A SHORT HISTORY OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY

V. GEORGE MATHEW, Ph.D

 

The term Indian Psychology refers to the Psychologically relevant materials in ancient Indian thought. Usually this term does not cover modern developments in Psychology in India.

Modern Psychology at the beginning of the century emphasized sensation, perception and psychologists in India took out Indian theories of sensation and perception from the classics and created an Indian Psychology. For example Indian theories emphasise the notion that in perception the mind goes out through the senses and assumes the shape of the objects. In 1934, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Indian theories of perception. As soon as Western Psychologists started studying cognition, Indian Psychologists started looking for Indian theories of cognition. In 1958, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book onCognition. Later on modern Psychology started emphasising emotions, and in 1981, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Emotions and the Will.

The major part of ancient Indian scriptures (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain) emphasise self-realization, samadhi or nirvana. After 1960 Humanistic Psychologyemerged and Psychologists became interested in paranormal dimensions of growth. Maslow's theory of self-actualization and transcendental self-actualization established the link to the major part of ancient Indian theories and methods and almost the whole of ancient Indian writings became psychologically relevant. Psychology of Consciousness, Parapsychology, Psychology of Mysticism, Psychology of Religion and Transpersonal Psychology borrow extensively from Indian writings. The terms Oriental Psychology, Buddhist Psychology, Yoga Psychology , Jain Psychology, etc. are frequently found in modern psychological literature now. Many book lists in Psychology now include books on Yoga, Buddhism and Zen. There seems to be a paradigm shift in Western Psychology, a shift from the notion of mental disease and healing to personal growth, the reference point shifting from the statistical average or "normal" to the ideal or upper limits of man's potentiality.

The rudiments of the theory of consciousness can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization (6000 to 1500 B.C.). Artifacts of a man sitting inPadmasana have been obtained in excavations. The Swasthika symbol was used in Indus valley script. Buddhist thought and methods (6th century B.C.) are in line with the objective spirit of modern science and the law of parsimony of science and Buddhism can be easily incorporated into a scientific framework. The Psychological relevance of the four noble truths and eight-fold path and Sunya vada of Buddhism and Buddhist techniques of meditationare of considerable relevance in modern Psychology. Similarly Jain scriptures also are found to be relevant to Psychology in more than one way. The Vedas date from about 1500 B.C. However, Upanishads (appendices to the Vedas, which date from 600 B.C.) which

describe the Vedanta philosophy and provide the theoretical foundation of Jnana Yoga are of more direct relevance to Psychology. The Bhagavat Gita gives a quintessence of Indian way of life and philosophy and it describes the four yogas, Karma, Bhakthi, Raja and Jnana. Several books have come on the psychological relevance of Gita. Maslow's theory of Meta-motivation is very similar to the concept of Nishkama karma outlined in the Gita.

Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga is a very systematic presentation of Raja yoga. Both Bhagavat Gita and Ashtanga Yoga are supposed to have been written around the turn of B.C. to A.D. Sankara's writings (8th century A.D.) on the different yogas as well as his Advaita philosophy are considered as classics in the area and are of great value to the Psychology of consciousness as well as personal growth. Modern interest in relaxation can be traced to studies onSavasana. Rising popularity of meditation practice links Psychology to Oriental religious practices and philosophy.

Indian literature on aspects of consciousness is vast, considering the classics and their commentaries. Mental states have been analyzed, classified and differentiated in detail. Similarly paranormal powers (siddhis) have been classified in detail. The process of personal growth and obstacles to growth have been examined thoroughly. There is a great deal of maturity resulting from long experience in these areas reflected in the writings. Indian theories of linguistics, social behavior, crime, etc. are all based on the holistic approach and the broad-based intuitive understanding of behavior in contradistinction to Western theories which are piece-meal, analytic and situation specific. The increasing importance given to the holistic approach and need for synthesis makes it possible to integrate modern Western Psychology with ancient Indian thoughts as well as methods.

The psychosomatic relationship was well known and salient in ancient times. The very first invocatory stanza of Ashtangahridaya (the main text inAyurveda, written in 4th century A.D.) describes how emotions like desires lead to both physical and mental diseases.

Many attempts are being made to integrate ancient Indian Psychology with modern Western Psychology. More than 40 books have appeared in the field of Indian Psychology. There is a journal of Indian Psychology published from Andhra University which has an Institute of Yoga and Consciousness. At least five persons have developed personality inventories based on the Triguna theory (Satwa, Rajas and Tamas) of Kapila (Sankhya philosophy, 6th century B.C.)

Top 10 Psychology Career TrendsA Few of the Fastest-Growing Psychology JobsBy Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide

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careers in psychology specialty areas

So you've decided to major in psychology, but what exactly do you plan to do after you graduate? Due to the economic downturn, competition for many jobs has increased dramatically. In order to compete in today's market, it pays to carefully consider your career options and select a field that is in high demand.

While salaries can vary, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts a faster than average growth for psychologists. The following are just a few of the psychology-related professions that have a strong projected job outlook. Consider some of these options as you plan your career path.Want to learn more about psychology careers? Sign up for the free psychology newsletter!

1. Career or Vocational Counselor

YinYang/iStockPhoto

Average Salary: $46,000

Due to the rapidly changing job market, many people are searching for a new job in their chosen field or even changing careers. Career counselors help individuals make career decisions and utilize tools including personality assessments, interest inventories and other evaluation measures. They often start by looking at a client's interests, job history, education, skills and personality characteristics in order to determine which careers are a good match. They also help clients work on building skills, practicing interviews, improving resumes and locating job openings. Assisting clients who are dealing with job loss or employment-related stress is also common.

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2. School Psychologist

Heriberto Herrera

Average salary: $59,440

School psychologists work in educational settings to help children deal with emotional, academic and social problems. Thanks to increased interest in the mental health of children and federal education legislation, school psychology has rapidly become one of the hottest job trends. The demand for qualified school psychologists exceeds the number of candidates available, which means that job opportunities are plentiful.

3. Counselor

Brad Killer

Average Salary: $47,530

Counselors help a people with a wide variety of problems, including marriage, family, emotional, educational and substance abuse issues. Nearly half of all counselors work in health care or social welfare settings, while another 11-percent work for state and local governments. While requirements vary, almost all states require at least a master's degree in order to become a licensed counselor. Typical work settings include K-12 schools, colleges and universities, hospitals, mental health clinics and private practice offices.

4. Genetics Counselor

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Average salary: $71,100

Genetics counselors help provide information about genetic disorders to couples and families. These professionals typically have graduate training in both genetics and counseling, and many have undergraduate degrees in areas such as psychology, social work, biology, nursing and public health. Genetics counselors often work with a team of medical professionals, including doctors, nurses and geneticists to offer support, guidance and assistance to families who have a family member with a genetic disorder or who may be at risk of passing down an inherited disorder to their offspring.

5. Forensic Psychologist

Julie Elliott

Average Salary: $59,440

Forensic psychologists apply psychology to the fields of criminal investigation and law. This has rapidly become one of the hottest psychology career trends thanks to numerous portrayals in popular movies, television programs and books. While the field may not be as glamorous as it is depicted in popular media, forensic psychology is still an exciting career choice with a lot of potential for growth. Forensic psychologists often work with other experts to resolve child custody disputes, scrutinize insurance claims, perform child custody evaluations and investigate suspected child abuse.

6. Engineering Psychologist

Craig Jewell

Average Salary: $79,818

Engineering psychologists use psychology to investigate how people interact with machines and other technology. These professionals use their understanding of the human mind and behavior to help design and improve technology, consumer products, work settings and living environments. For example, an engineering psychologist may work as part of a team to redesign a product to make it more efficient and easier to use in a work situation. Those working in academic settings report the lowest earnings, while those working in the private sector report higher salaries.

7. Clinical Psychologist

Marcin Balcerzak/iStockPhoto

Average Salary: $63,000

Clinical psychologists assess, diagnose and treat clients suffering from psychological disorders. These professionals typically work in hospital settings, mental health clinics or private practices. Clinical psychology is the single largest employment area within psychology, but there are still plenty of jobs available for qualified professionals. In order to become a clinical psychologist, you must have a doctoral-level degree in clinical psychology and most states require a minimum of a one-year internship. Most graduate school programs in clinical psychology are fairly competitive.

8. Sports Psychologist

Mary K. Baird

Average Salary: $45,000 to $80,000

Sports psychologists focus on the psychological aspects of sports and athletics, including topics such as motivation, performance and injury. The two major areas within sports psychology are centered on helping improve athletic performance or using sports to improve mental and physical health. Sports psychologists work in a wide variety of settings including universities, hospitals, athletic centers, private consulting practices and research facilities.

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9. Industrial-Organizational Psychologist

Constantin Krammerer

Average Salary: $97,820

Industrial-organizational psychologists focus on workplace behavior, often using psychological principles to increase worker productivity and select employees that are best-suited for particular jobs. There are several different specialty areas within industrial-organizational psychology. For example, some I-O psychologists train and assess employees, while others evaluate job candidates. While there are some job opportunities at the master's-degree level, those with a doctoral-level degree in industrial-organizational psychology are in greater demand and command significantly higher salaries.

10. Special Education Teacher

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Average Salary: $47,650

While slightly outside of a traditional psychology career, the field of special education offers a great deal of opportunity for those who enjoy helping children. Special education teachers work with students with a variety of disabilities. In order to become a special education teacher, you must have at least a bachelor's degree and complete a teacher training program in special education. Because of the increased enrollments in special education programs and a shortage of qualified teachers, job demand is strong and expected to grow.

Economics

Consumer Surpluses

Consumer surplus refers to the difference between the price consumers willingly pay and the

required amount payable by consumers, that is, the additional utility people deserve from

consumption of a product. (Anderton, 2000)

    Demand curve below shows that equilibrium market price for six bottles of mineral water is

RM5.00 each. Those who value a bottle of mineral water at RM5.00 or more will buy it and would

obtain consumer surpluses. (Case & Fair, 2004) Consumers will buy a product regardless of the

increased price from the initial market price only if there is extra utility (consumer surplus) for

them and the price does not exceed their budget.

 

 

For instance, Bob dropped by a shop and he decided to buy five bottles of mineral water at RM5.00

per bottle. The first bottle was worth RM10 to him, his second RM9, his third RM8, his fourth RM7,

and his fifth RM6. A sixth bottle would either worth below RM5.00 to him or simply worthless. The

consumer surplus Bob gained by purchasing five bottles of mineral water is RM5.00 for the first

bottle, RM4.00 for the second, RM3.00 for the third, RM2.00 for the fourth, and only RM1.00 for the

fifth, thus totally RM15.00. (Collinge & Ayers, 2000)

Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility concludes that when Bob consume more of a product, "each

additional unit he consumed will yield successively less satisfaction."(Case & Fair, 2004: 48) He

gets consumer surplus for the initial units as he is willing to pay more but not from the sixth bottle

as he is not willing to pay more than RM5.00 for the sixth bottle. (Case & Fair, 2004) In short, as

Bob pays the price of the last unit for all initial units consumed, he enjoys consumer surpluses for

the units bought ...

‘Investopedia’