a transactional model of parental involvement and children's achievement from early childhood...

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A Transactional Model of ParentalInvolvement and Children's Achievementfrom Early Childhood throughAdolescenceSusan R. Sy a , Allen W. Gottfried b & Adele Eskeles Gottfried ca Department of Psychology , California State University , Fullerton,800 N. State College Blvd., Fullerton , CA , 92834 , USAb California State University , Fullertonc California State University , NorthridgePublished online: 05 Feb 2013.

To cite this article: Susan R. Sy , Allen W. Gottfried & Adele Eskeles Gottfried (2013) A TransactionalModel of Parental Involvement and Children's Achievement from Early Childhood through Adolescence,Parenting: Science and Practice, 13:2, 133-152, DOI: 10.1080/15295192.2012.709155

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PARENTING: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 13: 133–152, 2013Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1529-5192 print / 1532-7922 onlineDOI: 10.1080/15295192.2012.709155

A Transactional Model of Parental Involvementand Children’s Achievement from Early

Childhood through Adolescence

Susan R. Sy, Allen W. Gottfried, and Adele Eskeles Gottfried

SYNOPSIS

Objective. In a longitudinal study, researchers examined the transactional relations between twotypes of parental home involvement, academic instruction and academic socialization, and chil-dren’s reading achievement from early childhood through adolescence. Academic instructioninvolves one-on-one interactions between parent and child that target the development of spe-cific academic skills, and academic socialization involves parents’ promotion of academic values,beliefs, and expectations. Design. The sample was based on an ongoing long-term longitudinalstudy, and included 122 children (approximately equal in gender) and their families. This studyincluded data collected from ages 3 to 17 years, employing a variety of direct and indirect assess-ments Results. Findings showed that the two types of parental home involvement are distinct,related, and highly stable from early childhood through adolescence, and both types of parentalhome involvement show transactional relations with children’s reading achievement over time.Conclusion. This study contributes to the literature by elucidating the stability of parentalacademic instruction and socialization, as well as their transactional relations with children’sachievement within a single integrated model from early childhood through adolescence.

INTRODUCTION

Parents’ involvement in their children’s education has received a great deal of atten-tion in the literature, with studies predominantly reporting positive relations betweeninvolvement and children’s achievement (Catsambis, 2001; Christenson, Rounds, &Gorney, 1992; Epstein, 1991; Hill et al., 2004; Singh, Bickley, Trivette, & Keith, 1995).However, the researchers in some studies have brought to light that parental involve-ment can be adverse depending on the child’s developmental phase and type ofinvolvement (Fan & Chen, 2001; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Sui-Chu & Willms, 1996; Singhet al., 1995). The preponderance of literature also has focused on the unidirectionalinfluence of parent practices on child outcomes (Sameroff, 2009). Few studies haveexamined the bidirectional and transactional nature of parental involvement and chil-dren’s achievement over time. Research examining the transactional relations betweenparental involvement and children’s achievement has focused on the preschool andearly elementary years (Englund, Luckner, Whaley, & Egeland, 2004; Gershoff, Aber,& Clements, 2009), but the nature of these relations over more extended time peri-ods remains to be determined. Research on bidirectional and transactional influences isdeemed to be important for elucidating interactive parent–child relationships (Bell, 1968;Sameroff, 1975; Sameroff & MacKenzie, 2003). The present study advances knowledgeof parental involvement by examining the transactional influences between parents and

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134 SY, GOTTFRIED, AND GOTTFRIED

children over the course of children’s formal education. This is the first study that useslong-term longitudinal data to examine the transactional nature of parental involvementand children’s achievement from early childhood through adolescence.

Contexts of Parental Involvement and Children’s Academic Achievement

Research indicates multiple contexts in which parental involvement occurs withregard to children’s academic achievement. Perhaps most notable is the distinc-tion between home-based (e.g., parent expectations, reading to/with children, dis-cussing school activities) and school-based (e.g., classroom volunteering, PTA involve-ment, parent-teacher conferences) academic involvement (Campbell & Verna, 2007;Pomerantz, Moorman, & Litwack, 2007). In the current study, we focused on home-based involvement, thus allowing for the examination of parental involvement priorto school entry and its stability from the preschool years through the elementary andsecondary school years.Parental involvement in the home may include several different activities, such as

teaching children academic skills, reading to or with children, discussing school activ-ities with children, and conveying academic expectations to their children (Taylor,Clayton, & Rowley, 2004; Epstein, 1986). Based on the extant literature on home-based parental involvement, we conceptualized two types of involvement relevant tochildren’s academic outcomes throughout the aforementioned time frame: academicinstruction and academic socialization. Academic instruction comprises one-on-one inter-actions between parent and child that target the development of specific academic skills.Examples of academic instruction include reading to or with children and working onacademic skills with children. Academic socialization comprises parents’ promotion ofacademic values, beliefs, and expectations. Examples of academic socialization includeproviding educational materials in the home, developing an intellectually stimulat-ing home climate, discussing school activities with children, and setting the level ofacademic expectations for children.Although these two constructs are conceptually related, an important distinction

between them is that academic instruction is a more proximal form of parentalinvolvement characterized by one-on-one interaction with the child, whereas aca-demic socialization is a more distal form of parental involvement in that it involvesthe values, beliefs, and expectations in the home. These constructs are comprehen-sive enough to be studied from early childhood through adolescence, and consistentwith other general conceptualizations of parental involvement that have been definedacross multiple contexts (e.g., Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994). For example, Chao’s (2000)managerial involvement construct is similar to academic instruction in that both involveproximal parental behaviors that target teaching children academic skills. Managerialinvolvement includes direct hands-on parental practices (e.g., directly teaching or tutor-ing children, participating in school events and activities) across multiple contexts.Academic instruction, however, is specific to the home context, thus allowing for exam-ination of construct stability from prior to school entry through high school. Grolnickand Slowiaczek’s (1994) intellectual/cognitive involvement construct is similar to aca-demic socialization in that both address the intellectual climate of the home. However,academic socialization captures other aspects of the home environment that contributeto promoting educational values, including parental expectations and discussions aboutschool with children. Hence, academic instruction and academic socialization are bothcontext-specific parental involvement constructs.

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TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT 135

Academic Instruction

One-on-one instruction in academic skills appears beneficial for children’s academicsuccess in the early years of schooling (Englund et al., 2004). Zadeh, Farnia, andUngerleider (2010) found that parents’ early learning stimulation mediates the relationbetween parent education and children’s achievement in the preschool and early ele-mentary school years. Reading to children, in particular, has received much attentionin the literature as an aspect of early home involvement that relates to children’s laterachievement. Researchers in several studies have shown that early reading exposure ispositively linked with subsequent reading skills in the initial elementary school grades(Cunningham & Zibulsky, 2011; Sénéchal, 2011).As children advance in age, it is less common for parents to read to or with their chil-

dren. Thus, research examining involvement activities within the category of academicinstruction in adolescence has focused on assistance with academic work. Researchershave predominantly shown a negative relation between such assistance and children’sachievement (Cooper, Lindsay, & Nye, 2000; Georgiou, 1999; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Milne,Myers, Rosenthal, & Ginsburg, 1986; Shumow &Miller, 2001; Singh et al., 1995), but theprocess that accounts for the relation remains unexamined. One possible explanation forthe negative relation is that parents are responding to their children’s level of function-ing (Sui-Chu & Willms, 1996; Pomerantz et al., 2007). It is plausible that the direction ofinfluence is not only from parent to child, but also from child to parent. In other words,children demonstrating relatively lower academic achievement may have parents whorespond to their performance by increasing their academic instruction. One study thathas investigated this direction of effect found that fourth- through sixth-grade chil-dren’s academic performance negatively predicted mothers’ assistance with academicwork 6 months later (Pomerantz & Eaton, 2001). It remains unclear whether the longi-tudinal effect of children’s performance on parents’ academic instruction is evidencedonly during certain developmental periods (i.e., middle childhood) or throughout child-hood and adolescence. Furthermore, the extent to which increased parental academicinstruction leads to improvements in children’s subsequent performance across middlechildhood and adolescence is not well understood. Hence, another unique contributionof the present investigation is that we examined the relation between assistance withacademicwork and children’s achievement from early childhood through the adolescentyears in a single longitudinal study.

Academic Socialization

The components of parental academic socialization, including parent expectationsand provision of an intellectual climate in the home, tend to show positive rela-tions with children’s achievement (Fan, 2001; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Sui-Chu & Willms,1996; Wu & Qi, 2006). Parent expectations have been positively related to contempo-raneous achievement in early elementary school (Wu & Qi, 2006), middle childhood(Davis-Kean, 2005), and early adolescence (Neuenschwander, Vida, Garrett, & Eccles,2007). Furthermore, Fan (2001) found that parents’ expectations positively predictedadolescents’ achievement growth from eighth to twelfth grade.Academic socialization also comprises providing a wide variety of educational

resources in the home, engaging in intellectual discussions with family members, andpromoting the value of learning and education. In preschool and early elementaryyears, provision of educational resources in the home has been positively related to

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achievement (Wu & Qi, 2006; Zadeh et al., 2010). In later school years, specifically sixthto eighth grade, Grolnick and Slowiaczek (1994) found family intellectual/cognitivehome environment directly related to teachers’ competence ratings of children andindirectly related to children’s school grades. Several studies focusing on adolescencealso have found positive relations between children’s achievement and parent–childdiscussions about school events and activities (Fan, 2001; Jeynes, 2005; Stone, 2006).Research on parental involvement during adolescence has targeted parents’ academic

socialization as the most important aspect of involvement for children’s educationaloutcomes (Catsambis, 2001). A meta-analysis of middle school students illustrated that,among different types of parental involvement, academic socialization was the strongestpredictor of children’s achievement (Hill & Tyson, 2009). These authors concluded thatacademic socialization was the most developmentally appropriate form of involvementfor adolescents.Although researchers have examined the relation between children’s achievement

and the specific activities that fall within these two categories of involvement, there areno studies that have examined whether or not these constructs are stable over time, orhow they relate to each other over time. Do parents who are more involved in earlychildhood remain highly involved as their children progress through school? Is it thecase that parents who engage in greater academic instruction also provide more aca-demic socialization, or are these two constructs unrelated across time? We examinedthe continuity of these constructs and the relation between them in the present study.Furthermore, we investigated the unique relations between these parental involvementconstructs and children’s achievement.

Transactional Relations

The notion of bidirectional effects between parent and child emanates from theconceptualizations of Bell (1968, 1979) and Sameroff (1975). With respect to parentalinvolvement in particular, children’s academic performance may shape parentalinvolvement practices, which in turn would predict children’s subsequent achievement.The preponderance of extant research on components of academic instruction and aca-demic socialization has examined the unidirectional influence of parents on children,with a few exceptions. Hong, Yoo, You, and Wu (2010) demonstrated the reciprocalnature of the relation between adolescents’ math achievement and their perceptions oftheir parents’ value for math from eighth to twelfth grade. These authors found thatmath performance positively predicted subsequent perceived parental values for math,which in turn positively predicted subsequent math performance. Gershoff et al. (2009)found that change in the amount of time parents spent reading to children from kinder-garten to first grade positively predicted children’s reading achievement from first gradeto third grade. They also found that as children’s reading achievement improved fromkindergarten to first grade, parents provided less learning support in subsequent earlyelementary grades. They interpret these findings as a scaffolding effect. Parents providelearning support, which increases children’s abilities. As children’s abilities increase,parents decrease the learning support, as it may no longer be required or necessary.Children who are struggling academically would elicit greater learning support fromparents. Although Gershoff et al. (2009) provided evidence of transactional relationsbetween one type of parental involvement and children’s achievement during the earlyyears of schooling, these relations have yet to be examined across the extensive time

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span of early childhood through adolescence. Such an analysis would elucidate howparents both contribute and respond to their children’s achievement from prior to schoolentry through high school.

Conceptual Framework and Purpose of this Study

Based on the foregoing conceptualization and corresponding empirical findings onparental involvement, we examined both contemporaneous and transactional relationsamong academic instruction, academic socialization, and children’s achievement fromearly childhood through adolescence. We addressed three goals. The first was to exam-ine the stability of academic instruction and academic socialization, and the relationsbetween these two constructs across this time period. The second was to determine howthe two parental involvement constructs relate to achievement over time. We selectedreading achievement because aspects of reading can be studied across the same timeframe from early emergent reading through comprehensive reading across the schoolyears. Furthermore, ample research has shown that reading is central to academic per-formance (Neuman & Dickinson, 2011). The third goal was to use the longitudinalframework to study whether parental involvement exerts a unidirectional influence onchildren’s achievement or transacts with children’s achievement from early childhoodthrough adolescence.We addressed the first goal by examining two a priorimodels (stability vs. cross-lags)

to determine the best-fitting and most parsimonious parental involvement structuralmodel. Comparing these nested models tested whether or not one type of parentalinvolvement predicts the other type of parental involvement over time. Both concep-tual models are presented in Figure 1 (Figure 1A is the stability model, and Figure 1B isthe cross-lags model). We addressed the second and third goals by examining children’sreading achievement in the second set of analyses, for which two a priori models (parenteffects and transactional) were examined. Bothmodels are presented in Figure 2, and aredescribed below in detail. The first conceptual model, parent effects (Model A), speci-fies the direct effects of parent academic instruction and parent academic socializationon child reading over time, while controlling for the stability of each factor. The secondconceptual model, the transactional model (Model B), specifies direct effects from par-ent academic instruction and academic socialization to children’s reading achievement,as well as direct effects from children’s reading achievement to later parent academicinstruction and academic socialization, while controlling for the stability of each factor.Researchers in the present study contribute to the literature by examining (1) two

dimensions of parental home involvement both simultaneously and longitudinallyfrom early childhood through adolescence in a single integrated model, and (2) howthese parental home involvement constructs transact with child achievement over thisextensive time period.

METHODS

Participants

The current study is based on the Fullerton Longitudinal Study (FLS), an ongo-ing longitudinal investigation initiated with one hundred and thirty 1-year-old infants(52% male) and their families. Data have been collected across developmental domainsfrom ages 1–29 years. Participants were administered a comprehensive battery of

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Model A: Stability

Early Childhood Middle Childhood Adolescence


Model B: Cross-Lags

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicSocialization






FIGURE 1Conceptual models of parental involvement.

standardized measures at each assessment from age 1–17 years. Assessments occurredat 6-month intervals from ages 12–42 months, and annually throughout the schoolyears (i.e., ages 5–17 years). Direct as well as indirect assessments of the family envi-ronment were initiated during the early years. Data for the present study were takenfrom assessments between ages 3 and 17 years. Retention rate was no less than 80%of the original sample at any assessment throughout the entire course of investiga-tion, with no evidence of attrition bias (Guerin, Gottfried, Oliver, & Thomas, 2003).Eight cases (only 6% of the original sample) had no data available on the measuresincluded in the current study; therefore, they were excluded from the current study.The sample was predominantly European American (90%), and represented a widerange of middle-class socioeconomic status, from semi-skilled workers with no highschool degree through professionals, as determined by the Hollingshead Four-FactorIndex of Social Status (Hollingshead, 1975; also see Gottfried, 1985; Gottfried, Gottfried,Bathurst, Guerin, & Parramore, 2003). The mean Hollingshead Social Status Index was45.6 (SD = 11.9) at the onset of the FLS, and 48.6 (SD = 11.4) at the 17-year assess-ment. Additional details about sample characteristics and study design can be found

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Model A: Parent Effects



Model B: Transactional

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction

AcademicInstruction







EmergentReading

EmergentReading

ReadingAchievement

ReadingAchievement

ReadingAchievement

ReadingAchievement

FIGURE 2Conceptual models of parental involvement and child reading achievement.

in Gottfried and Gottfried (1984); Gottfried, Gottfried, Bathurst, and Guerin (1994);Gottfried, Gottfried, and Guerin (2006); and Guerin et al. (2003).

Measures

Academic instruction and academic socialization. Data for the early childhood measureswere collected when participants were 3 and 5 years old. Data for the middle childhood

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measures were collected between the ages of 7 and 12 years, and data for the adoles-cence measures were collected between the ages of 13 and 17 years. Because parentalinvolvement items were scored on different scales across assessments, prior to analysesall items were standardized using a common metric (z-scores) for analysis.Included in the scores of academic instruction and academic socialization in

early childhood were 11 specifically selected items from the Home Observation forMeasurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory (Bradley & Caldwell, 1984)collected at the 39-month in-home assessment. The HOME is based on both direct obser-vations and a semi-structured interview with the mother. The 11 items selected from thehome as indicators of academic instruction and academic socialization are presented inTable 1. The items were recorded by an in-home observer and scored on a yes/no basis.Yes responses were scored as a 1, and No responses were scored as a 0.The remaining items included in the parental home involvement measures were

assessed using mother self-report surveys and, from the 16- and 17-year-old assess-ments, child self-report surveys (see Table 1). Items from the Family Environment Scale(Moos & Moos, 1981), Home Environment Survey (Gottfried et al., 1994), and basedon the Parent Motivational Practices Scale (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1994) wereincluded.Academic instruction is defined as one-on-one interactions between parent and child

that target the development of specific academic skills. Because the nature of academicinstruction is expected to change as children advance in age, specific items that wereselected to represent academic instruction in early childhood differed from items inmid-dle childhood and adolescence. Items assessing academic instruction primarily includedworking with the child on academic skills and, in early and middle childhood only,reading to or with the child.Parent academic socialization was defined as parents’ promotion of academic val-

ues, beliefs, and expectations. Items assessing academic socialization included parents’expectations, discussions about school activities and events with the child, provision ofeducational materials in the home, and the intellectual and cultural climate of the homeenvironment.Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to establish the factors.

Subsequent to the establishment of these factors, the individual standardized items foreach parental involvement construct were averaged, creating a single score for eachof the parental involvement constructs. CFAs of parental involvement measures wereconducted separately by developmental period to maximize sample size. Thus, threetwo-factor models were estimated.Two distinct factors emerged at all three ages, evidencing good model fit. The

early childhood model, χ2(8) = 8.55, p = .38, root mean square error of approxima-tion (RMSEA) = .024, comparative fit index (CFI) = 1.00; middle childhood model,χ2(1) = 1.21, p = .27, RMSEA = .041, CFI = 1.00; and adolescence model, χ2(17) = 21.53,p = .20, RMSEA = .047, CFI = .98, fit the data well. Items for the parental involve-ment constructs at each age are presented in Table 1. Correlations between academicsocialization and academic instruction were .62, .43, and .41 in early childhood, middlechildhood, and adolescence, respectively; p < .05 for all correlations. These correlationsestablish discriminant validity for the two parental involvement constructs as they didnot exceed the recommended cut-off point of .85 (Kline, 1998). To further establish that atwo-factormodel fit the data best, we compared the two-factor CFAmodels to one-factorCFA models. Comparisons of chi-square, Akaike information criterion (AIC; Akaike,1987), and consistent Akaike information criterion (CAIC; Bozdogan, 1987) supported

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TABLE1

MeasurementofParentalInvolvementConstructs

Construct

Age

Item

Scoring

Earlychildhood

3.25

Childisencouragedto

No

=0;Yes

=1

academicinstruction

...learncolors

...learnpatternedspeech

...learnspatialrelationships

...learnnumbers

...readafewwords

...learnshapes

3.25,5

Motherreadstochild

Minutesperday

5Motherworksonacademicskillswithchild

Minutesperday

Earlychildhood

3.25

Presentinhome

No

=0;Yes

=1

academicsocialization

...arecordplayerandatleastfivechildren’srecords

...toysorgamenecessitatingrefinedmovements

...tenchildren’sbooks

...atleasttenbooksarepresentandvisibleintheapartment

...realortoymusicalinstrument

3.25,5

Intellectual/Culturalclimate1

5Mother’seducationalexpectations

Highschool(1)toProfessional(4)degree

Middlechildhood

7,8

Motherreadstochild

Minutesperday

academicinstruction

9,12

Motherreadswithchild

Minutesperday

7,8

Motherworksonacademicskillswithchild

Minutesperday

9,12

Motherteacheschildacademicskillsonaregularweeklybasis

Never

=1;Always

=6

12Motherteacheschildacademicskills

Minutesperday

Middlechildhood

10,12

Intellectual/Culturalclimate1


7–12

Mother’seducationalexpectations


Adolescent

13–17

Motherworkswithchildonacademicskills

Minutesperday

academicinstruction

16,17

Whenchildisn’tdoingwellinschool,parentworksondifficultywithchild

2Rarely

=1;Always

=6

Adolescent

17Intellectual/Culturalclimate1,2


13–17

Motherdiscussesschoolactivities

/eventswithchild

20to7days

13–17

Mother’seducationalexpectations


1 Participantsrespondedtrue(1)orfalse(0)to9items,suchas,“Learningaboutnewanddifferentthingsisveryimportantinourfamily”,and“W

erarelyhave

intellectualdiscussions”(reversecoded).A

totalIntellectual/Culturalclimatesubscalescoreiscalculatedbysummingindividualitems(Moos&Moos,1981).

2 Bothmotherandchildreportswereincluded.

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the two-factor solutions (see Table 3). Lower AIC and CAIC estimates indicate a betterfitting model (Burnham & Anderson, 2002).After establishing the two-factor model, reliabilities of each parental home involve-

ment construct were calculated. Cronbach’s alphas for academic instruction were .75 inearly childhood (9 items), .77 in middle childhood (9 items), and .80 in adolescence(7 items). Cronbach’s alphas for academic socialization were .70 in early childhood(8 items), .88 in middle childhood (8 items), and .89 in adolescence (17 items).

Child emergent reading and reading achievement. Measures of early childhood emergentreading included the Test of Early Language Development (Hresko, Reid, & Hammill,1981) at 39 months, the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities verbal scale (McCarthy,1972) at 42 months, and word order and riddles subscales of the Kaufman AssessmentBattery for Children (Kaufman & Kaufman, 1983) at 5 years. Middle childhood readingachievement was assessed with the 7- and 8-year-old Woodcock–Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery (Woodcock & Johnson, 1977). Adolescent reading achievement wasassessed with the 15- and 16-year-old1 revised Woodcock–Johnson Psycho-EducationalBattery (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989) (see Table 2).

TABLE 2Descriptive Statistics of Standardized Variables Included in Structural Models

Variable M SD

McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, verbal scale, age 42 months 57.72 6.70Test of Early Language Development, age 39 months 9.66 5.15Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, riddles subscale, age 5 110.20 10.80Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, word order subscale, age 5 11.21 2.01Woodcock–Johnson Reading, age 7 67.96 23.73Woodcock–Johnson Reading, age 8 64.94 25.15Woodcock–Johnson Reading, age 15 80.38 21.54Woodcock–Johnson Reading, age 16 78.25 21.70

Note. Parental involvement items were standardized and averaged in order to create academic instructionand academic socialization scores at each developmental period. Means for these scores were 0 and standarddeviations ranged from .57 to .74.

TABLE 3Parental Involvement CFA—Model Fit

χ2 Test

Model χ2 df χ2/df p = CFI RMSEA CAIC AIC

Early childhood one-factor 20.19 9 2.24 .017 .89 .10 89.84 44.19Early childhood two-factor 8.55 8 1.07 .382 1.00 .02 84.00 34.55Middle childhood one-factor 18.81 2 9.41 .000 .82 .26 65.25 34.81Middle childhood two-factor 1.21 1 1.21 .27 1.00 .041 53.44 19.21Adolescence one-factor 44.44 18 2.47 .000 .85 .11 148.92 80.44Adolescence two-factor 21.53 17 1.27 .20 .98 .047 131.80 59.53

1Although the Woodcock–Johnson Revised Assessment Battery was given at the 17-year assessment, read-ing achievement data were not included in the models for this study because the error terms for the 16- and17-year assessments were too highly correlated.

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RESULTS

Using LISREL 8.80 with maximum likelihood estimation, Structural Equation Modeling(SEM) analyses with latent variables were conducted to test the models. Missing valuesanalysis revealed 14% of total values were missing. Missing data were determined tobe missing completely at random using Little’s (1988) MCAR test (p = .088), and weretherefore imputed using the Markov Chain Monte Carlo method for multiple imputa-tion (Robert & Casella, 2004) to handle the presence of incomplete observations. Poweranalysis was conducted to determine the likelihood of rejecting a false null hypothesis(MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara, 1996). With a sample size of 122, which comprises94% of the original 130 participants entering the investigation, and the degrees of free-dom from the most complex model tested (transactional parental involvement modelwith reading; see Table 4), the power is .94 (Preacher & Coffman, 2006), thus indicat-ing a 94% likelihood that we would correctly reject a false null hypothesis. This powerestimate is above .80, which is deemed an essential level of power (Kline, 2010).

Parental Involvement

Given the number of individual items for each parental involvement construct andthe number of parameters being estimated in the models, parental involvement con-structs were modeled as single indicators. Unique error variances of observed variableswere fixed at 1.00 minus the Cronbach’s alpha, thus accounting for reliability in themodel.Comparing the cross-lags and stability models yielded a change in χ2 of 3.33 with

a difference of 4 degrees of freedom (see Table 4), indicating that the additional freeparameters in the cross-lags model did not provide a significantly better fit than themore restrictive stability model. Therefore, the stability model was selected as the betterfitting a priori model. Rejecting the cross-lags model indicates that the two types ofparental involvement did not influence each other over time.The stability model was then trimmed based on significance levels of individual

parameters. Factor unique covariances between academic instruction and academicsocialization in middle childhood and adolescence were constrained to zero. Thesechanges did not significantly decrease the fit of the model (see Table 4). The numeri-cal values next to the paths in Figure 3 are standardized parameter estimates of directeffects. The model in Figure 3 was determined to be the best-fitting, most parsimoniousmodel, χ2(10) = 9.81, p = .46, RMSEA = .00, CFI = 1.00, standardized root mean squareresidual (SRMR) = .050.

Parental Involvement and Reading Achievement

Two conceptual models were tested. In addition to the freed structural parametersspecified in Figure 2, the factor covariance between early childhood academic social-ization and early childhood academic instruction was freely estimated. Furthermore,all contemporaneous factor unique variances and covariances in middle childhood andadolescence were freely estimated. The only exceptions were the factor unique covari-ances between academic instruction and academic socialization atmiddle childhood andadolescence, as these parameters were not significant in the final parental involvementmodel.

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TABLE4

ModelFitStatisticsandComparisonsofNestedModels

χ2Test

Changein

χ2Test

Model

χ2

dfχ2 /df

=p

=CFI

RMSEA

SRMR

ModelCompared

χ2

dfp

<

Parentalinvolvement

1.Stability

8.11

81.01

.44

1.00

.00

.049

2.Cross-lags

4.78

41.20

.32

1.00

.04

.025

13.33

4ns

3.Stability(trimmed)

9.81

10.98

.51

1.00

.00

.050

11.70

2ns

Parentalinvolvementwithreadingachievement

4.Parenteffects

91.42

651.41

.04

.98

.05

.074

5.Transactional

70.29

611.15

.19

.99

.03

.045

421.13

4.001

6.Transactional(trimmed)

80.22

701.15

.19

.99

.02

.058

59.93

9Ns

144

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FIGURE 3Final parental involvement model. ∗∗∗p < .001.

The first step was to compare the transactional model to the parent effects model totest whether or not a model estimating transactional relations provided a significantlybetter fit to the data (see Table 4). A change in χ2 of 21.13 with a difference of 4 degreesof freedom between the parent effects and transactional models indicated that the addi-tional free parameters in the transactional model provided a significantly better fit thanthe more restrictive parent effects model, p < .001. Therefore, the transactional modelwas selected as themost parsimonious best-fitting a priori model, χ2(61)= 70.29, p= .19,RMSEA = .03, CFI = .99, SRMR = .045.The final a priori model was then trimmed based on significance levels of indi-

vidual parameters. Specifically, nine nonsignificant parameters were fixed to 0. Theseincluded the direct effects of early childhood academic instruction on middle childhoodreading, early childhood academic socialization on middle childhood reading, mid-dle childhood academic instruction on adolescent reading, early childhood emergentreading on middle childhood academic instruction, middle childhood reading on ado-lescent academic socialization, and all four covariances between factor unique variancesof reading achievement and parental involvement. Figure 4 presents the final model,χ2(70) = 80.22, p = .19, RMSEA = .02, CFI = .99, SRMR = .058. To rule out the roleof mothers’ education, the measure of socioeconomic status most strongly associatedwith children’s educational outcomes as well as various home and parenting variables(Gottfried et al., 2003), a separate model was estimated including mothers’ educationas a predictor of both early childhood parental involvement constructs and emergentreading. The model including mothers’ education, AIC = 161.64, CAIC = 309.99, pro-vided a less adequate fit to the data than did the model without mothers’ education,AIC = 143.59, CAIC = 276.73. As lower AIC and CAIC estimates indicate better fittingmodels (Burnham & Anderson, 2002), mothers’ education was not included in the finalmodel. Standardized parameters are presented.All significant direct effects of parental involvement on children’s achievement were

positive. More specifically, both types of parental involvement in early childhoodsignificantly predicted children’s emergent reading, and middle childhood academic

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FIGURE 4Final model of parental involvement with children’s reading achievement. mciv =McCarthy Scales ofChildren’s Abilities verbal scale; teld = Test of Early Language Development; krs = riddles subscale ofthe Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children; kws=word order subscale of the Kaufman AssessmentBattery for Children; w–j =Woodcock–Johnson. ∗∗p < .01. ∗∗∗p < .001.

socialization predicted children’s reading achievement in adolescence. There also weretwo significant direct effects of child achievement on parental involvement. The effect ofchildren’s emergent reading on middle childhood academic socialization was positive.Children’s reading achievement in middle childhood negatively predicted academicinstruction in adolescence.In addition to the significant direct effects of early parental involvement on emer-

gent reading, early parental involvement had positive significant indirect effects on laterreading achievement. Early childhood academic socialization had significant indirecteffects on both middle childhood reading achievement (.24, p < .05) and adolescentreading achievement (.31, p < .001) through prior reading achievement. Early child-hood academic instruction had significant indirect effects on middle childhood readingachievement (.23, p < .05) and adolescent reading achievement (.19, p < .05) throughprior reading achievement. There also were significant indirect effects of early child-hood emergent reading on both adolescent academic instruction (−.22, p < .001) andadolescent academic socialization (.21, p < .05) through later reading achievement.In summary, two distinct transactional paths between parental involvement and

children’s reading achievement were evidenced in the final model. Early childhood aca-demic instruction positively predicted emergent reading. Emergent reading predicted

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middle childhood reading achievement, which in turn negatively predicted academicinstruction in adolescence. Early childhood academic socialization also positively pre-dicted emergent reading. Emergent reading positively predicted middle childhood aca-demic socialization, which in turn positively predicted adolescent reading achievement.

DISCUSSION

This study contributes to the literature on parenting by examining the stability of twodistinct but related types of parental involvement in the home context from early child-hood through adolescence and determining the transactional relations of both types ofinvolvement and children’s achievement in a single integrated model. We addressedthree main goals. The first was to examine the stability of parental academic instructionand academic socialization from early childhood through adolescence. The second wasto investigate the relations between these two constructs across this time frame. Thethird was to use the longitudinal framework to study whether parental involvementexerts a unidirectional influence on children’s achievement or transacts with children’sachievement across childhood and adolescence.Both academic socialization and academic instruction were considerably stable

throughout the childhood and adolescent years. In the present research, the stabilityof the home environment over time provided a continuous and predictable context forthe development of children’s educational achievement. Children experienced relativelyconsistent exposure to parental instruction and socialization from prior to school entrythrough high school, and they become embedded in this context, which relates to theiracademic achievement over time. Furthermore, the magnitude of the relations over timewas substantial.Regarding the pathways of relations, early childhood parental involvement was

directly related to middle childhood parental involvement, which in turn was directlyrelated to adolescent parental involvement. Thus, early childhood parental involve-ment related to adolescent parental involvement as mediated throughmiddle childhoodparental involvement. Furthermore, the two parental involvement constructs did nottransact with each other. These findings provide the first evidence of the long-term sta-bility of two related but distinct parental involvement constructs across early childhoodand adolescence.This study further demonstrates that these two types of parental involvement, aca-

demic instruction and academic socialization, differentially relate to children’s readingachievement over this extensive time period. Parental academic instruction directly pre-dicted children’s reading achievement in early childhood, but not in middle childhoodor adolescence. In contrast, parental academic socialization predicted children’s achieve-ment throughout childhood and adolescence. The role of academic socialization has amore persistent predictive relation with achievement.Consistent with the extant literature on family early literacy experiences and emer-

gent reading skills (Cunningham & Zibulsky, 2011; Rodriguez-Brown, 2011), both typesof parental involvement predicted emergent reading. Thereafter, academic socializationand academic instruction evidenced developmentally distinct relations with subsequentreading achievement. Emergent reading had an indirect negative effect on academicinstruction in adolescence through middle childhood reading achievement. However,emergent reading positively predicted middle childhood academic socialization, which

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then positively predicted adolescent reading achievement. The data show that parentsset their children on an academic trajectory prior to school entry.This study highlights the importance of examining transactional relations between

parental involvement and children’s achievement that exist across time, and alsodemonstrate that such transactions depend on the specific type of parental involvementexamined. Transactional relations between academic socialization and children’s read-ing achievement revealed a positive network of relations. Greater academic socializationin early childhood was associated with higher emergent reading skills, which thenpredicted greater academic socialization in middle childhood. The latter, in turn, pos-itively predicted adolescent reading achievement. A meta-analysis examining academicsocialization in middle childhood included only one longitudinal study which spanned1 year (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Another longitudinal study examining the transactional rela-tion between students’ perceptions of their parents’ academic values and achievementfocused on adolescence (Hong et al., 2010). No other long-term longitudinal studieshave addressed the transactional nature of the relation between parental involvementand children’s achievement over such an extensive time period. The researchers in thepresent study examine the role of academic socialization prior to school entry throughthe school age years, and thus convey a more thorough cross-time depiction of the trans-actional process during childhood and adolescence, highlighting the dynamic interplaybetween parents and children.A different picture emerges when examining the relation between academic instruc-

tion and children’s achievement. Academic instruction during early childhood waspositively related to children’s emergent reading skills. The transaction was carriedthrough the direct relation between emergent reading and middle childhood readingskills, which negatively predicted academic instruction in adolescence. Once childrenenter school, there is evidence that parents respond to their children’s performanceor level of achievement. Consistent with Gershoff et al.’s (2009) findings in early ele-mentary school, parents provide less direct instruction as their children demonstratehigh levels of academic performance throughout their school years. Conversely, par-ents whose children demonstrate relatively lower reading performance furnish moreacademic instruction in subsequent years, which most likely is in reaction to recogniz-ing their children’s comparatively lower performance. In the present study, children’sreading achievement began directly predicting parents’ academic instruction laterin children’s educational path. It appears that parents began reacting to children’sachievement once they began receiving sufficient information about their children’sperformance.Academic instruction in middle childhood, however, did not significantly predict

achievement in adolescence. This finding is in accord with prior research showing thatparents’ assistance with homework did not predict improvements in children’s achieve-ment from first to third grade (Levin et al., 1997). Similarly, Pezdek, Berry, and Renno(2002) found no relation between parents’ help with math homework and children’smath achievement in fourth through sixth grades (i.e., middle childhood). Althoughparents may have good intentions in attempting to improve their children’s reading per-formance, many may lack the specific educational skills to help their children effectivelyas curricula become more complex with advancement in grade level. Additionally,parental instructions, which are likely to be based on parents’ own personal experi-ences in learning to read, may not dovetail with contemporary pedagogy implementedby their children’s teachers (Rodriguez-Brown, 2011). Pomerantz et al. (2007) suggested

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that the effectiveness of parents’ academic instruction in response to their children’sacademic needs may be due in large part to the manner in which such instruction isprovided. Especially as children advance in age, the most effective academic instructionmay take the form of autonomy support or obtaining appropriate educational support,such as a tutor. Over time parents may be responding to their children’s performance,but parents’ increases in academic instruction do not appear to help children improvetheir performance. Parents appear to set their children on an academic trajectory inthe early years, and that trajectory could be difficult to alter with additional parentalinstruction in the later years.The present study provides insights into the relation between parental involvement

and children’s achievement across childhood and adolescence. We also raise addi-tional questions that should be investigated in future research. The present researchwas based on a wide range of middle socioeconomic-status families. Hence, futureresearch should address the extent to which these parental involvement constructs arestable across diverse populations, and whether or not the same network of transactionsoccurs in other populations. For example, Yamamoto and Holloway (2010) suggestedthat the relation between children’s academic outcomes and parental expectations, anitem used in the present investigation as one indicator of academic socialization, mayoperate differently in other ethnic groups. Because the model advanced in the cur-rent study represents a new conceptualization of the relations between two differenttypes of parental home involvement and children’s achievement over an extensive timeframe, it is important that future research examine the generalizability of the full inte-grated model with other groups. Additionally, empirical work is needed to determinethe reasons that later parental academic instruction does not predict children’s subse-quent achievement. The present study highlights the unique advantage of long-termlongitudinal research in elucidating the distinct pathways by which parental involve-ment constructs operate, and the transactions that occur between parents and children’sachievement.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE, APPLICATION, AND POLICY

Our model elucidates the time frame within which different dimensions of parentalinvolvement aremost effective, and thus, should be provided. Early childhood academicinstruction and socialization predict children’s emergent reading which, in turn predictslater reading achievement. This suggests that supporting and promoting parental aca-demic instruction and socialization in the preschool years is paramount to children’slater achievement, and that continuing academic socialization across the years providesan ongoing source of support for achievement. Academic instruction may be more crit-ical to provide in early years to set children on a positive academic trajectory, whereasacademic socialization is a process that continues to benefit children across the schoolyears.

AFFILIATIONS AND ADDRESSES

Susan R. Sy, Department of Psychology, California State University, Fullerton, 800N. State College Blvd., Fullerton, CA 92834, USA. E-mail: [email protected].

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Allen W. Gottfried is at the California State University, Fullerton, and Adele EskelesGottfried is at California State University, Northridge.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Portions of this research were supported by grants from the Spencer Foundation,Thrasher Research Fund, and California State University, Fullerton and Northridge.We sincerely thank Pamella Oliver, Howard Lee, George Marcoulides, Erin Arruda,Anthony Rodriguez, Skye Parral, and Leslie Moreno for their assistance. We alsowould like to acknowledge the parents and children who participated in the FullertonLongitudinal Study.

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a transactional model of parental involvement and children's achievement from early childhood...

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