbuildingtheNAPAswereinstrumentalincreatingawarenessandthaturgentadaptationprojectshavebeenidentified,4whiletheCommissiononClimateChangeandDevelopmentseethemasbeingmoreaboutcapacitybuildingthanforwardingadapta-tion.12Nevertheless,NAPAisandshouldbeconsideredasaprocess,anditisimportanttocontinuewithoutlosingmomentum,bypreparingspecificprojectsforfunding,andcreatingsynergieswithongoingplanningprocesses.8

ItisparticularlyimportantthattheriverbasinperspectivebecomesmuchmoreprominentinNAPAs,andthatmechanismsareput inplace tostimulategreatercooperationbetweentransboundarycountriesonadaptationmeasures.ThismaybedoneunderexistinginternationalframeworkssuchastheUNWatercoursesConvention,whichalreadyencouragessuchcooperation.

Supporting the local level and participationThelocalarenaiswhereconcreteadaptationwilltakeplace,and localorganisationsarebestable to identifyandreachthepoorestgroupsandimplementandencourageadaptationstrategiesthatarelocallyratified.Adaptationstrategieswillonlyworkonthegroundiftheyfitlocalconditions,includingthephysi-

overcoming the Barriers

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cal landscape,cultural traditionsandtraditionalknowledge.Nationalgovernmentsmightbeunwillingtocedecontrol,butadaptationeffortsmustbebasedontheopportunitiesanddif-ficultiesdefinedbylocalgovernmentsthroughtheirrelationshipstoministries.12Itisthereforecrucialtosupportlocalownershipoflocalstrategies,sinceownershipisapreconditionforsustain-ability,12.Ministriesandpublicauthoritiesshouldbeencouragedtowardsgreaterattendance to the local level. Itshouldbeclearlyrecognisedthatadaptationshouldfostertherealisationoffundamentalhumanrights.Riskassessmentswithreferencetotheserights'standardscanbeusefultoolsforidentifyingandminimisinganynegativeimpactsatthelocallevel.

Promotingandsupportingthecollection,assessmentanddis-seminationofsuccessfullocaladaptationstrategiesisessentialtoguardthewealthoflocalexperiencearoundtheglobe.Eveniftraditionalpractices,knowledgeandadaptationmeasuresprovetobeinsufficientinthefaceoftheclimatechangechallenge,theyarethestartingpointonwhichtobuildtoensurelocalcom-mitment,engagement,andwillingnesstoadoptandintegratenewapproachesintolocally-specificadaptationstrategies.

Stakeholderparticipationmustbe theback-boneofallprocesses.Inparticular,womenmustbeinvolvedindecision-makingatalllevelsinsocietyandadaptationstrategiesandprogrammesmustbegender-sensitive.Ifwomenshouldbepart

ofthesolution,theymustbeempoweredandtheirknowledgemustberecognised,utilisedandintegratedintoadaptationstrategies. Incentivesshouldbe linked tosuchstrategies inorder to increase thepotential for their implementationandsustainedapplication.

Managing uncertainty by adaptive planningInspiteofuncertaintiesinprojectionsoffutureclimate,onthespatialandtemporalscalesrelevantfordecisions,peoplework-ingwithwaterresourcesplanningandmanagementmustbekeenlyawarethatclimatechangewillhaveconsequencesfortheirsector.Waitingforuncertaintiestodecreaseisnotaviableoption.Rather,developmentoflocallyacceptedadaptationstrategiesshouldfocusonclimate-relatedproblemsthatexistalreadyaspartoftoday’sclimatevariability.Newinforma-tionshouldbefactoredasitemergesandplansre-evaluatedandadjustedaccordingly.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenplanninglarge,costlywatermanagementinfrastructuresuchashydropowerand irrigationprojects. If thesearebuiltonhistoricalclimate trends, increasingwatershortage insomeareasmightinanearfutureleadtogreaterwaterstressforvulnerablegroupsandecosystems.

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Although learning to livewithuncertainty isnecessary,reliable tools forplanningandmanagementofclimatead-aptationunderuncertaintystillneed tobe identified.Thisincludesensuringaccesstoregionallydownscaledscenarios,aswellastoimpactassessmentsofregionalrelevance.De-cisionsshouldnotbebuilton results fromsinglescenarios,butonassessmentsofrobustnessofthesescenarios,i.e.,towhatdegreedifferentscenarioprojectionsofclimatechangeshowsimilarresults.Accesstoasetofregionalprojections(toensure robustness),presented inacomprehensiveway isaprerequisiteforpro-activeplanning.HydrologicaldataneedstobesharedamongregionsinaccordancewiththeWorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO)Resolution25onfreeandopenexchange.

Finding fresh and flexible fundingPeopleinlocalinstitutionsandcommunitiesaretheoneswhocanbestidentifyandreachthepoorestgroupsandimplementandencourageadaptationstrategiesthatarelocallyratified.Decentralisationofmanyissuesrequiresthatlocalinstitutionsarestrengthened,supportedandempowered.Climatechangeisanewchallengeanditisimperativethatadditionalfundingmustbeallottedtodevelopmentandsupportofadaptationstrate-giesforvulnerablegroupsandecosystems.Theseresourcesshouldbeadditionaltoofficialdevelopmentassistance(ODA)commitments.AccordingtotheBaliActionPlan,37guidingtheUNFCCCnegotiationsleadinguptotheUNClimateChangeConference inCopenhagen,2009 (COP15), resources tosupportdevelopingcountries’adaptationshouldbe“newandadditional”,aswellas“adequate,predictableandsustainable”.Thoughsomearguethatclimatechangeadaptationisaboutdevelopment,sothatmoneycanalreadybeconsideredas

targetedtowardsadaptation,othersarguethatclimateadap-tationfinanceisaboutcompensationfromrichandpollutingcountriestopoorcountriesthathavetoadapt.Theimpactsofclimatechangewillbehugeandtheneedforfundingtoaidvulnerablegroupsandecosystemstoadapttothechangingclimateisequallylarge.AsafirststepdonorcountriesneedtomobiliseanadditionalUSD1-2billion(inadditiontoODA)toassistthevulnerablelowincomecountries,andthesecondstepistousethefundingmechanismcreatedthroughclimatenegotiations.12 In the long term, ‘additionality’mayonlybefullyimplementediffinancialresourcesaremobilisedthroughmeansinadditiontonationalbudgets,andmeanswhichdonotriskcrowdingoutdevelopmentassistanceaimedatpovertyeradication.Inthatperspective,“innovativemeansoffunding”,ascalledforintheBaliActionPlan,aregreatlyneeded.

Donorsneedtofindmoreflexiblemechanismstogetfundstothelevelwherestrategiesarebeingputintoaction.Micro-creditsshouldbemorewidelyavailableandespeciallytar-getedtoactivitiesinlinewithadaptationstrategies.

Channelling funds throughgovernment isadvantageousbecauseofgoodscalecoverage.However,corruptioncanalsoeatawayatthesegoodinitiatives.NGOscanonlyexistinapoliticalcontextthatallowsthemtoexistandbeneficiallycooperatewithgovernment.Financingadaptationthroughbothcanincreasetheeffectivenessofboth.StrongNGOsareabletolobbylocalgovernmentsonbehalfofthepoorandholdgovernmentsaccountableforservicedelivery.LinkingNGOstonationalplanningalsoincreasestheiraccountability.5

Astheriskofclimatechangepenetratesdifferentpartsofsociety,theprivatesectorwillalsobecomeengaged.Theyareakeyresourceinadaptation.Corporatesocialresponsibilityisameanstoengagelocalneighbourhoodsintheareasofwaterresources,mobilityandcommunication.12

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Box 4: Recommendations – a short list

• TheprinciplesofIntegratedWaterResourcesManage-mentshouldbepromotedandguideclimateadapta-tionstrategies.

• NationalAdaptationProgrammesforActionneedtobeintegratedwithothernationaldevelopmentplansandadoptariverbasinperspective,includingtrans-boundarycooperationincasesofmulti-nationalrivers.

• Thelocalleveliscrucialinclimateadaptation,andinstitutionalreformsmustbecraftedaccordingly.Mechanismsshouldbeputinplacetomakesurethatadaptationeffortsrespect,protectandpromotefundamentalhumanrights.

• Stakeholderparticipationmustbetheback-boneofallprocesses.Inparticularwomenmustbeinvolvedindecision-makingatalllevelsinsocietyandadaptationstrategiesandprogrammesmustbegendersensitive.

• Uncertaintyaboutthefutureclimatecannotbeanexcuseforactiontobepostponed.Adaptationstrategiesmustbothaddressexistingclimate-relatedproblemsanddeveloptoolstoplanandmanageclimateadaptationunderincreasinguncertainties.

• Freshandflexiblefundingshouldbefoundtospeedupinvestmentinwatermanagementofvulnerablede-velopingcountries,inparticulartheleastdevelopedcountries,tomeetboththepresentMillenniumDevel-opmentGoalsandtheconsequencesofobservedandprojectedclimatechange.

• Itisimperativethatadditionalfundingmustbeallottedtodevelopmentandsupportofadaptivestrategiesforvulnerablegroupsandecosystems.Theseresourcesshouldbeadditionaltoofficialdevelopmentassist-ance(ODA)commitments.

Moving water to the forefrontClimateandwaterresourcesarecloselyinterlinked.Achangedclimatewillhavefar-reachingeffectsinallaspectsofsociety.Addressingclimatewarmingwithoutgivingwateracentralroleistofailtorecogniseitsmulti-dimensionalroleinecosys-temsustainabilityandlivelihoodsecurity.Itismostimportantthatthecentralroleofwaterinclimateadaptationismovedtotheforefrontatfutureconferences,includingtheupcomingCOP15inCopenhagen,2009.Without recognisingandaddressingclimatechange impactonwater,achievementof theMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsdealingwithwateraccess,health,foodsecurity,energyandsanitationwillalsobeseverelyhampered.

In fact,climateadaptation is largelyaboutadaptationofwatermanagement,andsinceimprovedwaterresourcesmanagementisalreadyurgentunderpresentclimatecondi-tions,itisawin-winopportunitytomovewatertotheforefrontinclimatenegotiations.

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S I W I, SIW I Dgg 33, - 5 S, S P + 5 3 F + 5 3 [email protected] www.siwi.org

Swedish Water House is administered by SIWI.

Key Messages

• TheprinciplesofIntegratedWaterResourcesManage-mentshouldbepromotedandguideclimateadaptationstrategies.

• NationalAdaptationProgrammesforActionneedtobeintegratedwithothernationaldevelopmentplansandadoptariverbasinperspective,includingtransboundarycooperationincasesofmulti-nationalrivers.

• Thelocalleveliscrucialinclimateadaptation,andinstitutionalreformsmustbecraftedaccordingly.Mecha-nismsshouldbeputinplacetomakesurethatadapta-tioneffortsrespect,protectandpromotefundamentalhumanrights.

• Stakeholderparticipationmustbetheback-boneofallprocesses.Inparticularwomenmustbeinvolvedindecision-makingatalllevelsinsocietyandadaptationstrategiesandprogrammesmustbegendersensitive.

• Uncertaintyaboutthefutureclimatecannotbeanexcuseforactiontobepostponed.Adaptationstrategiesmustbothaddressexistingclimate-relatedproblemsanddeveloptoolstoplanandmanageclimateadaptationunderincreasinguncertainties.

• Freshandflexiblefundingshouldbefoundtospeedupinvestmentinwatermanagementofvulnerabledevelop-ingcountries,inparticulartheleastdevelopedcountries,tomeetboththepresentMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsandtheconsequencesofobservedandprojectedclimatechange.

• Itisimperativethatadditionalfundingmustbeallottedtodevelopmentandsupportofadaptivestrategiesforvul-nerablegroupsandecosystems.Theseresourcesshouldbeadditionaltoofficialdevelopmentassistance(ODA)commitments.

Swedish Water Housewww.swedishwaterhouse.se

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Church of Swedenwww.svenskakyrkan.se

Centre for Climate Science and Policy Researchwww.cspr.se

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www.smhi.se

Kooperation Utan Gränserwww.utangranser.se

Vi-skogenwww.viskogen.se

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