© 2001,

AAPG/DEG

, 1075-9565/00/$15.00/0Environmental Geosciences, Volume 8, Number 4, 2001 272–287

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American Association of Petroleum GeologistsAnnual MeetingJune 3–6, 2001Denver, ColoradoAbstracts

2001 DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES ANNUAL CONVENTION ABSTRACTS: INNOVATIVE REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES

IN SITU DNAPL REMEDIATIONUSING RESISTIVEELECTRICAL HEATING

M. Dodson, Thermal Remediation Systems, Longview, WA

The in situ cleanup of dense nonaqueous phase liquids(DNAPL) remains one of the remediation industry’s tough-est challenges. Traditional remediation technologies oftenrequire years of continued application to produce even mar-ginal results at DNAPL sites. In the last three years, six-phase heating (SPH) has been successful in remediatingDNAPLs in demonstration and full-scale remediation appli-cations. SPH is a polyphase electrical technology that usesin situ electrical resistive heating and steam stripping toachieve subsurface remediation. Developed to enhance theremoval of volatile contaminants from low-permeabilitysoils, SPH has subsequently proven capable of remediatingDNAPLs from saturated zones. SPH power control units con-vert regular three-phase electricity into six separate phases.These electrical phases are then delivered throughout thetreatment volume by electrodes that are inserted using stan-dard drilling techniques. Resistance by the subsurface envi-ronment to this flow of electrical current uniformly heatsthe soil and groundwater between the electrodes. Becauseelectrically conductive intervals can be installed at variousdepth intervals, and the application of energy to the variousparts of the electrode field can be controlled, it is possible toheat separate subsurface zones either independently or inunison. SPH can quickly increase subsurface temperaturesto the boiling point of water and is equally effective in allsoil types, including clay and fractured rock, under both va-dose and saturated conditions. As the subsurface is resis-tively heated, contaminants are volatilized and soil moistureand groundwater are converted to steam. The production of

steam during SPH operations effectively provides in situsteam stripping of VOC contaminants from the soil matrix.By raising subsurface temperatures above the boiling pointof the mixture of targeted contaminants and groundwater,SPH significantly enhances the speed and effectiveness ofphysical contaminant removal. SPH accelerates VOC reme-diation by the following principle mechanisms.

APPLICATION OF FENTON’SBASED CHEMICAL OXIDATIONTO CHLORINATED PESTICIDEIMPACTED SOIL

W. R. Mahaffey and R. D. Resseguie,Pelorus EnBiotech Corporation, Evergreen, CO;and C. M. Mickel, Pendergast Sarni ItellEnvironmental Management, LLC, Golden, CO

Chemical oxidation technologies (Chemox) are in in-creasing use for the restoration of contaminant impactedaquifers. Most in situ applications target petroleum hydro-carbons released from leaking USTs, and chlorinated sol-vent impacts primarily chloroethenes (i.e., PCE, TCE, andthe DCE isomers). However, there is a wide range of organicpollutants that can be safely oxidized to harmless by-prod-ucts using the appropriate chemical oxidants. This articlewill discuss some of the chemical oxidants currently avail-able for environmental restoration and the typical applica-tion mechanisms. In addition, a case history will be pre-sented for a site impacted with DDT, DDD, DDE, Dieldrin,and other chlorinated pesticides. The site is a former treefarm that stored and used large quantities of chlorinatedpesticides from 1946 through 1970. Chlorinated pesticideimpacts ranged from 100 to 28,000

�

g/kg for DDT and 10to 2000

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g/kg for Dieldrin. The DDT and Dieldrin cleanuplevels acceptable for industrial site use are 2.2 ppm and 0.03ppm respectively. Using a Pelorus EnBiotech Corporationprocedure, called the ACRS (appropriate Chemox reagentselection) process, a program was designed for applying a

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proprietary Fenton’s reagent formulation to the approxi-mately 10,000-ft

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area of impacted surface soils. After grub-bing and tilling of the top 12 to 18 inches of soil, stabilizers,enhancers and reagent catalysts were applied and mixedinto the soil. Soil moisture was adjusted to an optimal con-tent using standard irrigation and watering equipment im-mediately prior to the injection of hydrogen peroxide intothe surface soils. After the first application, 50% of thetreatment area met or exceeded treatment goals with DDTand Dieldrin levels at or below the standard.

BIOLUXING FOR ENHANCED BIOREMEDIATION OFPETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS

T. Meiggs and J. J. Fleischman, Foremost Solutions, Inc., Golden, CO; W. Davis-Hoover, USEPA, National Risk Management Research Lab, Cincinnati, OH; S. Stavnes, USEPA Region 8, Denver, CO; and W. R. Mahaffey, Pelorus EnBiotech Corporation, Evergreen, CO

Bioluxing is an innovative in situ remediation technologythat utilizes jetting and hydraulic fracturing techniques tocreate large porous networks within contaminated soil andgroundwater zones. These subsurface networks can be in-stalled at great depths and in a variety of soil types. Theymake effective distribution systems for the repeated deliv-ery of contaminant-degrading bacteria, nutrients, and elec-tron acceptors/donors to stimulate biodegradation processesin the impacted subsurface zones. This study examines theapplication of this technology for enhanced remediation ofpetroleum hydrocarbons and MTBE as part of a Coopera-tive U.S. EPA–Industry Demonstration Project at the Flat-head Indian Reservation in Montana. This project representsone of only three projects nationwide that are evaluating theefficacy of bioaugmentation for the remediation of MTBE-impacted groundwater systems. Two previous pilot demon-stration tests at the U.S. Navy Port Hueneme site have indi-cated that bioaugmentation with specific MTBE-degradingmicroorganisms is effective in enhancing the in situ biodeg-radation of MTBE-impacted aquifers. A bacterium desig-nated PM1, isolated by researchers at the University of Cal-ifornia, Davis, was used for this demonstration. Sixty litersof the culture was prepared on an MTBE mineral medium.The culture was inoculated onto a porous ceramic (Isolite#61668;) at a density of 107 bacteria per gram. Using hy-draulic fracturing technology, the colonized Isolite was em-placed into fractures lenses within the groundwater flowpath. In addition to the colonized Isolite, slow-release fertil-izer was also placed within the lenses to provide the nitro-gen and phosphorus necessary for microbial growth anddegradative activity. Oxygen was provided by two methods:a slow release oxygen compound and air sparging. Sam-

pling and analysis for BTEX and MTBE levels is being per-formed monthly for the first 3 months of the program andquarterly thereafter.

IN SITU FILTRATION WELLS FOR GROUNDWATER TREATMENT

K. Skinner, Bechtel National, Inc., Knoxville, TN; R. M. Pawlowicz, Bechtel Jacobs Company LLC, Oak Ridge, TN; and P. Linley,IT Corporation, Knoxville, TN

In situ treatment of contaminated groundwater has gainedacceptance in recent years because of efficiency and lowercost as compared with pump-and-treat systems. Permeablereactive barriers in the form of reactive walls and funnel-and-gate designs are the leading-edge technologies. Thesemethods remove or transform contaminants in a passive man-ner without significantly disrupting groundwater flow. Mostfield trials and full-scale systems have primarily been usedto treat chlorinated solvent plumes. Current reactive walland funnel-and-gate designs have several disadvantages, in-cluding: the treatment of one type of contaminant; the use oflarge volumes of treatment media, high sampling costs; andthe reconstruction of the system at breakthrough. In situ fil-tration wells incorporate the advantages of permeable reac-tive barriers and address these disadvantages. The in situ fil-tration well is constructed of large-diameter casing withinlet and outlet openings. The head difference between theupgradient and downgradient sides causes the contaminatedgroundwater to flow vertically up the casing. Interchange-able, retrievable filter canisters are placed inside the casingacross the controlled flow path. The outlet on the downgra-dient side of the gate allows treated groundwater to passinto an infiltration gallery. The design improvements in-clude: initiating a highly controlled flow path; using canis-ters and media to treat several types of contaminants; reduc-ing sampling; and easy replacement of spent filter canisters.The in situ filtration well system is most applicable to areasof shallow groundwater, with an underlying low-permeabil-ity unit present and with an aquifer of moderate to low per-meability and a relatively low gradient.

WHAT DO YOU MEANBY BIOAVAILABILITY?

R. L. Stevens and L. T. Johannesson,Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden

Environmental risks are often set in relation to contami-nant accumulation in organisms. “Bioavailability” is an at-tractive term, referring to an important net effect of contam-ination. The increasing interest in bioassay testing furtheremphasizes the need for site-specific relevance of sedimenttoxicity. However, focusing upon this end result begs thequestion of how biological, geochemical, and sedimento-

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logical processes interrelate, and “bioavailability” needsfurther specification to account for the spatial and temporalvariability of most environments. Our conclusion is that thesediment environmental relationships relevant for charac-terizing bioavailability can be integrated using the faciesconcept, which has a long tradition in sedimentology. To-ward this goal, a classification using “integrated facies” ofthe sediment system is presented and illustrated with exam-ples from Göteborg Harbor, Sweden. These facies are ini-tially based upon visual descriptions of physical, geochemi-cal, and biological attributes, but provide an open frameworknecessary for the details provided by future analyses, partic-ularly the specialized information from detailed geochemis-try or microfaunal or toxicity analyses. The facies divisionsshould balance the value of site-specific measures with theneed for obtaining sufficient data for statistical definitionsof parameter relationships, contaminant background distri-butions, and spatial variability within each facies. The con-nection of this classification to an open database structureshould also be favorable for techniques using stochastic ordeterministic modeling. Simple geochemical threshold lev-els or enrichment factors should be considered suspect untilcomprehensive and site-specific evaluations have estab-lished the relationships necessary to justify these widely ap-plied classifications.

FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATION OF IN SITU CHEMICALOXIDATION TECHNOLOGIES

M. A. Urynowicz, Envirox, LLC, Louisville, CO, R. L. Siegrist, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO; O. R. West, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, M. L. Crimi, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO; A. M. Struse, IT Corporation, Englewood, CO; and K. S. Lowe, Oak Ridge National Lab, Grand Junction, CO

Subsurface contamination by organic chemicals is a wide-spread and serious problem at industrial, government, andmilitary sites. In situ chemical oxidation wherein strong ox-idants are introduced into the subsurface, has emerged as apromising in situ remediation method for several reasons.Chlorinated solvents, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and otherorganics can be resistant to in situ biodegradation or maytake exceedingly long periods of time in many subsurfacesettings. However, these organics are amenable to rapid andcomplete destruction by chemical oxidation and/or to partialchemical degradation as an aid to subsequent biodegrada-tion. During the past ten years, the state of knowledge andstandard of practice concerning in situ chemical oxidationhas continued to advance. This study describes the funda-mentals of chemical oxidation and its emergence as an insitu remediation technology. Reaction processes and deliv-

ery systems are highlighted for three common oxidant sys-tems, including hydrogen peroxide (Fenton’s reagent), per-manganate, and ozone. Results of research are outlined alongwith observations from field applications across the U.S.Field experiences demonstrated that the successful applica-tion of in situ chemical oxidation requires consideration ofseveral factors through an integrated evaluation and designpractice. It is clear that matching the oxidant and in situ de-livery system to the contaminants of concern and the siteconditions is the key to successful implementation.

USE OF THE ON-CONTACT REMEDIATION PROCESS FORTHE REMEDIATION OF MTBE/BTEX, CHLORINATED COMPOUNDS,AND OTHER ORGANIC COMPOUNDS, ESPECIALLY IN LOW-PERMEABILITY GEOLOGY

M. G. Vigneri, Environmental Business Solutions, Inc., Chatham, NJ; W. R. Mahaffey, Pelorus EnBiotech Corporation, Evergreen, CO; W. W. Slack, FRx, Inc., Cincinnati, OH; andR. Werner, Environmental Consulting, Inc., Morristown, NJ

In situ chemical oxidation technologies employ the use ofstrong oxidants that are introduced into the subsurface, typi-cally through standard vertical well technology. The use ofin situ chemical oxidation technology is a promising andrapidly emerging in situ remediation method. The On-Con-tact Remediation Process #61650; consists of a family oftechnologies for soil and groundwater. The most commonOn-Contact configuration is a multistage in situ processutilizing subsurface propagations to transmit remediationchemistry to contaminated areas with real-time monitoring.A single injection point is capable of achieving the effect of9 to 36 wells, and can be installed under buildings and in thepresence of active USTs. Multistage chemistries for remedi-ation are matched to contaminants, geology, and site condi-tions. The On-Contact Remediation Process(r) (OCRP) fol-lows a model of four stages. In the physical stage, mostEBSI soil or groundwater sites are treated using propaga-tions. Propagations are replacements for inefficient wells.Propagations are installed using a hydraulic fracturing liketechnology to create a thin (2- to 4-cm) disk-like structure ofup to 11,000 ft

2

in influence to ascend or descend chemistryfor in situ chemical remediation. A single injection point canreach up to 120 ft across and approximately 7 to 22 ft verti-cally at the subsurface independent of geological limitations.The final structure of a propagation is mapped using transits,sonics, and down-hole probes. The On-Contact(r) familyalso includes a tension application system for groundwaterremediation in fractured rock, pump-and-treat augmentation,

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a percolation bin system for shallow soils, sediment accesssystem, and a new experimental wide-area in situ system,which is now available commercially. In the preparationstage, in all On-Contact(r) designs, contaminated areas areprepared at the subsurface for a higher efficiency of contam-inant conversion to base states or harmless compounds.

DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTALGEOSCIENCES/EMD:CO

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SEQUESTRATION I

ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF CARBON SEQUESTRATION R&D TO THEU.S. ECONOMY AND OIL ANDGAS INDUSTRY

D. Beecy, U.S. Department of Energy Office of Systems, Germantown, MD; V. Kuushraa, Advanced Resources International, Inc., Arlington, VA; and P. Dipietro, Energetics, Inc., Columbia, MD

Carbon sequestration has been identified as one poten-tially valuable way to achieve stabilization of greenhousegas concentrations in the atmosphere while maintaining eco-nomic growth and increasing domestic oil and gas produc-tion. Yet, this is a challenging new field of science and tech-nology that will require substantial R&D investments overan extended period of time. But, how much is worth spend-ing? Which options appear most promising? Also, howmight the oil and gas industry participate and contribute?For this, it is useful to examine the potential benefits to beachieved. This article draws on projections of carbon-basedand noncarbon energy consumptions to the year 2050 toframe the carbon emissions reduction challenge facing thenation. The study then examines a series of technology ad-vances and performance-based market incentives that wouldgreatly reduce the economic impact to the nation of achiev-ing a “pathway to stabilization” for carbon emissions. Amongthe options, “value-added” geologic sequestration—inject-ing and storing carbon dioxide in oil reservoirs and deepcoal beds—offers one of the most promising alternatives.

The benefits of a successful, science-based R&D technol-ogy program for carbon sequestration—the “third option”for addressing climate-change concerns—were set forth in1998 and are summarized in the DOE Carbon SequestrationR&D Program Plan of 1999. Recently, the analysis has beenupdated and expanded to address new information and de-velopments in carbon sequestration of interest to the oil andnatural gas industry, particularly injecting carbon dioxideinto reservoirs for enhanced oil recovery and into deep coalseams for enhanced coal-bed methane production.

Our starting point is the EIA Annual Energy Outlook (AEO)2001 Reference Case analysis to 2020. This report projects

carbon emissions (from energy use) to increase from 1535million metric tons (MMtc) in 2000 to 2041 MMtc in 2020(Figure 1). We extrapolate the EIA projections to 2050. U.S.emissions grow over the analysis period due to an assumedsustained economic growth rate of 3% per year. However, italso assumed that the carbon intensity of economic activitywill continue to decline over the analysis period, so carbonemissions grow at a slower rate than GDP. As such, the ref-erence case includes significant introductions of low-carbonintensity technologies, including energy.

EFFECTS OF RESERVOIR HETEROGENEITY ON PRESSURE BUILD-UP AND FALL-OFF AT CO

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INJECTION WELLS

S. M. Benson, Earth Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA

Observation of pressure build-up and fall-off in injectionwells is one of the common methods for monitoring theprogress of an injection operation. Evaluation of these datacan be used to detect changes in the near-bore permeabilityand, in some cases, to track migration of the flood front.Reservoir heterogeneity and gravity override may influencethe applicability of the methods used for interpreting theseparameters, particularly in the case of CO

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, which is consid-erably less viscous and less dense than the resident forma-tion fluids. This study uses the numerical simulator TOUGH2to investigate pressure build-up and fall-off responses in het-erogeneous brine-filled reservoirs. These results are com-pared to pressure build-up and fall-off in homogeneous for-mations and a new approximate analytical solution for cal-culating pressure buildup at CO

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injection wells. Based onthese comparisons, conclusions are made regarding the ef-fect of formation heterogeneity and gravity override on thepressure transient responses and the extent to which thesedata could be valuable for monitoring the progress of CO

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injection operations. This work was supported by labora-tory-directed research and development funds at LawrenceBerkeley National Laboratory under U.S. Department ofEnergy Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098.

CROSSWELL SEISMIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC MONITORING OF CO

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SEQUESTRATION

G. M. Hoversten, E. Majer, and T. M. Daley, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA

Monitoring of geologic sequestration of CO

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has beenidentified as a high-priority need in recent industry-, aca-demic-, and government-sponsored workshops. Monitoringis required for determining the efficiency with which avail-able sequestration capacity has been utilized, to optimize

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collateral economically benefit, and to ensure safety bydemonstrating retention of CO

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in the target formation.Geophysical techniques provide the most cost-effective spa-tial coverage required for mapping CO

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at the subsurface.An iterative process of reservoir simulation and forward andinverse modeling can be used to access the effectiveness ofcandidate geophysical methods and to optimize monitoringsystems. The process is demonstrated based on reservoirsimulations conducted prior to injection of CO

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in a petro-leum reservoir. Field data and numerical model results arepresented from a monitoring experiment conducted duringCO

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injection in the Lost Hills reservoir in Southern Cali-fornia. Cross well seismic and electromagnetic (EM) datahave been recorded before, during and after the CO

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flood.Observed changes in the travel time and frequency contentof the seismic data are accompanied by amplitude and phasechanges in the EM data. These data are interpreted usingtravel time tomography and EM inversion. Reservoir simu-lations conducted prior to injection provide a 3-D time-lapse model of reservoir and geophysical parameters. For-ward calculations are made to predict the seismic and EMresponse. These predictions are compared to observationsand an updated reservoir model is developed. Through in-version, the spatial resolution of the techniques used sepa-rately and in combination is assessed.

REACTIVE TRANSPORT MODELING OF GEOLOGIC CO

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SEQUESTRATION TO IDENTIFY OPTIMAL TARGET FORMATIONS: QUANTIFYING THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF MIGRATION AND SEQUESTRATION PROCESSES AS A FUNCTION OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES

J. W. Johnson, C. I. Steefel, J. J. Nitao, andK. G. Knauss, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA

Geologic sequestration represents a promising strategy forisolating CO

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waste streams from the atmosphere. Scientificviability of this approach hinges on the relative effectivenessof CO

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migration and sequestration processes in the subsur-face; its successful implementation relies on our ability to pre-dict the sensitivity of this migration/sequestration balance tokey physical and chemical characteristics of potential targetreservoirs. Quantification of this sensitivity reveals geochemi-cal, hydrologic, and structural constraints on maximizing se-questration performance that can be used to identify geologicformations most likely to provide optimal storage capacity andisolation security. We are integrating kinetically controlled re-active-transport and multiphase-flow simulators (GIMRT,NUFT), supporting geochemical software and thermody-namic/kinetic databases (SUPCRT92, GEMBOCHS), and re-

cent equation-of-state and viscosity formulations for CO

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(Fenghour et al., 1998; Span and Wagner, 1996) to develop aunique modeling capability for identifying optimal target for-mations in this manner. Initial benchmark modeling has fo-cused on simulating CO

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injection at the unique Sleipner facil-ity, where properties of the target aquifer and its bounding caprock are well constrained and location of the migrating CO

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plume after three years of injection has been established. Pre-liminary results suggest that the local permeability structure ofthe target formation controls CO

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movement by all migrationprocesses (immiscible displacement, gravity segregation, andviscous fingering) and the potential effectiveness of all se-questration processes (structural, solubility, and mineral trap-ping). For typical sandstone aquifers, at least 90% of the in-jected CO

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migrates as an immiscible plume; hence, potentialstructural trapping represents the dominant sequestrationmechanism. Intra-aquifer shales retard vertical and promotehorizontal CO

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migration, thus expanding the volumetric ex-tent of CO

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–aquifer interaction, and thereby increasing the po-tential effectiveness of solubility and mineral trapping. Rela-tive impermeability of clay-rich interbedded and cap-rockshales may be enhanced by carbonate precipitation at theCO

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–shale interface, thus improving cap-rock integrity—themost important constraint on long-term isolation performance.

PROGRESS REPORT—CO

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CAPTURE PROJECT (CCP) JOINTINDUSTRY PROJECT

C. A. Lewis, Chevron Petroleum Technology Company, Houston, TX

Global warming will have a profound impact on the fossilfuels energy business, both in terms of increased costs, butalso new, profitable business opportunities for earth scientistsand engineers. The subject joint industry project (JIP), hasnow completed one year of intensive work-planning efforts.Detailed work plans have been developed for this $24 millionUSD, 3.5-year technology development effort. The JIP’sbusiness objectives include the following: (a) significantly re-duce the cost of CO

2

, separation for capture from exhauststacks; (b) further develop downhole disposal technology(CO

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sequestration, monitoring and verification, or SMV);and (c) demonstrate to the public, governments, and environ-mental nongovernmental organizations that the technology issafe and effective. Significant R&D is ongoing in the SMVarea worldwide. However, the CCP JIP’s SMV technicalteam found there are significant technical areas that need to befurther developed. These areas will be the focus of the SMVTeam funding, and these include: (a) long-term verificationand monitoring tools (seismic, gravity, airborne surveys, etc.);and (b) health, safety, and environmental risk assessmentmethodology. In early 2001, detailed work plans were com-pleted, and third-party technology providers have been en-

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gaged by the JIP to further develop the JIP’s high-prioritytech gaps identified earlier. This study highlights the lessonslearned, the process to engage the technology providers, andthe initial technology programs that are already underway. Fi-nally, the study shares some of the results of the R&D work.

GEOLOGIC CONTROLS ON THE CARBON DIOXIDE SEQUESTRATION CAPACITY OF COAL DEPOSITS

C. R. Nelson, Ticora Geosciences, Inc.,Arvada, CO

The geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide generatedfrom the combustion of fossil fuels by injection into deepsubsurface coal deposits is a proposed concept for reducingthe buildup of this harmful greenhouse gas in the earth’s at-mosphere. The physical sorption of carbon dioxide withinthe coal micropores is the primary sequestration mecha-nism. Subsurface coal deposits throughout the world are rec-ognized geologic traps or reservoirs for sorbed phase natu-ral gas which, in turn, demonstrates their inherent potentialfor sequestering sorbed phase carbon dioxide for geologi-cally long time intervals. A unique feature of this geologicsequestration concept is that the carbon dioxide sorptionprocess promotes the desorption of any sorbed phase naturalgas present in the coal micropores. The revenue obtained bythe recovery and sale of this liberated natural gas would par-tially offset the overall carbon dioxide sequestration processcost. This study compares the effects of pressure, moisturecontent and coal rank variation on the carbon dioxide andmethane sorption properties of coals from the U.S. RockyMountain region and elsewhere. Carbon dioxide and meth-ane sorption capacities progressively increase as coal rankincreases but the methane sorption capacity exhibits signifi-cantly greater sensitivity to coal rank variation than does thecarbon dioxide sorption capacity. The results also indicatethat the ratio of the carbon dioxide sorption capacity to thatof methane progressively decreases as the pressure, mois-ture content, and coal rank increase. The site-specific char-acterization of these types of interdependent relationships isessential for defining the carbon dioxide sequestration ca-pacity of subsurface coal deposits.

MODELING OF MULTI-PHASE FLUID FLOW, HEAT TRANSFER, AND ROCK DEFORMATIONS DURING CO

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INJECTION IN DEEP AQUIFERS

J. Rutqvist and C. F. Tsang, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA

The performance assessment of a CO

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injection site re-quires analysis of a number of simultaneously interactingprocesses, including multiphase flow, heat transfer and me-

chanical deformation. Rock deformations and rock stressesare important because injection of CO

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in the subsurface will,in general, produce an increase in pore pressure, which, inturn, will change the stress field in the rock mass. A changein the stress field can have two effects. First, if sufficientlylarge, they could cause failure, which can give rise to a leak-age paths through fractured rock. Second, the induced stresseswill act upon preexisting faults and fractures, causing open-ing or slip displacements with accompanying permeabilitychanges. In this study, two computer codes, TOUGH II andFLAC-3D, are coupled together and jointly executed for acoupled analysis of multiphase flow, heat transport and rockdeformations during CO

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injection into deep saline aquifers.The TOUGH II code is designed for geohydrological analy-sis with multiphase, multicomponent fluid flow and heattransport, whereas the FLAC-3D code is designed for rock-and soil-mechanics with thermomechanical and hydrome-chanical interactions. Both codes are well established andwidely used in their respective fields. In this work, the twocodes are coupled through external functions and sequen-tially executed. The external functions are used to calculatechanges in effective stress, thermal strain, bulk density, po-rosity, and permeability. The capability of a joint TOUGH-FLAC execution is demonstrated with two examples of CO

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injection into saline aquifers.

NATURAL SITES OF BIOCONVERSION OF CO

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AND HYDROCARBONS IN THE SUBSURFACE: SAN JUAN BASIN AND MICHIGAN BASIN

M. Schoell, Chevron Research and Technology Company, San Ramon, CA; K. Muehlenbachs, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada;D. D. Coleman, Isotech Laboratories, Inc., Champaign, IL; S. Thibodeaux, Burlington Resources, Farmington, NM; L. Walters, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI; andA. Martini, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA

Natural gases in the San Juan Basin Fruitland Coal Fair-way exhibit a large variation of C2

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hydrocarbons between0.3% and 4.5%. Variations of carbon-13 concentrations ofethane (61540; 13C

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31‰ to

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22‰) and propane(61540;13C

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27‰; to

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6‰) far exceed those in pri-mary thermogenic gases. Ethane and propane isotopes andconcentrations can be fit to a Raleigh distillation, suggest-ing extensive bioconversion of ethane and propane throughbacterial consortia in the coal seams. CO

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concentrationsrange from 8% to 18% with isotope values between

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14.5‰to

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17.5‰. Methane isotope values 61540; 13C

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43.8‰

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0.7‰) can be explained by extensive methanogenesis viathe CO

2

reduction pathway with a typical bacterial fraction-

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ation of ~1.060. We therefore can make a case for the sub-surface conversion of CO

2

to methane simultaneously witha bacterial oxidative removal of hydrocarbons. Very similarsubsurface bioconversion processes can be observed in theMichigan Basin, where methanogenesis is very well docu-mented to be related to freshwater influx. In this work weprovide new data showing similar C

2

�

oxidative processesto be operative in the Michigan Basin. We conclude, there-fore, that these sites contain all bacterial consortia for bio-conversion of CO

2

to methane and removal of C

2

�

hydro-carbons. Systematic studies of these bacterial consortia atthese sites could possibly lead to insights for man-madesites of bioconversion for removal of greenhouse gases.

SEQUESTRATION OF CO

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IN A DEPLETED OIL RESERVOIR

H. R. Westrich, C. Jove-Colon, J. Lorenz,N. Warpinski, Sandia National Laboratories, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM;R. Pawar, Los Alamos National Laboratory,Los Alamos, NM; D. Zhang, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM;R. Grigg, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM;B. Stubbs, Pecos Petroleum Engineering, Roswell, NM; and D. Martin, Strata Production Company, Roswell, NM

Sequestration of CO

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in depleted oil reservoirs is one ofseveral possible carbon management strategies. The maingoals of our DOE/NETL project are to better understand,predict, and monitor the migration and ultimate fate of in-jected CO

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in an oil reservoir through a field demonstrationexperiment at a site in southeastern New Mexico. Ad-vanced modeling and flow simulation techniques were usedto develop a geologic model of the site and to verify thefeasibility of CO

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injection into that reservoir. The resultsof these simulations will be used to decide on wellhead in-jection conditions, to guide selection of geophysical surveyparameters and to bound test conditions for lab experimentsusing core samples. A suite of modern geophysical charac-terization techniques will be used to monitor the advancingCO

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plume both during and after injection. The field datawill provide a unique opportunity to test, refine, and cali-brate the computer model(s) that simulate those subsurfaceinteractions. The laboratory experiments will measurechanges in reservoir formation properties and chemical re-actions with CO

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flooding. Iteration of modeling, labora-tory, and field data will improve simulation tools and pro-vide higher quality input data for those models. Ultimately,these results will be used to predict storage capacity andphysical and chemical changes in reservoir properties, suchas fluid composition, porosity, permeability, and phase re-lations. Science or technology gaps related to engineering

aspects of CO

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sequestration are identified in the course ofthis study.

RESULTS AND EXPERIENCES FROM THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL-SCALE UNDERGROUND CO

2

SEQUESTRATION CASE (SLEIPNER FIELD, NORTH SEA)

P. Zweigel, Sintef Petroleum Research, Trondheim, Norway; R. A. Nitg-Tno, Utrecht, The Netherlands; T. B. Geus, Copenhagen, Denmark; A. Chadwick, BGS, Keyworth, UK;O. Eiken, Statoil Research Centre, Trondheim, Norway; U. G. Geus, Copenhagen, Denmark;M. Hamborg, Sintef Petroleum Research, Trondheim, Norway; P. J. Geus, Copenhagen, Denmark; G. Kirby, BGS, Keyworth, UK;L. K. Geus, Copenhagen, Denmark; andG. E. Lindeberg, Sintef Petroleum Research, Trondheim, Norway

CO

2

separated from natural gas produced at the Sleipnerfield in the northern North Sea (Norwegian block 15/9) iscurrently being injected into a saline aquifer, some 800 to1000 m beneath the northern North Sea. Injection started in1996 and is intended to last for 20 years at annual rates of ap-proximately one million metric tons CO

2

(for a descriptionof the injection facilities and of basic reservoir data refer toBaklid et al. [1996]). An international research project, theSaline Aquifer CO

2

Storage (SACS) project, accompaniesthe ongoing injection. Its aims are: (a) to determine the localand regional storage properties of the reservoir (the UtsiraSand) and its overlying seal, and to assess their suitability forCO

2

injection elsewhere; (b) to monitor the injected CO

2

bygeophysical methods; (c) to simulate and predict the presentand future CO

2

distribution by reservoir modeling; and (d) todevelop a “best-practice” handbook to guide future CO

2

in-jection projects. We report here results from areas (a) to (c).

Regional geology of the Utsira Sand and its storage poten-tial: Based on an extensive regional seismic and wire-line logdatabase, the reservoir unit, the Utsira Sand, has been rede-fined and remapped. Several sand units of Miocene–Plioceneage in the northern North Sea can be distinguished from theUtsira Sand by seismic stratigraphic methods. Some of theseunits are possibly in hydraulic contact with the Utsira Sandand are likely to add to its storage potential. Occasional sand-rich prograding wedges at the basin margin, which underlie,overlie, or are adjacent to the Utsira Sand, may provide un-desired migration pathways that need to be assessed for eachpotential storage site. The Utsira Sand covers an area of morethan 2.6

�

10

4

km

2

and ranges in depth from about 550 to1500 m (Figure 1a; Chadwick et al., 2000). It occupies twodistinct depositional basins, which are likely to be in poor hy-

A B S T R A C T S

279

draulic contact. The maximum reservoir thickness is about300 m (Figure 1b) and the estimated pore volume of the res-ervoir (excluding stratigraphically different, but possiblylinked sand units) is 5.5

�

10

11

m

3

. Applying calculation pro-cedures of Holloway (1996) to the Utsira Sand (see also be-low), this yields an estimated storage volume in topographi-cally defined traps of approximately 6.6

�

10

8

m

3

. Thesuccession above the Utsira Sand (the Nordland Fm.) is rathervariable, but principally comprises prograding deltaic wedgesof Pliocene age with general coarsening upward trends fromshales in the deeper, central parts of the basin to silt and sandin the shallower and more marginal parts. In the Sleipnerarea, the shale package is between 200 and 300 m thick, andits lower part consists of a shale drape, which separates thereservoir from the overlying prograding wedges.

DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTALGEOSCIENCES/EMD:CO2 SEQUESTRATION II

IDENTIFICATION OF BEST SITES AND MEANS FOR CO2 SEQUESTRATION IN THE ALBERTA BASIN, CANADAS. Bachu, Alberta Geological Survey, Edmonton, AB, Canada

Carbon dioxide sequestration in sedimentary basins is ameans of reducing the release into the atmosphere of anthro-pogenic CO2 that is easy to implement as a result of theknowledge, technology, and experience developed by the up-stream oil and gas industry. Challenges are assessing the suit-ability of sedimentary basins for CO2 sequestration, and theselection of sites and means of sequestration through eitherone or a combination of: enhanced oil recovery (EOR), en-hanced coal-bed methane recovery (ECBMR), in depleted oiland gas reservoirs and uneconomic coal beds, in deep salineaquifers, and in salt caverns. The suitability assessment andsite selection are based on screening criteria that address theintegrity, safety, capacity, and duration of CO2 sequestration.These criteria relate to basin characteristics such as tectonism,geology, geothermics, hydrodynamics, resources and matu-rity, to CO2 sources, capture and transport, and to the proper-ties of the CO2 and host rock and fluid at in situ conditions.Using data that are usually collected by the energy industry,such as geophysical logs, analyses of reservoir fluids and for-mation water, drill stem tests, bottom hole temperature, andcore analyses, the geological space can be transformed intothe CO2 space that can then be mapped and used in the identi-fication of the most promising sites with significant storagecapacity, and of sites that are unsafe because of CO2 phase in-stability. The methodology developed based on these criteriaand approach was successfully applied to the identification ofthe most suitable CO2 sequestration sites in the Alberta basin.

FUNDAMENTAL GEOCHEMICAL RESEARCH ON LONG-TERMCARBON SEQUESTRATION INSUBSURFACE ENVIRONMENTSJ. Horita, J. G. Blencoe, and D. R. Cole, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN

To properly assess the viability of long-term CO2 sequestra-tion, accurate information is needed on the thermophysicalproperties, phase relations, stable-isotope systematics, and reac-tion kinetics of C-bearing fluids and minerals under subsurfaceconditions. Accordingly, we are performing various laboratoryexperiments to investigate: (i) the thermophysical propertiesand phase relations of CO2–CH4–H2O fluids; (ii) carbon andoxygen isotope partitioning during carbonate precipitation; and(iii) the utility of natural isotopic tracers in quantifying CO2 res-idence times, storage capacity, and reaction mechanisms in thesubsurface. The ultimate aim of the research on CO2–CH4–H2O fluids is to develop a comprehensive equation of state forbinary and ternary mixtures of CO2, CH4 and H2O at pressure–temperature conditions representative of those in deep gasfields and saline aquifers. To acquire the data needed to createthe model, two unique, custom-designed devices at Oak RidgeNational Laboratory (a high-pressure vibrating-tube densime-ter, and a hydrogen-service internally heated pressure vessel)are being used to measure the densities, excess molar volumes,miscibility limits, and activity-composition relations of CO2–H2O, CH4–H2O, and ternary CO2–CH4–H2O mixtures at P–Tconditions near the vapor-saturation phase boundary in the H2Osystem. To accurately determine the kinetics of carbonate pre-cipitation from CO2-rich saline waters, and associated isotopepartitioning, both inorganic and microbially mediated processesare being studied under environmental conditions encounteredduring CO2 injection into the subsurface. Our results indicatethat the behavior of isotopes is affected by the composition ofwater and the precipitation rate of carbonate minerals. Prelimi-nary results on carbon isotope partitioning between CO2 andhydrocarbon-saturated rock reacted statically at 25�C (an EORinjection scenario) suggest that a light isotopic component ofCO2 may be retained in the reservoir, leading to isotopicallyheavier CO2 further down the flow path.

EVALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF CO2, AQUEOUS FLUID, AND RESERVOIR ROCK INTERACTIONS ON THE GEOLOGIC SEQUESTRATION OF CO2, WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONSK. G. Knauss, J. W. Johnson, C. I. Steefe, andJ. J. Nitao, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA

The objective of this study is to evaluate the impacts of animpure CO2 waste stream on geologic sequestration using

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both reaction progress and reactive transport simulators. Thesimulators serve as numerical laboratories within which a se-ries of experiments can be designed, carried out, and analyzedto quantify sensitivity of the overall injection/sequestrationprocess to specific compositional, hydrologic, structural,thermodynamic, and kinetic parameters associated with theinjection fluid and subsurface environment. The simulationsbegin with simple batch-type reactions that simulate titrationof an equilibrated reservoir rock/water system with a gasphase that starts off pure CO2 and has SO2 incrementallyadded to it. We then construct a series of simulations inwhich the batch-type reactions are perturbed by periodicallyflushing out the aqueous phase and permitting the evolvedreservoir rock system to re-equilibrate with the “fresh” aque-ous phase. This is a “rock-centered,” pseudo-flow-throughsimulation. Both of these initial types of simulations are purethermodynamic calculations: no reaction kinetics are in-voked. We then construct a series of simulations that areequivalent to the first batch-type (closed system) reactions,but this time including dissolution kinetics for all of the min-eral phases present in the reservoir rock and assuming a com-position and modal abundance appropriate for a feldspathicsandstone containing clay and carbonate with and without anFe-bearing phase. Several approaches for dealing with set-ting fO2 are investigated. In these simulations, reactionprogress is allowed to proceed for a time period of 30 years,appropriate for a real CO2 sequestration process.

SEISMIC PROPERTIES OF PARTIALLY SATURATEDSANDS WITH CO2 GAS IN THE1- to 9-kHz RANGEK. Nihei, L. Myer, Z. Liu, and L. Tomutsa, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA

Reinjection of CO2 into high permeability sand aquifers hasemerged as a candidate strategy for CO2 sequestration. Criti-cal to the success of this approach are the abilities to evaluatethe sealing capabilities of the sand aquifer prior to injection,and to monitor the transport of the injected CO2 in the sand.High-frequency single-well and cross-well seismic imagingtechniques are two of several possible technologies that mayprove useful in these efforts. The focus of this research is toprovide a physical basis for analyzing the observed changesin seismic velocities and attenuation of 1- to 9-kHz waves forpoorly consolidated sands with varying saturations of CO2

gas and for a range of consolidation conditions. Extensionalwave attenuation and velocity data on a high-permeability(3.4 D) Monterey sand was obtained for a range of gas satura-tions for inhibition and degassing conditions. The data consistof extensional wave pulse propagation and resonance testsperformed over the 1- to 9-kHz frequency range for a hydro-

static confining pressure of 8.3 MPa and corresponding X-rayCT images of CO2 gas distributions. Analysis of the exten-sional wave data and the CT images shows that large attenua-tion resulted from partial gas saturation, with larger attenua-tion at a given saturation resulting from heterogeneous fluiddistributions, and extensional wave velocities that are in basicagreement with Biot–Gassmann theory for homogeneous gassaturations and patchy saturation models for heterogeneousgas saturations. Modeling efforts to explain the observed at-tenuation, as well as ongoing efforts to measure torsionalwave properties in the 1- to 9-kHz range, will be reported.

ENHANCED COAL-BEDMETHANE RECOVERY THROUGH SEQUESTRATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE: POTENTIAL FORA MARKET-BASEDENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONIN THE BLACK WARRIOR BASINJ. C. Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL; R. H. Groshong, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL; and R. E. Carroll, Geological Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL

Sequestration of carbon dioxide in coal can reduce atmo-spheric greenhouse gas emissions while increasing coal-bedmethane recovery, yet the sequestration capacity of coal ba-sins has yet to be quantified. Furthermore, screening criterianeed to be established to select demonstration sites. With thesupport of the U.S. Department of Energy, we initiated a studyof the sequestration potential of the Black Warrior coal-bedmethane fairway of Alabama, where two large coal-firedpower plants operate adjacent to a thriving coal-bed gas indus-try. The objectives of this research are to develop a screeningmodel that is transferable to other basins and to identify areaswhere sequestration technology can be demonstrated. Experi-ence from 20 years of coal-bed methane development pro-vides a wealth of knowledge that can be used to quantify se-questration potential and develop a screening model that isbroadly applicable. The geologic variables controlling seques-tration potential are essentially the same as those controllingproducibility. Geology, technology, and infrastructure are thekey variables being used to develop the screening model. Crit-ical geologic concerns include reservoir volume, reservoircontinuity, and permeability. Emerging technologies to beconsidered include carbon dioxide separators for flue gas andenhanced gas recovery technology. Proximity to power plants,pipeline systems, coal-bed methane field design, and the loca-tions of underground coal mines and their reserve areas are allelements of infrastructure that must also be incorporated intothe screening model. Through implementation of this model,effective decisions can be made for the demonstration and im-plementation of carbon sequestration technology.

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GEOLOGIC SEQUESTRATION OF CO2 IN DEEP, UNMINEABLE COAL BEDS: AN INTEGRATED RESEARCH AND COMMERCIAL-SCALE FIELD DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS. R. Reeves, Advanced Resources International, Houston, TX

Coal seams represent an attractive opportunity for near-term sequestration of large volumes of anthropogenic CO2

at low net costs. There are several reasons for this: theyhave the ability to physically adsorb large volumes of gas;they are frequently located near large point sources of CO2

emissions, specifically power generation plants (e.g., coal-fired plants); the injection of CO2 into coal seams actuallyenhances the commercial methane recovery process; andthe recovery of CBM is enhanced when the injected gascontains nitrogen, the major constituent of power plant fluegas. A joint U.S. Department of Energy and industry projectto study the reservoir mechanisms, field performance, andeconomics of CO2 sequestration in coal seams has been ini-tiated. The project involves laboratory and field testing todefine critical reservoir mechanisms, such as coal matrixexpansion and permeability reduction with CO2 injection,multicomponent (CO2–CH4–N2 ternary) sorption behavior,and geochemical reactions that could lead to permeabilityreduction. Two existing fields in the San Juan basin, themost prolific CBM basin in the world, are currently underCO2 and/or N2 injection. These two fields, the Tiffany Unit,now under N2 injection but with mixed CO2/N2 injectionplanned, and the Allison Unit, under CO2 injection since1995, will be thoroughly studied as to CO2 sequestrationand enhanced CBM recovery performance, using both pureCO2 and CO2/N2 mixtures. This study presents the funda-mental reservoir mechanisms of CO2 sequestration in coalseams, the field performances to date of the Tiffany and Al-lison Units, the advantages of mixed CO2/N2 injection, andsome economic considerations for CO2 sequestration in coalseams. It also summarizes the objectives and work plan forthe recently awarded DOE project.

HYDROGEOLOGIC CONTROLS ON CARBON DIOXIDE SEQUESTRATION IN COAL BEDSA. R. Scott, Altuda Geological Consulting, Austin, TX

The sequestration of carbon dioxide in coal beds has sev-eral advantages over other sequestration technologies. Slopeinstability potentially may result in the catastrophic releaseof carbon dioxide sequestered as hydrates in the deep sea,and precipitation of carbonate minerals associated with in-jection into saline aquifers may lower permeability near thewell bore and inhibit further injection. Seal integrity and

reservoir geometry and heterogeneity are important factorsaffecting the injection of carbon dioxide in abandoned oiland gas reservoirs, whereas carbon dioxide is strongly sorbedto the microporous coal matrix, indicating that seal integrityis less important than in sandstone reservoirs. Determina-tion of the volume of carbon dioxide that may be potentiallysequestered in coal reservoirs is a function of coal proper-ties, reservoir conditions, and economics. Coal properties in-clude coal swelling associated with carbon dioxide sorption,carbon dioxide sorption capacity, Langmuir volume and pres-sure, ash content, maceral composition, partial pressure ofcarbon dioxide (critical pressure), and the equilibrium be-tween bicarbonate concentration in formation water and thecoal surface. Reservoir conditions include pressure, temper-ature, in situ moisture, cleat and fracture spacing and geom-etry, and aperture size. Hydrogeologic economic factors in-clude coal occurrence and distribution, proximity to carbondioxide sources, depth to coal reservoir, and injection pres-sure. Quantification of carbon dioxide sequestration in coalreservoirs requires information on sorption capacity at res-ervoir pressure, temperature and in situ moisture conditions,reservoir pressure, coal thickness, an ash volume correctionfactor, permeability decrease with depth, and changes inpermeability associated with coal swelling.

ANALYSIS OF CO2-CHARGED FLUID MIGRATION ALONG FAULTS IN NATURALLY OCCURINGGAS SYSTEMSZ. K. Shipton, J. P. Evans, and P. T. Kolesar, Utah State University, Logan, UT

The Little Grand and Salt Wash faults (southeastern Utah)allow us to examine clay-rich fault zones. The in situ prop-erties and structure of these fault rocks are important in pre-dicting sealing capability and fault integrity in hydrocarbonreservoirs. Due to the poor preservation of faults in theserocks, there is little detailed field data to make predictionsregarding the behavior of these faults. The Little Grand andSalt Wash normal faults are therefore ideal for testing long-term three-dimensional hydrologic behavior of clay-richfaults at the oil-field scale. The faults cut Jurassic to Creta-ceous sandstones, shales, and siltstones producing clay-richgouge that should be a barrier to flow. However, numerousveins, tufa deposits, and CO2 charged springs are associatedwith the faults, indicating that the seal has failed many timesthroughout their history. Well data show that the faults cutthe Paradox Formation at depth, consistent with ourgeochemical and isotopic data showing that the veins andpresent day fluids are/were sourced from Paleozoic marinerocks. Thus, the CO2-charged waters are migrating 2 to 3km vertically upward. Variations in water chemistries sug-gest that the faults compartmentalize the current hydrologic

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system, or capture waters that have evolved to differentchemistries in the regional hydrologic system. We also sug-gest that the faults are a seal to lateral migration of gas. Ourresults show how the composition of the fault evolved, howfault rock properties vary as a function of structural andstratigraphic position, and constrain models of fault trans-missibility and seal behavior.

HIGH-RESOLUTION ELECTROMAGNETICS FOR PETROPHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATIONA. Tripp and E. Cherkaev, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT

Traditional formation evaluation using electromagnetics(EM) has included various assumptions, such as formationconductivity isotropy and the division of the formation intodiscrete layers. New applications of logging, such as evalu-ating CO2 geological sequestration sites, may require reso-lution of formation pore structure that is unattainable today,particularly since CO2 sequestration involves multiphasefluid. In these cases, simplifications may involve ignoringimportant information. We suggest that EM formation eval-uation needs to consider formation anisotropy and the ran-dom nature of the formation conductivity. The standard ap-proach of correlating formation permeability with porosity,as derived for example from EM logs, is profoundly af-fected by including these features in a formation evaluation.

EFFECT OF CO2 RELEASES FROM DEEP RESERVOIRS ON THE QUALITY OF FRESH-WATER AQUIFERSS. Wang, P. R. Jaffe, M. A. Celia, S. C. Myneni, C. A. Peters, and J. H. Prevost, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ

Injection of supercritical CO2 into deep saline aquifers isa promising technique for sequestration of large amounts ofCO2. Because complete characterization of these geologicalformations is not possible, it is likely that some fraction ofthe injected CO2 will leak into overlying aquifers. If the leak-ing CO2 were to reach shallow groundwater aquifers, it wouldlead to geochemical alterations that could have detrimentaleffects on the water quality. Identification and assessmentof these effects are necessary to adequately analyze risks as-sociated with geologic sequestration. To determine whetherthere is a potential of solubilizing trace metals, metalloids,and/or selected radioisotopes by CO2 releases, a series ofsimulations were conducted. We have simulated, for a dis-tribution of CO2 release scenarios and different aquifergeochemical properties, the effect of pH changes inducedby CO2 using a combination of geochemical and transportmodels. Results show that CO2 saturation in freshwater

aquifers can clearly solubilize several trace metals to unde-sirable levels at the local scale. Transport models demon-strate the importance of assessing the areal extent of thisCO2 release, as well as the need to gain an understanding ofthe key kinetic processes related to CO2 solubilization andtrace metal dissolution.

DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTALGEOSCIENCES: SUSTAINABILITYFORUM: INTEGRATION OFMETRICS AND APPLICATIONS

BRIDGES TO SUSTAINABILITY SUSTAINABILITY METRICS OF PROCESS INDUSTRY PERFORMANCEE. R. Beaver and B. R. Beloff, Bridges to Sustainability, Chesterfield, MO

There has been a lack of credible indicators to assess thestate of a company, an industry, or manufacturing sectorwith respect to performance in promoting sustainable devel-opment. Metrics must be established before progress can bemeasured and goals for improvement can be set. Usable met-rics take into consideration material intensity, energy inten-sity, resource consumption, and pollution dispersion; how-ever, these measures alone are not sufficient indicators. Themetrics must be complemented with other tools. The designand preliminary testing of indicators by companies underthe auspices of the National Roundtable on the Environmentand the Economy and the Center for Waste Reduction Tech-nologies (CWRT) have yielded a good basis for establishingworkable indicators of industrial performance along thethemes of energy and material use, resource consumption,and pollutant dispersion; however, these indicators have re-quired refinement to ensure that they are simple, easily un-derstood, reproducible, cost-effective in terms of data col-lection, and suitable for managerial decision-making. Inaddition, work has been needed to adapt them from large- tomedium- and smaller-sized companies. Sustainability indi-cators and metrics have been developed and tested for use inmanagement decision-making. A complementary total costassessment tool has been developed with a focus on socialcosts as an indicator of the future costs companies will bear.

BRIDGES TO SUSTAINABILITY USABLE MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR A MORE SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRYB. R. Beloff and E. R. Beaver, Bridges to Sustainability, Houston, TX

The advent of sustainable development has brought abouta need for new tools for corporate management. The toolsare being utilized in decision-making, whether it be for de-

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ciding on which technical opportunities to pursue for devel-opment, what capital projects to fund, what prices to chargeto fully recover present and future costs, what distributionmethods to use, or which waste disposal choices to select.The most useful of the tools are: total cost assessment; auto-mated lifecycle inventory; and sustainability metrics. Ear-lier versions of some tools were developed by the Center forWaste Reduction Technologies of the American Institute ofChemical Engineers. The tools have been refined and testedin many companies, including DuPont, Eastman Chemical,Formosa Plastics, Interface Carpets, International Paper, Mon-santo, Owens Corning, and SmithKline Beecham. The basictools will be described, as will examples of applications.

THE IDEA OF SUSTAINABILITY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR ENERGY LAW AND POLICYG. C. Bryner, Natural Resources Law Center, Boulder, CO

The idea of sustainable development has firmly takenroot in global, national, and local political discourse in a re-markably short length of time. Government agencies at alllevels, transnational corporations, multilateral institutions,com-munity-based collaborative groups, and many othershave embraced the idea of sustainability. What exactly dopeople mean by the term? What expectations does it create?What guidance can it provide to policy makers, planners,consumers and producers? This paper explores one way toanswer these and other questions surrounding the idea ofsustainability. It argues that, while there is no formula orrecipe for sustainability, there are several elements that gen-erally need to be considered as members of a communitydesign their plan for moving toward the goal of sustainabil-ity. Those elements include the preservation of ecosystemservices and natural capital, true cost prices and more eco-logically sensitive economic indicators, consumption andtechnology, and democratic politics and natural resourcegovernance. This study is part of a broader project that ex-plores these elements of sustainability in detail, examinesthe extent to which they have been addressed in policiespursued by federal natural resource agencies, and considershow they can be used in making public policies move to-ward the idea of sustainability. The imprecision of sustain-ability makes it an attractive idea around which diverse ex-pectations can congregate. But that imprecision makes itsuse as a criterion for assessing environmentalism problem-atic. The contested nature of the idea of sustainable devel-opment is rooted in two primary dimensions: the depth ofsustainability and the level of change required, and thebreadth of sustainability and the range of practices and be-haviors it reaches. After a brief overview of sustainabilityand its evolution, this study examines these two core dimen-

sions of sustainability and their implications for decision-making. The conclusion considers the implications for as-sessing and designing natural resource policies. The con-cept of sustainability has well-developed roots in environ-mental and natural resource policy. Sustainability has beena standard for decades for assessing the yield of natural re-sources such as forests, as land managers have sought to en-sure that renewable resources are used no faster than theyare replenished and can be used indefinitely. In the 1970s,scholars broadened the notion to examine the extent towhich economic activity, resource use, and pollution wereconsistent with the planet’s carrying capacity. The WorldConservation Strategy proposed the concept of sustainabledevelopment in 1980, but the idea of sustainable develop-ment gained real international prominence and attentionwith the 1987 publication of the World Commission on En-vironment and Development’s Our Common Future report,which urged all nations to commit to the idea of sustainabledevelopment, defined as development that meets the needof the present without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs. The idea of sustainabledevelopment was an essential underpinning of the 1992United Nations Conference on Environment and Develop-ment (UNCED). The term was included in nearly half of the27 articles that made up the Rio Declaration, and was thebasis for Agenda 21, a detailed plan of action aimed at im-plementing the idea of sustainable development, whichwere both signed by participants of the conference.

SHELL’S STRATEGY FOR OPERATIONALIZINGSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTA. M. Burke, Shell International BV, The Hague, The Netherlands

There is a growing gap between the commitments madefor contributing to sustainable development and operationalprograms. The advertising campaigns, annual reports, ongo-ing development of key performance indicators, verificationand voluntary participation in the Global Reporting Initia-tive, and the EcoEfficiency Initiative of the World BusinessCouncil for Sustainable Development have all been credibleand important first steps. The company has begun the evolu-tion through the sustainable development framework. Wemust still operate within the other realities of our businessenvironment to remain profitable. The key to the ongoingsuccess of this effort is applying a business framework andbusiness processes, and ultimately implementing productbusiness strategies that move the businesses toward sustain-ability and simultaneously retain or improve their profitabil-ity. This summary describes the rationale and the elementsof an implementation plan, and identifies tools that can be

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used to drive profitability and increase business advantageswhile contributing to sustainable development.

METABOLISM-BASED SUSTAINABILITY METRICSG. Friend, Natural Logic, Inc.,Highlands Ranch, CO

J. M. Juran, one of the founders of Total Quality Man-agement, noted in 1948 that “To be in a state of Self-Con-trol, a person must know what is expected of them; knowhow well they are doing; know what resources/options areavailable to improve.” If any of these three are lacking, Ju-ran wrote, “a person can’t be held responsible.” Yet all toooften enterprises hold people without equipping them to beresponsible. Integration of sustainability concepts into busi-ness decision-making depends on availability of timely, ac-curate, meaningful, and relevant information to businessdecision-makers at all levels of the enterprise, from execu-tives to operating employees. Effective tools must turndata overload into actionable information, putting datainto context, as trend, ratio, and pattern—for example,with such key productivity ratios as profit per ton of emis-sions or product/nonproduct ratios. This session presentsan approach to “metabolism-based” information systemsthat enable users to develop meaningful sustainability met-rics from often neglected legacy data, and use them in away that links environmental performance and businessperformance for the most effective improvement of both.

TOWARD IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE IN WEST AFRICA(A COMPARATIVE APPROACH)O. B. Ogunsanya, Vigeo, Ltd.,Lagos, Nigeria

No business can call itself efficient if it threatens the envi-ronment within which it operates. As the quest for hydrocar-bon intensifies in our deep waters in West Africa, we see en-vironmental performance quality playing an increasinglycritical role in every company’s business strategy. Environ-mental protection policies in West Africa are quite easy tocomply with; however, in this region, considerable downtimelosses are frequently experienced due to significant pressuresfrom the local communities for improved environmental per-formance. In this project, we outline safe and effective proce-dures to help preempt these pressures, maintain harmonywith local communities, and effectively manage operationaluncertainties within complex environmental settings like theNiger Delta. A proactive environmental management stylebased on continuous consultation, goal-oriented monitoring,as well as a continuously improving attitude are some of thevarious solutions highlighted in this work.

CARBON-BASED RENEWABLES: OPTIONS FOR USE INMANAGING CARBONG. R. Petersen and H. L. Chum, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO

A major factor in the economic success story of theUnited States is the availability of an abundant supply of en-ergy to run the industrial base and maintain the standard ofindustry. Sustainability can infer the rational use of all ourindigenous resources. One view of the use of carbon-basedrenewables for energy is the displacement of fossil fuels,thus extending the life of fossil fuel supplies. An ancillarybenefit of use of carbon-based renewables is their ability torecycle or store large amounts of carbon in both above- andbelow-ground plant tissue but also in soils. This work exam-ines the state of the technology in biobased renewable en-ergy, the limitations for use and application, and the knowneconomics for implementation. Studies have shown that useof dedicated tree plantations and advanced integrated gasifi-cation and combined cycle technology can yield 16 units ofenergy for each input unit of fossil energy. This processshows 95% carbon closure. Comparisons of life-cycle car-bon emissions for other power systems, such as coal-fired,combined coal/biomass fired plants, and steam-reforming ofmethane to hydrogen, have also been reported. Initial esti-mates of carbon storage in trees and soils have been made aswell as estimates of the cost of such storage. The valuationof agriculture sites for carbon credits has begun; however,the reactions to such efforts are mixed. Technologies forproducing power, products, and fuels from renewables arediscussed along with their current state of technical and eco-nomic development.

THE APPLICATION OF A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT MODELJohn M. Snyder, EDAW, Inc., Denver, CO

A sustainable development model that incorporates equalconsideration of cultural, economic, and environmental fac-tors has been developed and applied to developmentprojects and policies throughout the world. The model hasbeen especially successful when applied to a variety of sen-sitive environmental and cultural settings. Practical applica-tions of the model have substantiated the general validity ofthe approach. This presentation will describe the model andillustrate its application to a development project in south-eastern Alaska. The model demonstrates a capacity to be re-sponsive to the multiple, sustainable demands created by theeconomic development of natural resources, an expressedneed for cultural preservation, and the need for long-termenvironmental stewardship. Based on the experience gainedfrom the use of this sustainable development model, there

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may be opportunities for applying the approach to other de-velopment projects.

DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTALGEOSCIENCES: APPROACHESTO REDUCING GREENHOUSEGAS EMISSIONS

ROLE OF GEOLOGIC OPTIONS IN A NATIONAL CARBON MANAGEMENT STRATEGYD. Beecy, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Environmental Systems, Germantown, MD; and V. Kuuskraa, Advanced Resources International, Inc., Arlington, VA

Carbon sequestration is the critical “third option” for ad-dressing greenhouse gas emissions, along with increasedenergy efficiency and expanded use of low-carbon fuels.Together with technology progress, these three options canprovide the nation with the ability to sustain economicgrowth through affordable energy, while meeting environ-mental and carbon emission goals (Beecy and Kuuskraa,2000). Carbon sequestration in geologic formations, one ofthe options for carbon management, entails adapting naturalprocesses that have been storing CO2 and methane (CH4)(another greenhouse gas) for geologic times. Some nearlypure CO2 is extracted from geologic formations (or indus-trial processes) and reinjected back into geologic formationsto enhance recovery of oil and coal-bed methane. Future re-search may even unlock the process for converting CO2

back into methane. As such, there are both near-term oppor-tunities and longer-term possibilities for geologic sequestra-tion to be a major option for carbon management.

As concerns increase about the adverse impacts of anthro-pogenic emissions of greenhouse gases on global climate, itmay become necessary to significantly reduce these emis-sions. From the perspective of fossil fuels, the source of asubstantial portion of these anthropogenic greenhouse gasemissions, the industry has three major options: (1) improv-ing the efficiency of energy production and use; (2) reduc-ing the carbon content of fuels through increased use of nat-ural gas and noncarbon fuels (e.g., renewables and nuclear);and (3) sequestering the emission of carbon dioxide. Thethird option, carbon sequestration, is increasingly seen as acost-effective strategy for achieving deep reduction in car-bon dioxide (and carbon) emissions (Herzog et al., 1997).Carbon sequestration is a relatively new field of science andtechnology. However, interest in it has been growing rap-idly. In 1998, the Department of Energy’s Office of FossilEnergy (DOE/FE) and Office of Science (DOE/OS) set forththeir joint “roadmap” for carbon sequestration as an optionfor addressing climate change concerns. The roadmap iden-

tifies several alternatives for sequestering carbon includingenhancing natural carbon sinks, capturing CO2 and storingit in geologic formations or the deep ocean, and convertingCO2 to benign solid materials or fuels through biological orchemical processes. The DOE’s Office of Fossil Energy, inpartnership with industry, the International Energy Agency’sGreenhouse Gas Research and Development Program, andothers, has set in motion a Carbon Sequestration Researchand Development Program that addresses a broad range ofsequestration.

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AS A BUSINESS DIFFERENTIATORA. M. Burke, Shell International BV, The Hague, The Netherlands

In 1998, the Shell group of companies committed to takeaction on the issue of climate change, openly taking on ab-solute emission targets for greenhouse gases (GHG) and arange of specific actions on climate change. This group com-mitted to reducing emissions from our operations by 10% in2002 over 1990 levels. The group also committed to contin-uing to exceed the Kyoto target with respect to emissionsfrom operations by 2010 by: (1) Reducing group greenhousegas emissions by increased energy efficiency as well as stop-ping continuous venting (by 2003) and flaring (by 2008). (2)Helping customers reduce GHG emissions by investigatingin renewables and providing lower carbon fuels such asLPG. Providing greater choice to our customers and mar-kets through the development of gas and commercially via-ble alternatives to fossil fuels in addition to traditional sourcesof energy. (3) Improving business decision-making; for ex-ample, by including the impact of the cost of carbon in in-vestment appraisals of projects with major GHG emissions.(4) Using market solutions; for example, by developing a pi-lot internal carbon trading system and utilization of the cleandevelopment mechanisms. (5) Contributing knowledge andexperience to the international debate on climate change.

BRITISH PETROLEUM’S (BP) EMISSIONS TRADING SYSTEM: HARNESSING MARKET FORCESTO MEET ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS IN A COST-EFFECTIVE MANNERJ. S. Morgheim, British Petroleum, Houston, TX

In September 1998, Sir John Browne pledged that BPwould reduce its emissions of greenhouse gases by 10%from 1990 levels by the year 2010. He also pledged tolaunch a company-wide emissions trading system to facili-tate meeting that target in the most cost-effective way possi-ble. Since then, BP has become a recognized leader in thearea of greenhouse gas emissions trading. Following a pilottrading system that ran from 1998 to the end of 1999, the

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company launched its full trading system in January 2000.Over the course of the first year of trading, over 1.5 milliontons of emissions were traded, involving all business streams.Although no formal trading systems have been set up, ac-tion is occurring at regional, national, and international lev-els that will make greenhouse gas emissions an importantconsideration in the management of business growth. BP’searly actions in this area are positioning the company for a“carbon-constrained” world. This article and presentationwill cover how the BP trading system works, performance,and trading versus other policy options. The study will alsoinvestigate external developments in the area of greenhousegas emissions and what they may mean for a global com-pany such as BP.

THE CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM: INSTITUTIONAL BREAKTHROUGH OR INSTITUTIONAL NIGHTMARE?R. Repetto, Institute for Policy Research and Implementation, Boulder, CO

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) could be thekey that unlocks the barrier to ratification of the Kyoto pro-tocol (KP). The CDM, which provides a way of transferringfinancial and technological resources to developing coun-tries in exchange for emissions reductions, is seen as theway to demonstrate meaningful participation by developingcountries, removing that obstacle to U.S. ratification of theKP and encouraging action by other countries.

COOL COMPANIES: HOW THE BEST BUSINESSES BOOST PROFITS AND PRODUCTIVITY BY CUTTING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONSJ. Romm, Energy and Climate Solutions, Annandale, VA

The author will discuss what leading industries are doingto reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The presentation willexamine emerging strategies being explored by energy com-panies to decarbonize. The impacts of utility deregulation, theinternet economy, and new energy technologies are discussed.

GLOBAL WARMING AND THE OIL INDUSTRY—A VIABLEPATH FORWARD?J. H. Shinn, Chevron Research and Technology Company, Richmond, CA

Those who would like to see the demise of the hydrocar-bon industry have a very effective weapon in the form of theconcern over global warming. Issues over scientific validitynotwithstanding, this concern has spawned a broad range ofinternational and governmental processes that are affecting

our business now and will likely grow in impact over time.Is there a viable solution for our business to this looming is-sue? Is there a “responsible growth” path—one that wouldenable our businesses to continue to deliver the economicand social progress associated with energy growth while re-specting the environmental concerns over greenhouse gasemissions? What are the roles of the international process,governments, and industry in finding and implementing thissolution?

GLOBAL WARMING IS HAPPENINGK. Trenberth, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO

The latest 2001 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) report reaffirms in much stronger language that theclimate is changing and the major cause is from human ef-fects on changing the composition of the atmosphere throughuse of fossil fuels and deforestation. The long lifetime ofseveral greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide lasts for over acentury) suggests that we cannot stop the changes, but we canslow them down. Moreover, the slow response of the oceansto warming means that we have not yet seen all of the cli-mate change the planet is already committed to. Major cli-mate changes are projected under all likely scenarios of thefuture and the rates of change are much greater than thosethat occur naturally, and this are likely to be very disruptive.

The IPCC is a United Nations body that was set up jointlyunder the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988.Its mandate is to provide policy-makers with an objectiveassessment of the scientific, technical, and socioeconomicinformation available about climate change, its environmen-tal and socioeconomic impact, and possible response op-tions. The IPCC carries out major assessments of the stateof knowledge and understanding about every five years, thefirst in 1990, the second in 1995, and the third completed inearly 2001. There are three major working groups under theIPCC. Working group (WG) I deals with the science of cli-mate change, WG II deals with impacts of climate changeand options for adaptation to such changes, and WG III dealswith options for mitigating and slowing the climate change,including possible policy options. Each WG is made up ofparticipants from all the UN countries, and for the third as-sessment, WG I consisted of 123 lead authors, 516 contribu-tors, 21 review editors, and over 700 reviewers. The result-ing report (IPCC, 2001) is about 1000 pages long andconsists of 14 chapters. There is a Technical Summary and ashort Summary for Policy Makers. The latter was approvedline by line by all the governments in a major meeting,which in this case took place in Shanghai, China, in January2001. The argument here is that the scientists determinewhat can said, but the governments determine how it can

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best be said. Each new report reviews all the published liter-ature over the previous five years or so, and assesses thestate of knowledge while trying to reconcile disparate claimsand resolve discrepancies, and highlight uncertainties. TheIPCC process is very open. Two major reviews are carriedout in producing each report, and skeptics can and do partic-ipate in every phase. The strength is that the result is a con-sensus report. It is not necessarily the latest or greatest, butit does sort out what can be reliably stated. The weakness isthat all chapters are written in parallel, and also the workinggroups operate in parallel. Several plenary sessions from theauthors have helped to cut down on conflicts, gaps, and re-dundancies, but that some of those problems remain is al-most inevitable.

Climate changes have occurred in the past naturally, overdecades to millennia, for various reasons. However, human-kind is performing a great geophysical experiment (Revelleand Suess, 1957). By modifying the Earth’s environment invarious ways, we are changing the climate. Legitimate de-bates go on about the extent and rate of these changes, andwhat, if anything, to do about them, but that the experimentis underway is not in doubt. The human-induced environ-mental changes of most relevance are in land use (e.g.,farming and building cities), storage, and use of water(dams, reservoirs, and irrigation), generation of heat, andcombustion of fossil fuels. The latter, in particular, pollutethe atmosphere and alter the balance of radiation on Earththrough visible particulate pollution (aerosols).