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14. OUTDOOR ACCESS: THE BEHAVIORAL BENEFITS TOCHIMPANZEES.K.C. Baker and S.K. RossYerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322.

Access to outdoor environments has been promoted on several fronts as an importantelement of the long-term care of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). In order to docu-ment the potential benefits of outdoor access, this study compared the behavior of chim-panzees housed in outdoor/indoor runs (n=12) with those housed indoors only (n=13) atthe Yerkes Regional Primate Center. These groups were matched for age, rearing history,and enrichment protocol; all subjects were housed in pairs or trios. Analysis of variance of135 h of data found that chimpanzees with outdoor access showed significantly less ab-normal behavior (e.g. coprophagy, regurgitation/reingestion), less yawning, and more self-grooming (p<0.05). Rates of activity showed a significant interaction effect between housingand group size (p<0.01); outdoor/indoor-housed trios showed the highest level of activity. Thetemporal distribution of abnormal behaviors was markedly different between the two hous-ing conditions. While indoor-housed chimpanzees showed a rise in rates with elapsed timesince feeding, outdoor/indoor individuals did not, suggesting that increased environmentalcomplexity may buffer captive chimpanzees from the effects of unnatural feeding regimens.These results suggest that outdoor access has a major impact on chimpanzee behavior. Whencompared to the results of ameliorative enrichment techniques furnished to the indoor-housedsubjects, the small outdoor groups of chimpanzees showed broader and more dramatic im-provements in well-being. Supported by NIH Grants RR-00165, RR-03591 and RR-03578.

15. INFANT HANDLING AND SURVIVAL IN CAPTIVE COTTON-TOP TAMARINS AND COMMON MARMOSETS.M. Bardi, A.J. Petto, and D. Lee-ParritzWisTEB, Department of Genetics, University of Wisconsin, 445 Henry Mall,Madison, WI 53706-1574, USA.University of Pisa, Italy (M.B.); Harvard Medical School, Boston (D.L.-P.).

Cotton-top tamarins and common marmosets experience a high rate of infant abuse incaptivity. Although both colonies were housed in similar environments and social conditionsat the New England Regional Primate Research Center, we found significantly different ratesof infant abuse in the two colonies. Over a 10-year period, 62% of the 1093 live-born tamarinswere killed or rejected by their parents compared to only 37% of 806 live born marmosets.Our analyses suggest that several variables may explain these differences. In tamarins, littersize and rearing conditions strongly affected the rate of abuse. Tamarins also tend to abuse anew litter as a whole, whereas marmosets were more likely to reject or abuse only one of a setof triplets. Primiparous, younger and nursery-reared tamarins abused significantly more in-fants than multiparous, older and family-reared parents. Parental experience was not asimportant for marmosets; in particular, parents’ rearing history in marmosets had a muchweaker effect on the rate of abuse. Finally, parents’ health status affected the rate of abuse intamarins but not in marmosets. These data indicate that the higher reproductive rate oftamarins matched with captivity conditions stress the parents’ ability to raise all their new-borns successfully. Overall, tamarins appear to suffer more severely from these conditionsthan marmosets and, therefore, they are more prone to abuse their litters.

16. VOCALIZATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH MOTHER-INFANTINTERACTIONS IN THE SMALL-EARED BUSHBABY (OTOLE-MUR GARNETTII).M.L. Becker,1 E.H. Buder,2 and J.P. Ward1

Abstracts / 1671Department of Psychology, The University of Memphis, Campus Box 526400,Memphis, TN 38152-6400.2School of Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Memphis.

Numerous investigators have reported that infant bushbabies and galagos emit ahigh-pitched ‘‘click’’ call in response to distress or isolation, and, in some species, in re-sponse to mother contact calls. The purpose of this investigation was to identify behav-ioral contexts in which infant vocalizations and mother’s “growl” were emitted in thesmall-eared bushbaby. Four individual mothers and their twin offspring were videotapeduntil infants were 56 days of age. Bushbabies were observed through a one-way mirror ina large semi-natural environment. Recording sessions occurred five days a week, three tofour times daily, throughout the subjects’ 12-hour active period. Infant clicks appeared inthe first week of life and often occurred in succession with the mother’s contact growl (asingle or consecutive short buzz-like call). They were also heard when mother approachedthe infant which suggests they function as a recognition cue. In addition clicks were emit-ted during isolation. Infant growls, emitted following a fall or missed landing, and pulsat-ing, humming-like vocalizations, emitted while being groomed by mother, were recordedduring the first 2 months of life. Infant vocalizations may be developmental precursors ofsimilar adult vocalizations used in different social contexts. For example, a call similar tothe infant click is used by adult males in courtship. The results indicate that infants emitseveral vocalizations which subserve communication in several behavioral contexts.

17. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DENTAL EMERGENCE ANDFIRST SOLID FOOD IN PRIMATES.Bettina BehrensDepartment of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131.

Weaning is associated with major changes in the physical composition of the diet.Triggered by the afferent impulses from the periodontal mechanoreceptors, the transitionfrom suckling to mastication coincides closely with the emergence of the first molariformcheek tooth in several laboratory species. Here I use interspecific comparisons of 17 pri-mate species to analyze this relationship. General questions are: 1) Do prosimians, platyr-rhines and catarrhines start ingesting solid food as predicted by emergence of theappropriate deciduous premolars? 2) Does locomotion matter? 3) How do body and brainmass figure in? 4) Is neonatal development related to weaning patterns? Despite the mul-titude of sources, the expected form-function patterns hold: Prosimians start eating solidfood shortly before the upper second and lower third deciduous premolars occlude, platyr-rhines as the upper and lower third deciduous premolars occlude, catarrhines before (ter-restrial) or as (arboreal) third deciduous premolars occlude. The least squares regressionequations are: arboreal: age at first solid food = 0.95*decidous premolar emergence age + 0.9;terrestrial: age at first solid food =1.07*decidous premolar emergence – 37. The coinci-dence between dental and behavioral development is not a consequence of size. Moreprecocial species start eating later, however, by starting eating relatively early in thelactation period, they have a longer mixed feeding period than more altricial species. Thisphenomenon may lower peak maternal energy demands.

18. CATERING TO CATARRHINES: FOOD ENRICHMENT ATTHE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON’S REGIONAL PRIMATERESEARCH CENTER.Rita U. Bellanca, Carolyn M. Crockett, Cathy Johnson-Delaney, Shaune M.DeMers, and Kathy EiffertRegional Primate Research Center, Box 357330, University of Washington,Seattle, WA 98195-7330.

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The USDA requires that captive primates be provided with environmental enhance-ment adequate to promote psychological well-being. One such method of enhancement isthe provision of food treats. Food treats enhance the psychological well-being of labora-tory monkeys by stimulating varied taste experiences, encouraging manipulative and for-aging behaviors, varying the daily routine, and providing positive social contact with ahuman caregiver. The University of Washington’s Environmental Enhancement Plan forNonhuman Primates states that each animal is to be offered a food treat at least twice aweek. The Primate Center’s Environmental Enhancement Committee set its own goal of4–7 days per week. Treat information is recorded on monthly room calendars and tabu-lated every 6 months. The average since 1994 is 4.1 days per week. In a recent 6-monthperiod, 40+ varieties of fruits and vegetables and 60+ non-produce food items were re-corded. Fresh produce purchased for enrichment averages ~$400 a week for a colony of~800 macaques and baboons, or ~$0.50 per animal per week. Periodically, we provide themonkeys with task-oriented foraging devices such as peanut puzzles. All items and quan-tities are approved by the vet staff for health reasons. Currently, researchers, students,vet staff, and animal caretakers participate in providing this simple and relatively inex-pensive form of environmental enhancement. NIH Grants RR00166 & RR04515.

19. SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER GENETIC VARIATION, CSF5-HIAA CONCENTRATIONS, AND ALCOHOL-RELATED AG-GRESSION IN RHESUS MONKEYS (MACACA MULATTA).Allyson J. Bennett,1 K. Peter Lesch,2 Armin Heils,2 and Markuu Linnoila1

1National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, Laboratory of ClinicalStudies–Primate Unit, Poolesville, MD 20837.2Department of Psychiatry, University of Wuerzburg.

One recently discovered variant of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) has been shownto be a candidate gene for depression and suicide in humans. Recent studies in humanclinical populations have shown that the genotype is associated with whole blood seroto-nin levels. Because serotonergic functioning is linked to violence, impulsitivity, and alco-hol consumption in both monkeys and humans, this study examined the relationshipbetween the 5-HTT genotype and CNS serotonin turnover, as measured by cerebrospinalfluid concentrations of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (CSF 5-HIAA), and alcohol-related ag-gression. The 5-HTT genotype was determined in 522 rhesus monkeys from two separatebreeding colonies. In addition to the three HTT variants (L/L, L/s,s/s) previously identi-fied in human populations, a unique polymorphism (xL/L) was identified in 6 monkeys, five ofwhom were from the same family. Serotonergic functioning was assessed in a subset of mon-keys by obtaining cerebrospinal fluid from the cisterna magna and assaying the CSF for 5-HIAA content. After controlling for rearing history, monkeys with the L/L 5-HTT variant hadhigher CSF 5-HIAA concentrations than those with the s allele. Aggressive behavior duringalcohol intoxication was measured by recording individual monkeys’ response to a humanobserver presenting threatening facial signals. Monkeys with the s allele were significantlymore aggressive during intoxication than monkeys with the L/L gentoype. Taken together,these results provide evidence of an association between the serotonin transporter genotype,low CSF 5-HIAA concentrations, and aggressive behavior in monkeys.

20. PERUVIAN PRIMATE CENSUS IN THE RIO TAPICHEAREA: POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS AND PATTERNS OFDISTRIBUTION.Cynthia L. Bennett, Suzi Leonard, and Scott CarterDallas Zoo, 650 S. R. L. Thornton, Dallas, TX 75203.

Relative abundance, population densities, and dispersal patterns for primates in a 20sq. km area of the Tapiche river in the Peruvian Amazon were studied using a line transect

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census technique. Data were collected during the flooded and low water seasons. Prelimi-nary census results reflected the presence of 11 primate species, including saddlebacktamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis illigeri), Bolivian squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis), browncapuchin (Cebus apella), white-fronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons), monk saki (Pitheciamonachus), red titi monkey (Callicebus cupreus cupreus), red uakari (Cacajao calvusucayalii), woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha), red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus),night monkey (Aotus nancymaae) and pygmy marmoset (Callithrix pygmaea). Populationparameters on only seven of the species will be presented. The census technique was notappropriate for pygmy marmosets or night monkeys while woolly monkeys and white-fronted capuchin were rarely seen. The most frequently encountered species were thesquirrel monkey (density of animals per sq. km (D)=100), red howler (D=8.38), and reduakari (D=18). The density of the red titi was 12.7, monk saki 14.06, brown capuchin 7.9,and saddleback tamarins 18. Data also revealed a patchy distribution of some species.Monk saki were seen only on the west side of the Tapiche river while red titi monkeysand saddleback tamarins occurred almost exclusively on the east. Natural barriers andhuman use of the fertile river edges may create this pattern.

21. CAPTIVE OLIVE BABOON AND FERAL YELLOW BABOONMOTHER-INFANT PROXIMITY DURING INFANTS’ FIRSTTHREE MONTHS.V. Bentley-Condit1 and E.O. Smith2

1Department of Anthropology, Grinnell College, Grinnell, IA 50112.2Emory University.

We present preliminary data regarding captive olive (Papio hamadryas anubis) andferal yellow baboon (Papio hamadryas cynocephalus) mother-infant proximity during in-fants’ first three months. The feral data were collected at the Tana River National Pri-mate Reserve, Kenya (NOV91–SEP92) (n=11 pairs, 195 focals). The captive data werecollected at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio (JUN97)(n=10 pairs, 108 focals). There are potential confounding factors in a captive olive vs.feral yellow comparison and, at present, our data do not allow a partitioning of the varianceattributable to these factors. These are, however, closely related subspecies and previous re-search has shown the value of both cross-taxa and cross-environment comparisons. Here, wefocus on environmental factors and our predictions are based upon such. We predicted thecaptive olive mothers would be more lenient (greater distance) due to a lack of predators andstrangers, a consistent environment, and a relatively low infant mortality rate (≈6%). Simi-larly, the opposite conditions and a higher infant mortality rate (12%) should result in moreprotective (closer proximity) feral yellow mothers. Our data indicate that the feral yellowmothers do spend a significantly greater proportion of time in contact with their infants thando the captives (t=4.47, p<.01) while the captive olive mothers spend a significantly greaterproportion of time in the 1m range of their infants than do the ferals (t=5.02, p<.01). How-ever, at 3m, 10m, and >10m, there were no significant differences. While the similarities anddifferences we found may be due to environmental factors, the issue of subspecific differencesis yet to be addressed. We expect to be able to do so as this research progresses.

22. DELAY OF GRATIFICATION IN CHIMPANZEES (PANTROGLODYTES).Michael J. Beran and Duane M. RumbaughLanguage Research Center, Georgia State University.3401 Panthersville Road, Decatur, GA 30014.

Delay of gratification in three chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) was examined througha paradigm based on research with children. The chimpanzees either pressed a door bell

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button during a trial and received one reward (the immediate reward) or did not pressthe door bell for a set delay interval and received another reward (the delayed reward).Two chimpanzees were language-trained, and a third was non-language trained. Delayintervals were initially set at three minutes, and there were three separate conditions inwhich foods (one more preferred and one less preferred), photographs of those foods, orlexigrams representing those foods were presented to the chimpanzees. When the more-preferred food (or its photograph or lexigram representation) was the immediate reward,all three chimpanzees pressed the button. All three chimpanzees delayed gratification(through not pressing the button) when the more-preferred food was presented as thedelayed reward. One language-trained chimpanzee also delayed gratification when thelexigram of the more-preferred reward was presented as the delayed reward, and thesecond language-trained chimpanzee delayed gratification in all three conditions whenthe more-preferred food, photograph, or lexigram was presented as the delayed reward.Language training is proposed as one mechanism on which the different performances ofthese chimpanzees are based. The results indicate that delay of gratification is yet an-other cognitive ability present in the genus Pan.

23. DEFERRED IMITATION OF OBJECT-RELATED ACTIONSIN YOUNG, ENCULTURATED GREAT APES.J.M. Bering, D.F. Bjorklund, and P. RaganFlorida Atlantic University, Department of Psychology, Boca Raton, FL33431-0991 and The Center for Orangutan and Chimpanzee Conservation,Miami, FL 33156.

Deferred imitation of novel, object-related tasks was assessed in 3 young, enculturatedorangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and 3 young, enculturated chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).For each task, subjects: (1) were allowed 4 minutes to explore the objects (baseline); (2)observed systematic demonstrations of the target behavior, and; (3) were re-presented theobjects 10-minutes after the last demonstration (deferred phase). All subjects displayedthe target behaviors or approximations to the target behaviors more during the deferredphase than the baseline phase. Both of these levels of imitation were operationally de-fined. Frequency of imitation varied among individual subjects, with the youngest chim-panzee (2 years, 1 month) and the oldest orangutan (6 years, 5 months) being least likelyto demonstrate deferred imitation. With results from Tomasello, Savage-Rumbaugh, andKruger’s (1993) study on imitation in enculturated and non-enculturated apes, the find-ings were interpreted as reflecting cognitive abilities in juvenile great apes permittingdeferred imitation skills under human-like rearing conditions. In addition, we suggestspecies differences might reflect social evolutionary mechanisms, with chimpanzees moresensitive than orangutans to human enculturation factors (i.e., socialization of attention)and expressing less “instinctual drift.” This may be a result of chimpanzees’ more recentphylogenetic ancestry with humans and their similarly socially-based lifestyle.

24. AMBIGUITIES IN THE BEHAVIOR OF ASSAMESE MACAQUES.Irwin S. Bernstein and Matthew A. CooperDepartment of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.

A field study of Macaca assamensis, at Tukeswari temple in the Goalpara district ofAssam in India, revealed behavioral patterns inconsistent with theoretical models. Theyare seasonal breeding single mount ejaculators. Semen forms a coagulate but males re-main intromitted. Females remove and eat semen at ejaculation; males eat semen ondismounting. Males may bite or groom a copulation partner. Males engage in prolongedcourtships and also forcibly copulate. Females show little proceptive behavior. There is

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little male–male competition. Males carry infants in contexts inconsistently related toagonistic buffering, paternal care or mating strategies. Infants initiate most interactionswith males who may respond aggressively. Infants are rarely aided. Males aid one an-other attacking males and females. Associated males rarely groom; males of disparatesocial positions exchange grooming. Males being enlisted often attack the enlister. Ago-nistic behavior fits neither the despotic nor egalitarian models. Only milder agonisticencounters are reconciled. Lipgrinning is performed by attackers, victims and affiliationpartners. Social grooming is prolonged and reciprocal. It may be simultaneous, done bymultiple donors, in a chain, simultaneous with self grooming and directed to limbs. It isnot consistently related to rank or association partners. Are these monkeys unusual orhave we been glossing over inconsistencies to make our data fit functional theories? Thisresearch was supported by the National Geographic Society.

25. ENLARGING CHIMPANZEE SOCIAL GROUPS: THE BEHAV-IORAL COURSE OF INTRODUCTIONS.M.A. Bloomsmith,1,2 K.C. Baker,1 S.K. Ross,1 and S.P. Lambeth3

1Yerkes Regional Primate Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322.2TECHlab Zoo Atlanta.3The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park.

As there is more interest in housing chimpanzees in larger, species-typical group-ings, and as plans are made to transfer chimpanzees from their current facilities to sanc-tuaries, the issue of how best to introduce chimpanzees to one another becomes paramount.This study examined the introduction process in 42 chimpanzees (aged 3 to 43 years) attwo institutions. All of the introductions were successful; groups were formed with 3 to 14members. Focal animal data were collected for 380 hours. A series of multivariate analy-ses of variance for repeated measures were applied to the data. The introduction processinvolved increased agonism when comparing baseline to periods of access through meshfencing. Subsequent full physical contact did not further increase agonism, which fell tobaseline levels by the post-introduction phase. Compared to baseline, introductions throughmesh included reduced passive contact, which increased during introduction to the sameenclosure, and declined during the post-introduction period. Grooming and playing increasedas subjects moved from having mesh access to being in the same enclosure. Yawning wasreduced when the subjects were first placed into the same enclosure, but subsequentlyreturned to baseline levels. Stereotyped rocking declined from the baseline to the post-introduction phase. This study improves our characterization of successful chimpanzeeintroductions. This project was supported by NIH/NCRR grants RR-003578, RR-03591,RR-00165, and RR-03589.

26. HEAD COCKING IN THE BUSHBABY (OTOLEMUR GAR-NETTII): EFFECT OF STIMULUS PROPERTIES.Claudio Cantalupo and Jeannette P. WardDepartment of Psychology, The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152.

Head cocking is a rotating movement of the head around its rostro-caudal axis whileorienting in a fixed direction. In many animals this behavior allows the localization of asound source. In nonhuman primates, however, the functional significance of head cock-ing is still unclear. Head cocking in response to a variety of novel stimuli was studied in35 bushbabies. The stimuli consisted of bidimensional, tridimensional and video imagerepresentations of four animals (toad, snake, bird, and lemur) and an inanimate object (amechanical toy). Properties of the video stimuli (i.e., still vs. moving image, with or with-out sound) were varied to assess their effect on the head-cocking response. The animals’

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behavior was videotaped, and frequency of head cocking was scored using frame by frameanalysis technique. Higher incidence of head cocking was observed for stimuli (bird, snake,and toad) that could represent a food source for the subjects. Moving and non-movingvideo stimuli elicited comparable response levels, whereas a marked decrease in headcocking was observed with stimuli that also emitted sound. Finally, juvenile bushbabieshead cocked more than adult ones. This evidence suggests that head cocking in thebushbaby is involved in processing of visual rather than auditory information. In particu-lar, a possible functional role of head cocking as a form of visual investigation in responseto novelty is discussed.

27. PERSONALITY FACTORS OF ADULT MALE RHESUS MON-KEYS (MACACA MULATTA) PREDICT RESPONSES TO VIDEO-TAPE PLAYBACK FOUR YEARS LATER.J.P. CapitanioCalifornia Regional Primate Research Center, University of California, OneShields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.

One assumption underlying studies of personality in nonhuman primates is that suchcharacteristics are stable across time and situation. The present study aimed to deter-mine whether personality ratings made four years earlier predicted the responses of adultmale rhesus monkeys to standardized social stimuli presented via color videotape. Per-sonality assessments were performed (using a methodology described by Stevenson-Hinde)on 43 adult males while they lived in their natal half-acre cages at CRPRC. Four yearslater, eighteen of those animals viewed, in counterbalanced order, three 10-min. video-tapes (5 days per tape) each depicting an unfamiliar male. For the Affiliative tape (whichdisplayed lipsmacks), Sociability was significantly correlated with duration at the front ofthe viewing cage (r=–.5 to r=–.6), duration of looking at the monitor (r=–.5), and fre-quency of aggressive signals displayed (r=–.5). During the Aggressive tape (which dis-played yawns, toothgrinds, and threats), more Confident animals spent less time at thefront of the viewing cage (r=–.6), and more frequently lipsmacked at the display (r=.5).Few correlations were found in the Nonsocial condition. These results suggest, for ex-ample, that highly Sociable animals respond cautiously to overtures by unfamiliar ani-mals, compared to their low-Sociable counterparts. The data also suggest that thepersonality factors of Confidence and Sociability have considerable stability over timeand situation. Supported by MH49033 and RR00169.

28. PORTABLE FOODS PREFERRED BY WIED’S BLACKTUFTED-EAR MARMOSETS (CALLITHRIX KUHLI): FUR-THER EVIDENCE OF ANTI-PREDATOR STRATEGIES INCALLITRICHIDS.M.C. Carroll and C.M. SchaffnerDepartment of Psychology, College of St. Benedict & St. John’s University,Collegeville, MN 56321.

We have recently identified three distinct vocalizations that occur in association withthe presentation and consumption of food in Wied’s black tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrixkuhli). Prior to commencing a study designed to determine the function of the food associ-ated calls, we investigated the preferences of our animals to six portable (grape, orange,mealwork, diet, cereal, banana) and three non-portable (yogurt, tang mash, apple juice)foods that the animals receive as part of their daily regimen. Data were collected on twobreeding pairs (N = 4) of C. kuhli housed in separate rooms at St. John’s University.Thirty-five possible pairs of food were presented to each animal 6 times for a total of 210

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trials per animal, totaling 840 trials. Food choice, latency to select food items, and scan-ning rates were scored. We found that animals preferred grape, cereal, and mealwormmost often, whereas diet was the least preferred food. Futhermore, chi-square analysisrevealed that marmosets preferred portable foods to non-portable foods. The preferencefor portable foods may be another adaptation to predation pressure in marmosets andtamarins. Consumption of non-portable food items restricts the position of the animalsand precludes anti-predator surveillance, whereas portable foods allow the marmosets tomaintain visual contact with their environment.

29. ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID FORMULA SUPPLEMENTATIONAND NEUROMOTOR CAPABILITIES IN NURSERY-REAREDRHESUS MONKEY NEONATES.M. Champoux, C. Shannon, J. Hibbeln, and N. SalemNIH Animal Center, P.O. Box 529, Poolesville MD 20837.

The n-3 essential fatty acid docosahexanoic acid (DHA) is highly concentrated in cen-tral nervous system tissues. DHA deficiencies are hypothesized to adversely affect visualacuity, cognitive capabilities, and to potentially correlate with behavioral disorders. Al-though breast milk contains DHA and the n-6 essential fatty acid arachidonic acid (AA),infant formulas marketed in the United States are devoid of these nutrients. Eight nurs-ery-reared rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) fed standard formula were compared toeight infants fed standard formula supplemented with DHA and AA at concentrationsfound in breast milk. Neurobehavioral assessments were conducted on Days 7, 14, 21,and 30 of life. The 30-minute assessment consisted of 45 test items measuring orienting,temperament, reflex capabilities, and motor skills. Plasma concentrations of DHA and AAin standard formula fed infants were low compared to supplemented and mother-raisedinfants. Monkeys fed the supplemented formula exhibited stronger orienting and motorskills than infants fed the standard formula. These differences were most pronouncedduring Days 7 and 14, however. This pattern suggests an earlier maturation of specificvisual and motor abilities in the supplemented infants. The lack of sustained differencesin these capabilities indicates a ceiling effect inherent in the neonatal battery, and theneed for a more sophisticated assessment for use with older neonates. Supplementationdid not affect test items representative of activity or state control.

30. GROUP STRUCTURE AND CONSERVATION STATUS OF DEBRAZZA’S MONKEY (CERCOPITHECUS NEGLECTUS) INKISERE FOREST, KENYA.J. Chism, T. Kowalczyk, and R. WilmottDepartment of Biology, Winthrop University, Rock Hill, SC 29733.

De Brazza’s monkeys (Cercopithecus neglectus) in the Kisere National Forest Reserveconstitute one of the few remaining populations of this species in Kenya. A July 1996resurvey of this now-isolated population showed total numbers near 1987 levels despitefluctuations of almost 50% in population size over the past decade. Here we assess theeffects of these fluctuations on number and structure of groups and examine local peoples’use of the forest and their interactions with the monkeys to help predict the future viabil-ity of this population. In Kenya, de Brazza’s monkeys live in groups of one male and 2–5adult females. Although number of groups and group structure at Kisere are stable, ouranalysis suggests that female recruitment into these groups is low. The small number ofadult females in these groups may be maintained by emigration of both subadult femalesand males from natal groups. Human activities have drastically reduced the forest andfarmers with fields adjacent to the reserve constantly harass the monkeys. The de Brazza’s,

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which appear to restrict their activities to river edges, cannot escape this harassment.Reduction of their preferred habitat also affects the de Brazza’s food resources and sleep-ing sites. Thus, prospects for the long term viability of this population are poor unlessprotection of their forest habitat is substantially increased.

31. BIOGENIC AMINE RESPONSE TO FLUOXETINE AND DE-SIPRAMINE DURING REPEATED SEPARATIONS IN DIFFER-ENTIALLY-REARED RHESUS MONKEYS.A.S. Clarke,1 G.W. Kraemer,2 W.T. McKinney,1 and D.J. Kupfer3

1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern UniversityMedical School, Chicago, IL 60611.2University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.3University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA.

It has been hypothesized that adverse early experience may be a mechanism by whichchildren become vulnerable to later psychopathology via alteration of neurochemical orhormonal systems associated with such disorders. Such effects may in turn affect laterresponses to pharmacologic agents that act on these systems. While housed in like-rearedgroups of three, 18 mother-reared (MR) and 18 peer-reared (PR) rhesus monkeys (Macacamulatta) experienced six one-week separations from cagemates, each interspersed with aone-week reunion. Within rearing groups, equal numbers of animals received eitherfluoxetine (2mg/kg), desipramine (5mg/kg) or placebo, delivered daily before and duringthe separations. Levels of norepinephrine (NE), the NE metabolite MHPG, the dopaminemetabolites DOPAC and HVA, and the serotonin metabolite 5HIAA were measured inCSF samples. Following treatment, DMI increased NE and DOPAC and decreased MHPGin the DMI-treated groups, while 5HIAA was decreased by fluoxetine. The increase in NEwas followed by a sharp decline that was accompanied by an increase in MHPG. Themother-reared group showed higher levels of NE and DOPAC over all samples and higherlevels of HVA in most samples. The higher NE values observed overall in MR infants overseparations and reunions may have been due to higher basal levels of NE than PR mon-keys or to greater stress responsiveness or both.

32. CHANGES IN DAILY ACTIVITY PATTERN AND RATES OFSOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN A FREE-RANGING GROUP OFMANTLED HOWLING MONKEYS (ALOUATTA PALLIATA) INCOSTA RICA FOLLOWING PARTIAL DEFORESTATION OFTHEIR HOME RANGE.M.R. Clarke, D.A. Collins, and E.L. ZuckerDept. of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118 and Dept.of Psychology, Loyola University of New Orleans.

To evaluate if partial habitat destruction affected a group of free-ranging howlers,478.5 hours of focal data from July and August, 1990–1993 were re-evaluated for dailyactivity patterns including interaction rates. This group at La Pacifica had been studiedsince 1984, and in July 1991, approximately 2.5 ha. of their 24 ha. home range wereeliminated, including two large Spondias mombim fruit trees. Thus, 1990 representsbaseline, 1991 initial disturbance, and 1992–3 recovery periods. The group varied be-tween 11–17 animals (2–4 adult males, 6–9 adult females, 2–4 juveniles) plus dependentinfants. While focal observations included more than one adult, only one of the adultssampled at any time was used in this analysis. Resting decreased from 73.6% at baselineto 66.7% after the initial disturbance, and remained at 66% during the recovery period.

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Travel time increased from 10.2% at baseline to 14.8% following initial disturbance, andthen returned to baseline. Rate of “begin travel” increased, indicating shorter, more fre-quent, travel. Feeding time increased steadily over the 4-year period. Social interactionrates for adult females decreased between baseline and initial disturbance, then increased.Immediately following habitat loss, group travel time increased and social interactionsdecreased. With less fruit available, more time was spent eating leafy resources, andsocial interaction returned to pre-disturbance rates.

Partially supported by NIH RR00164 to the Tulane Primate Center.

33. RECONCILIATION IN ASSAMESE MACAQUES (MACACAASSAMENSIS).M.A. Cooper and I.S. BernsteinDepartment of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.

A field study of assamese macaques was initiated in October 1997 at Tukeswari templein the Goalpara district of Assam in India. Based on initial observations of symmetricalagonistic signals, and of affiliation among adult males, assamese macaques (Macacaassamensis) were tentatively considered an egalitarian macaque species. Thus, high fre-quencies of reconciliation were predicted. Reconciliation was studied in a provisioned templegroup of assamese macaques using a modified PC-MC method, in which the control pe-riod followed immediately after the post-conflict period. Fights which occurred duringbouts of feeding were reconciled less than expected for an egalitarian macaque species.Severe fights, which have the potential to greatly disrupt a relationship, were rarely rec-onciled during feeding. Often, victims fled and did not return until well after feeding. Onthe other hand, relatively minor one-sided agonistic exchanges were often reconciled im-mediately. Intense bouts of feeding may interfere with immediate reconciliation ,and de-lay reconciliation such that when time is limited, feeding takes priority.

34. CORTISOL RESPONSES OF LONGTAILED MACAQUES TOINCREASED SOCIAL STIMULATION.Carolyn M. Crockett, Rita U. Bellanca, Charles L. Bowers, and Douglas M.BowdenRegional Primate Research Center, Box 357330, University of Washington,Seattle, WA 98195-7330.

We investigated whether visual contact of male–female pairs of Macaca fasciculariswith other pairs produced changes in urinary cortisol excretion and aggression. We si-multaneously investigated whether the use of a familiar rubber toy (Kong) used as cageenrichment and aggression target changed when other pairs were visible, and whetherKong presence affected cortisol and aggression levels. Eight subjects, housed in pairedcages with Grooming-Contact (G-C) bars (Contemp. Topics LAS 36(6):53–60, 1997) wereobserved under conditions of (1) No Contact; (2) Grooming-Contact: pairs had G-C butsaw no other monkeys; (3) G-C Plus Mirror: mirrors opposite the bank of eight cagesallowed each pair to see three other pairs. Half the subjects had Kong toys during thelast two weeks of each 4-week condition and half had Kong toys during the first twoweeks. We measured cortisol levels from urine excreted over five hours from 1000h–1500h and videotaped behavior during the same period (not yet coded). Cortisol levelvaried by condition (repeated measures MANOVA, p=.004) and was significantly higherduring initial exposure to the other pairs; levels did not differ significantly betweenG-C (no mirror) versus No Contact, or Kong versus No Kong. Thus, the effects ofvisual social stimulation on cortisol were significant but transitory. NIH GrantsRR00166 & RR04515.